ArbelaARBELA (rL 'AppiXa), now Arbil or Erbil, a small town in the province of Shehrezur, situated to the west of the Tigris, in the plain between the Greater Zab (Lycus) and the Lesser Zab (Caprus), and on the route between Mosul (Xineveh) and Baghdad, about 40 miles from the former. The greater part of the town, which seems at one time to have been very large, is built on an artificial hill about 150 … ArbitrageARBITRAGE (from the French arbitrer, in the secondary sense of comparing and settling accounts, derived in its turn from the primary sense of arbitrating disputes), is a term that is applied both to a calculation and to a trade : 1st, To the calculation of the relative simultaneous values at any particular moment of any particular merchandise, on one market-, in terms of the quotations on one or m… ArbitrationARBITRATION, in the Law of England, is described by Blackstone as an arrangement by which "the parties injuring and injured sub/nit all matters in dispute concerning any personal chattels or personal wrong to the judgment of two or more arbitrators, who are to decide the controversy ; and if they do not agree, it is usual to add that another person be called in as umpire, to whose sole judgment it… ArbitrationARBITRATION, a term derived from the nomenclature of the Roman law, and applied to an arrangement for taking, and abiding by, the judgment of a selected person in sonic disputed matter, instead of carrying it to the established courts of justice. Arrangements for avoiding the delay and expense of litigation, and referring a dispute to friends or neutral persons, are a natural practice, of which tr… ArbitrationARBITRATION, in International Law, is one of the recognised modes of terminating disputes between independent nations. Vattel calls it " a reasonable and natural mode of deciding such disputes as do not directly interest the safety of a nation." Heffter mentions six cases in which the judgment of the arbitrators would not be binding on the contending parties, viz., when the agreement has been insu… Arbitration In ScotchARBITRATION IN SCOTCH LAw. - This term is applied to the contract whereby a dispute is referred to one or more persons by the parties interested, and so withdrawn from the cognisance of the ordinary tribunals. When one person only is chosen he is called sole arbiter or arbitrator ; when more than one, an umpire or oversman is appointed either in the contract or by the arbiters themselves, and his … ArbogaARBOGA, an ancient town in Sweden, in the government of Westerns, 30 miles S.W. of Westerns, on a river of the same name as itself, near its junction with the canal which joins the 3Ialar and Hielmar Lakes. ArboisARBOIS, a town in France, lat. 46' 54' N., long. 5' 47' E., in the department of Jura, and arrondissement of Poligny, situated in a deep valley, on the Cuisance, 940 feet above the level of the sea_ It has long been famous for its wines, which as early as 1493 were exempted from taxation in Burgundy and the German empire by Maximilian I. ArboricultureARBORICULTURE comprises all that relates to the culture of trees, and is one of the great divisions of agriculture ; it is a branch of rural economy of much more recent date than either the culture of grain and herbage plants, or the breeding and rearing of cattle. The culture of those plants which supply the food of man or nourish the domestic animals must have exclusively occupied his attention … Arbor ViARBOR VI= (Tree of Life), is a name applied to species of Thuja and Biota. The name was given by Clusius, and its origin is uncertain. The plants belong to the Coniferous order, and have been placed in the tribe Abietinem and the sub-tribe Cupressinem (Cypresses), in which the anthers are 3 to 5, rarely 2 ; scales of the cones 4 or more, usually placed opposite to each other in a decussate manner,… Arbroath, Or AberbrotiiockARBROATH, or ABERBROTIIOCK, a seaport and manufacturing town of Scotland, in the county of Forfar, 17 miles N.E. of Dundee and 60 N.N.E. of Edinburgh, in lat. 56? 33' N. and long. 2? 35' W. Of its origin we have no information, but it is probable that the shelter of the river Brothock, from which it derives its name, early attracted a settlement of seafaring folk. It was certainly in existence bef… ArbuthnotARBUTHNOT, Jomr, a celebrated physician, wit, and man of letters of the age of Queen Anne, was born at Arbuthnot, near Montrose. The date of his birth is somewhat uncertain ; many authorities give 1675, which is scarcely reconcilable with his first appearance in London; it should probably be 1665 or 1667. His father was a clergyman of the Scotch Episcopal Church, who was compelled by the Revolutio… ArcadeARCADE (Fr. arcade, arcature, Ital. arcata, Ger. BOL.C71- gang), in street architecture a covered way or passage, either open at the side with a range of pillars, or completely covered over. The finest arcades of this description are to be found in Paris. Some have open sides, such as those in the Rue de Rivoli, Palais Royal, and Old Place Royal ; others, such as the Passages des Panaromas, Jouffr… ArcadiaARCADIA, an inland and mountainous country of ancient Greece, bounded on the N. by Achaia, on the W. by Elis, on the S. by Messenia and Laconia, and on the E. by Argolis, and almost shut in from the neighbouring states by a natural rampart. Its most important heights were Cyllene, the birth-place of Hermes, in the north-east, Erymanthus in the north-west, Artemisium and Parthenium in the cast, and… ArcesilausARCESILAUS, a Greek philosopher, and founder of the New or Middle Academy, was born at Pitane in ./Eolia; about 316 B.C. He received careful training in his youth from the mathematician Autolycus, and then proceeded to Athens, where for some time he studied under Theophrastns. He was gained over to the Academy by Crantor, with whom he continued to live on terms of the closest intimacy. After the d… ArchARCH, in building, a portion of mason-work disposed in the form of an arc or bow, and designed to carry the building over an open space. The simplest and oldest expedient for supporting a structure over a door-way is to use a single stone or lintel of sufficient length. On account of the difficulty of procuring stones of great size, this expedient can only be used for moderate apertures ; nor can … ArchangelARCHANGEL, a government of European Russia, lying between lat. 61? and 71? N., and long. 29? and QS? E. It is bounded on the N. by the White Sea and Arctic Ocean, on the W. by Finland and Olonetz, on the S. by Vologda, and on the E. by the Ural Mountains. It comprehends the islands of Nova-Zembla, Waigatz, and some others. Its area is estimated at 286,739 square miles, and its population in 1867 w… ArchangelARCHANGEL, the chief town of the Russian government of the same name, is situated at the head of the delta of the Dwina, on the right bank of the river, in lat. 61? 32' 8" N., and long. 40? 33' E. As early as the 10th century the Norsemen had commercial settlements in the district ; but the modern town may be said to date from the visit paid by the English voyager, Chancelor, to the monastery of S… ArchbishopARCHBISHOP, the title of a church dignitary of the first class. Archbishops were not known in the church before the 4th century after Christ, when the term "Archbishop " was introduced in the East as a title of dignity, which did not necessarily imply any superiority of jurisdiction over a bishop. Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, appears to have been the first who made use of the term in applying… ArchdeaconARCHDEACON. The office of archdeacon is of ancient institution in the Christian church, as archdeacons are mentioned in the 4th century after Christ. The title was originally given to the chief deacon in each diocese, who had the charge of the temporal affairs of the church, and the supervision of all matters which appertained to the order and decency of divine service. In the course of time the a… ArchelausARCHELAUS, son of Herod the Great, had the kingdom of Judrna left him by the last will of his father, though a previous will had bequeathed it to his brother Antipas. ArchelausARCHELAUS, son of Apollonius, a sculptor of Priene, is celebrated by his bas-relief representing the apotheosis of Homer. ArchelausARCHELAUS, natural son of Perdiccas, king of Macedonia, seized the throne in 413 B. ArchelausARCHELAUS, a Greek philosopher, was a native most probably of Athens, though sonic say he was born at Miletus. Nothing is known of his life, but as he was a pupil of Anaxagoras, he must have lived about 450 B.C. By several writers he is said to have been the teacher of Socrates, but this report has no support from Plato, Aristotle, or Xenophon, and probably has no foundation save the wish to conne… ArcheryARCHERY, the art or exercise of shooting with a bow and arrow. The origin of the bow as an instrument of war is lost in obscurity. With all the ancient peoples, both civilised and barbaric, the bow was a favourite weapon, and skill in the use of it was regarded by the Scythians as a princely accomplishment. The Greeks and Romans employed archers to draw the enemy into action, and the exploits of t… Arches, Court Of TheARCHES, COURT OF THE. This court derives its name from its ancient place of judicature, which was in the church of St Mary of the Arches (de Arcubus), the modern representative of which is now called ordinarily Bow Church. The modern church is on the south side of Cheapside, in the city of London, and stands on the site of a very ancient church, which was burnt down in the great fire of London in … ArchibaldARCHIBALD, the ninth earl, son of the preceding, from his youth distinguished himself byhis loyalty and attachment to the royal family. Though his father headed the Covenanters, he attached himself to the king's party. On the establishment of the Commonwealth he was committed to prison, and was jealously watched till the Restoration, when the king remitted his father's forfeiture, and created him … ArchibaldARCHIBALD, the eighth earl and first marquis, was born in the year 1598, and educated in the principles of the Reformation, of which his ancestors had been zealous promoters. His father, however, renounced Protestantism, whereupon the young earl was put in possession of his patrimonial estates by order of Government, and quickly promoted to places of trust and power. From the commencement of his p… ArchibaldARCHIBALD, the third duke, brother of the preceding, was born at Ham House in Surrey, in June 1682. On his father being created a duke, he joined the army, and served for a short time under the duke of Marlborough. In 1.705 he was appointed treasurer of Scotland, and in the following year was one of the commissioners for treating of the Union ; on the consummation of which, having been raised to t… ArchidonaARCHIDONA, a town in the province of Malaga, in Spain, situated on the slope of a hill, about 10 miles W.N.W. of Loja. ArchilARCHIL, or OncuiL (Orseille, Fr.), a purple dye yielded by various species of lichens. The name is supposed to originate from the Portuguese recite, a rock, in allusion to the source from which the raw material is derived. Archil can be extracted from many species of the genera Reccella, Lecanora, Umbflicaria, Parntelia, and others, but in practice two species of Roccella, - R. tinctoria and R. fe… ArchilochusARCHILOCHUS, one of the first Greek lyric poets, was born at Paros, one of the Cyclades. The date of his birth is uncertain, but he flourished between 720 and 680 B.C. His father, Telesicles, was of noble family, and had been selected to consult the Delphic oracle relative to sending out a colony from Paros. His mother, Enipo, was a slave. While still young, Archilochus gained a prize for a hymn t… ArchimandriteARCHIMANDRITE (from tavSpa, a fold, cloister, or convent), is a title in the Greek Church applied to a superior abbot, who has the supervision of several abbots and cloisters. ArchimedesARCHIMEDES, the greatest mathematician and the most inventive genius of antiquity, was born at Syracuse, in Sicily, about 287 B.C. In his youth he went to Alexandria, and completed his education there under Conon, at the royal school of the Ptolemies, of which Euclid had been the ornament some half a century before. On his return to his native city he devoted himself to geometrical investigations,… ArchimedesARCHIMEDES, ScnEw OF, a machine for raising water, said to have been invented by Archimedes, for the purpose of removing water from the hold of a large ship that had been built by King Ifiero. ArchipelagoARCHIPELAGO, a name which, though it is now applied to any island-studded sea, was formerly the distinctive designation of what, though still known as the Archipelago, is often distinguished as the Grecian Archipelago, namely, that part of the Mediterranean which lies between Greece and Thessaly on the W. and Asia Minor on the E. - the iEgean Sea ('Atyaioy Haayev) of the ancients. Several etymolog… ArchitectureARCHITECTURE (Latin architeetura, from the Greek (1,0xLrLmov, a master-builder) is the art of building according to principles which are determined, not merely by the ends the edifice is intended to serve, but by considerations of beauty and harmony. It cannot be defined as the art of building simply, or even of building well. The end of building as such is convenience, use, irrespective of appear… ArchonARCHON ((lpxwe), the title of the highest magistrates in Athens. The last king of Athens, Codrus, having given up his life for the advantage of the state, it is said that the people, out of gratitude for his noble act, passed a resolution that in future none of their rulers should boar the ancient and venerated title of king (Pao-Aci5s). The holder of supreme power in the state received from that … Arci1elausARCI1ELAUS, a general of Mithridates, commanded his army in the war against the Romans. ArcotARCOT, two districts and a city of British Iimlia, within the presidency of Madras, and under the jurisdiction of the governor of that province. The district of NORTH ARCOT lies between 12? 22' and 14? 11' N. lat.; and between 78? 17' and 80? 12' E. long. It is bounded on the N. by the districts of Cuddapah and Nellor; on the E. by the district of Oliengalpat;, on the S. by the districts of South … Arcot CityARCOT CITY, the principal town in the district of North Arcot, is situated on the south bank of the Pala" river, in 12? 54' N. lat., and 79? 24' E. long. ? It is a station on the line of railway from Madras to Beypur, and is also a military cantonment. The population of the town, in 1862, was returned at 53,474 souls, inhabiting 10,042 houses. Arcot occupies a very prominent place in the history o… Arcot, SouthARCOT, SOUTH, lies between 11? 0' and 11? 39' N. lat., and between 78? 42' and 80? 4' E. long. The district of South Arcot is bounded on the N. by the districts of North Arcot and Chengalpat; on the E. by the French territory of Pondecherri and the Bay of Bengal; on the S. by the British districts of Tanjor and Trichinopoly; and on the W. by the British district of Salem. It contains an area, acco… Arctic OceanARCTIC OCEAN. The Arctic Circle (66? 30') being taken as a boundary, the whole of the ocean lying to the north is called the Arctic Ocean. From a physical point of view this limit is hardly satisfactory, since between Greenland and Europe the Atlantic, with its Gulf Stream, makes an inroad on the Arctic territory, and the southern extremity of Greenland brings down the Arctic region beyond the Arc… Ardebil, Or ArdabilARDEBIL, or ARDABIL, one of the chief towns of Azerbijan in Persia, situated in 38? 15' N. lat., and 4S? 19' E. long., on the Karesu or Balulk, a tributary of the Aras, in a fertile plain about 40 miles from the Caspian, seems to have been built out of the ruins of a former city. It is surrounded with a mud wall and towers, has a square castle with bastions at the corners fortified after European … ArdecheARDECHE, a department in the south of France, bounded on the N.W. by the department of Loire, on the E. by Isere and Drome, on the S. by Gard, and on the W. by Lozere and Haute Loire. It extends 72 miles from N. to S., and 45 from E. to W., at the widest points ; and its area is 2134 square miles. The surface of Ardeche is almost entirely covered by the Cevennes Mountains ; the main line forming t… ArdennesARDENNES, a department on the N.E. frontier of France, which derives its name from the famous forest, is bounded on the N. and N.E. by Belgium, on the E. by the department of the Meuse, on the S. by that of Marne, and on the W. by that of the Aisne. In shape it is an irregular pentagon, with a cape-like prolongation into Belgium on the north. It has a superficial extent of 523,000 hectares, or 1,2… ArdrossanARDROSSAN, a sea-port in Ayrshire, Scotland, 31 miles by rail from Glasgow, in N. lat. 55? 38', and W. long. 4? 49'. It dates from an early period, as there seems to have been a -castle and a small fishing village in existence for several centuries. The name of Arthur of Ardrossan is found in connection with a charter dated 1226 ; and Sir Fergus of Ardrossan accompanied Edward Bruce in his Irish e… ArembergAREMBERG, a small market-town of Prussia, in the government of Coblentz and circle of Adenau. It is situated not far from the river Ahr, and has a castle which was formerly the residence of the dukes of Aremberg. About the year 1298 the earldom of Aremberg, which had previously belonged to a branch of the house of Hostaden, came by his marriage with Matilda to John of Engelbert, earl of Mark (West… AreopagusAREOPAGUS ("Apctos 7,4os), a small barren hill to the west and within bowshot of the Acropolis of Athens, for an attack upon which it would form a natural base. It was so used (480 n.c.) by the Persians (Herodotus, viii. 52). For the same purpose it had been occupied also in the legendary age by the Amazons, when in the time of Theseus they menaced Athens, and from the circumstance of their havinc… ArequipaAREQUIPA, the chief town of the department, stands at the foot of Misti, in the fertile valley of the Chile, 7775 feet above the level of the sea, in lat. 16? 16' S., long. 72? 31' W. It is divided into five districts - Santo Domingo, San Francesco, La Merced, San Augustin, and Miraflorescontains 2064 houses, and has a population of about 30,000. In each of the districts there is a monastery and a… AresARES [Mons], in Greek Mythology, the god of war, not, however, of war in its wide sense, including campaigns, the disposition and command of forces, but in its more primitive meaning of a fierce encounter between bodies of men. Neither the causes nor the ultimate effects of war were ascribed to him. He was simply a personification of the wild impetuous spirit with which battles were fought, and … Areson, JonARESON, JON (or HANS), a poet, and the last Roman Catholic bishop in Iceland, was born in 1484. He endured many privations in his youth, and at the age of twenty took holy orders, and was attached as priest to the parish of Helgastad. Here he was taken under the protection of Gottskalk, bishop of Holum, who twice sent him on missions to Norway. He acquitted himself so well that in 1522 he was appo… ArethusaARETHUSA, a fountain at Syracuse, in Sicily, famed among the ancients for the abundance of its waters and the number of its fishes, but still more so for the connection which was fabled to exist between it and Alpheus, the river of the Peloponnesus, " who stole under seas to meet his Arethuse." According to the anthropomorphic legend, Arethusa was a daughter of Nereus and Doris, who was changed into the fountain by her mistress Diana (Artemis), to deliver her from the pursuit of her lover Alpheus. Aretino, PietroARETINO, PIETRO, an Italian writer of the 16th century, was born inl 492 at Arezzo in Tuscany, from which place be took his name. He is said to have been the natural son of Luigi Bacci, a gentleman of the town. He received little education, and lived for some years poor and neglected, picking up such scraps of information as he could. When very young he was banished from Arezzo on account of a sat… ArezzoAREZZO, the ancient ARRETIIIM, a Tuscan city on the Chiana (Clanis), which is now an affiuent of the Arno, but formerly flowed into the Tiber. Arretium was one of the twelve cities of the ancient Etruscan Confederation, and continued after its incorporation with the Roman dominion to be a highly important military post. Having sided with Marius in the civil war, the Aretines were deprived by Sulla… Argelander, Friedrich Wilhelm AugustARGELANDER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM AUGUST, a distinguished German astronomer, was born at Memel, 22d March 1799; and died at Bonn, 17th February 1875. He studied at the university of libnigsberg, where his attention was attracted to the study of astronomy by Bessel, whose assistant he became in 1821. In the following year he published an essay on the path of the great comet of 1811, the period of which… ArgensolaARGENSOLA, the name of two Spanish poets, brothers, who are sometimes called the " Spanish Horaces." The elder, Lupercio Leonardo y Argensola, was born in 1565 and died in 1613. He was educated at the universities of Huesca and Saragossa, and became secretary first to his patron, the duke of Villahermosa, and afterwards to the ex-Empress Maria of Austria. In 1599 he was made historiographer of Ara… ArgonautsARGONAUTS, in Greek Legend, a band of heroes who sailed in the ship "Argo" from Iolcus, in Thessaly, to 2Ea, in Colchis, on the further shore of the Black Sea, to fetch the golden fleece, which was there guarded by a dragon in a grove sacred to Mars. This task had been imposed on Jason that he might prove himself by a perilous adventure worthy of the throne of Iolcus, which he claimed from the usu… ArgosARGOS. The most important city of this name was situated in the eastern part of the Peloponnesus, about 3 miles from the sea. By the Greeks themselves it was regarded as the most ancient of all their cities, and as the local habitation of many of their earlier heroes. Here Inachus and his descendants had reigned for many generations, until the arrival of Damns the Egyptian, with his fifty daughter… Argyllshire, Or ArgyleshireARGYLLSHIRE, or ARGYLESHIRE, a county on the west coast of Scotland, comprehending a large district on the mainland and a number of the Hebrides or Western Isles. The mainland portion lies between lat. 55? 15' and 56' 55' N., and between long. 4? 32' and 6? 6' W.; its greatest length being 115 miles, and its greatest breadth about 36 miles. It is bounded on the N. by Inverness-shire ; on the E. by… AriadneARIADNE ('Aptarn = 'Apciftyrn, the Cretan form of 4rnis being 681,43), in Creek Mythology, a personification of the return of Spring, at which period took place, it was believed, Ariadne's marriage with Dionysos (Bacchus), who also, after an absence throughout the winter, was thought to return amid the rejoicings of spring. This marriage was the great feature in her worship, which appears to have … ArianoARIANO, a town of Italy, in the province of Avellino, about 38 miles N.E. of Naples, situated 2500 feet above the level of the sea, on a steep and rocky hill, between the rivers Calore and Tribaldo. Founded by the Greek governors of Apulia, it continued to be an important military post for several centuries, and was frequently taken and retaken during the various dynastic struggles of southern Ita… Arias Montanus, BenedictusARIAS MONTANUS, BENEDICTUS, one of the most learned Oriental scholars of his time, and the editor of the Antwerp Polyglott, was born at Frescenal de la Sierra, in Estremadura, in 1527. ArionARION (pronounced An': on), a celebrated poet and cithara player, a native of Methymna, in Lesbos. As he is said to have been the friend of Periander, tyrant of Corinth, he must have flourished about 625 B. C. Several of the ancients ascribe to him the invention of the dithyramb and of dithyrambic poetry ; it is probable, however, that his real service was confined to the organisation of that vers… Ariosto, LodovicoARIOSTO, LODOVICO, one of the greatest poets of Italy, was born at Reggio, in Lombardy, on the 8th Sept. 1474. His father was Niccolo Ariosto, commander of the citadel of Reggio. He showed a strong inclination to poetry from his earliest years, but was obliged by his father to study the law - a pursuit in which he lost five of the best years of his life. Allowed at last to follow his inclination, … ArisleusARISLEUS (from 4ccrros, best), a divinity whose worship was widely spread throughout Greece, but concerning whose origin and career the myths are somewhat obscure. The account most generally received connects him specially with Thessaly. Apollo carried off from Mount Pelion the nymph Cyrene, daughter or granddaughter of Peneus (Peneius), and conveyed her to Libya, where she gave birth to Aristmus.… AristarchusARISTARCHUS, a Greek astronomer of Samos, who lived about 280-264 B.c. He is famous as being the first to maintain that the earth moves round the sun. No mention, indeed, is made of this doctrine in his only surviving work, Hyl pxycOCav Ka?c eorocrr-riitecrcov, which treats of the Magnitudes and Distances of the Sun and Moon ; but Archimedes, in his Arenctrius, quotes from a work written by Arista… AristarchusARISTARCHUS, of Sainothrace, the most famous of the Greek grammarians and critics, flourished about 160 B.C. He spent the greater part of his life at Alexandria, where he studied in the school of Aristophanes of Byzantium. Ile acquired the highest reputation for critical skill, and founded a school for philology, which long flourished at Alexandria and afterwards at Rome. Ptolemy V. (Epiphanes) an… AristeasARISTEAS, a somewhat mythical personage, said to have been a native of Proconnesus, an island in the Propontis. He travelled extensively, under the inspiration of Apollo, through the countries north and east of the Euxine, and visited the Hyperboreans, Issedines, and Arimaspi. His date is uncertain ; Suidas places him in the period of Crcesus and Cyrus, others before the time of Homer. Herodotus a… AristidesARISTIDES, surnamed the Just, was the son of Lysimachus, a native of Athens, of the tribe Antiochis. His family appears to have been of noble descent ; at least it is known that Callias, the torch-bearer at the Eleusinian mysteries, and reputedly the wealthiest man in Athens, was a cousin or near kinsman. Plutarch maintains, in opposition to Demetrius Phalereus, that Aristides was very poor, and n… AristippusARISTIPPUS, the founder of the Cyrenaic school of philosophy, was the son of Aritadas, a wealthy merchant of Cyrene, in Africa. Nothing is known of the early part of his life, but he appears to have been sent by his father on a voyage to Greece, and while there, attending the Olympic games, he was attracted by the fame of the Socratic teaching. He immediately proceeded to Athens, united himself to… Aristo, Or AristonARISTO, or ARISTON, of Chios, a Stoic philosopher and pupil of Zeno, flourished about 250 B.C. He differed from Zeno on many points, and approximated more closely to the Cynic school. He was very eloquent (and was therefore sometimes called the Siren), but was controversial in tone. He despised logic as useless, and rejected the philosophy of nature as beyond the powers of man. Ethics alone he con… AristophanesARISTOPHANES. The birth-year of Aristophanes is uncertain. He is known to have been about the same age as Eupolis, and is said to have been "almost a boy" (crxE8Ov ,tLetpaKco-Kos) when his first comedy was brought out in 427 B.C. The most probable conjecture places his birth in or about the year 448 B.C. His father Philippus was a landowner in 2Egina. Aristophanes was an Athenian citizen of the tr… AritgeARItGE, a department of France, bounded on the S. by Spain, W. by Haute-Garonne, N.E. by Aude, and S.E. by Pyrenees Orientales. it embraces the old countship of Foix, and a portion of Languedoc and Gascony, and has an area of 1889 square miles. The southern part is occupied by the Pyrenees, which here contain some of the highest peaks in France ; as, Pic d'Estats (which is 10,811 feet above the le… ArithmeticARITHMETIC is the science that treats of numbers, and of the methods of computing by means of them. In introducing the subject, and endeavouring to trace the progress of the science, there appear to be three points that call for particular notice, viz., the conception of number, the representation of numbers either by words or graphically by characters, and the principles and modes of computation.… AriusARIUS ("Apcfos), a well-known name in ecclesiastical history, identified with the origin and spread of the first great " heresy " in the Christian church. Arius is supposed to have been a native of Cyrenaica in Africa, but nothing is. really known of his birth or of his early training. He first comes clearly into view as a presbyter of the Church of Alexandria, in the commencement of the 4th centu… ArizonaARIZONA, a territory of the United States, bounded N. by Utah, E. by New Mexico, S. by Mexico, and W. by California and Nevada, with an estimated area of 113,900 square miles. According to the Act creating it a territory in 1863, Arizona comprises all the lands of the United States formerly belonging to New Mexico, extending from W. long. 109? to the California line. Since then, however, the N.W. … ArkansasARKANSAS, one of the south-western states of the North American Union, situated between lat. 33? and 36? 30' N., and long. 89? 45', and 94? 40' W., with an area of 52,198 square miles. It is bounded N. by Missouri, E. by Tennessee and Mississippi, from which it is separated by the Mississippi River, S. by Louisiana , and W. by the Indian territory. It belongs to the great basin of the Mississippi,… Ark Of The CovenantARK OF THE COVENANT, AnK or TiEtr REVELATION (E.V. ark of the testimony, Exod. xxv. 16, 22, Sc.), are the full names of the sacred chest of acacia wood, overlaid with gold, which occupied the holiest place in the tabernacle and temple, and through which the idea of the constant presence of the covenant God with the people of Israel received symbolical expression. The Old Testament religion conceiv… ArkwrightARKWRIGHT, Sin Rmcuaiw, famous for his inventions in cotton spinning, was born at Preston in Lancashire, in 1732, of parents in humble circumstances. He was the youngest of thirteen children, received but a very indifferent education, and was bred to the trade of a barber. In the year 1760 he had established himself in Bolton-le-Moor, where he exchanged the trade of a barber for that of an itinera… ArlesARLES (Arelate), a city of France, in the department of Bouches du Rhime, 46 miles north-west of Marseilles, in lat. 43? 40' 18" N., long. 4? 37' 46" E. It stands on the left bank of the Rhone, where that river divides to form its delta. It is generally well built, with regular streets and fine quays. The public buildings consist of the town-hall, dating from Louis XIV., and built after plans by M… ArmadaARMADA, a Spanish word, meaning generally an armed force or fleet, is applied specially to designate the great expedition sent out against England in 1588 by Philip of Spain. His principal motive for this enterprise was the desire to strike a decisive blow at the Protestant faith, of which England was then the bulwark. For many months the whole energies of the Spanish nation had been directed towa… ArmadilloARMADILLO, a family of South American mammals (Dasypidce), belonging to the order Edentata, and distin guished by the peculiar nature of their external covering. This consists of a bony case, partly composed of solid buckler-like plates, and partly of movable transverse bands, the latter differing in number with the species, and, to a certain extent, with the age and sex of the individual, and giv… ArmaghARMAGH, a city and parliamentary borough in the above county, 64 miles north of Dublin, in lat. 54? 20' 55" N., and long. 6? 37' 57" W. It derives its name of Ard-macha, or High-Field, from its situation on the sides of a steep hill called Drumsailech, or the Hill of Willows, which rises in the midst of a fertile plain. Of high antiquity, and, like so many other Irish towns, claiming to have been … ArmaghARMAGH, an inland county of Ireland in the province of Ulster, situated between lat. 54? 3' and 54? 31' N., and long. 6' 14' and 6? 45' W. ; comprising an area of 328,086 statute acres, of which 178,064 are under tillage, 100,137 in pasture, 4670 in plantation, and 28,177 in waste, (5,:c., while 17,038 acres are under water. It is bounded on the N. by Lough Neagh, on the E. by the county of Down, … ArmagnacARMAGNAC, a district of the south of France, corresponding to a large part of the present department of Gers, with portions of the neighbouring territory, erected in the 10th century into a countship in favour of Bernard the Squint-eyed (le Louche), son of the count of Fezinsac. The family thus founded at various times exercised great influence on the destinies of France, especially in the persons… ArmeniaARMENIA (llayasdani or Haikh, in the native language), formerly an extensive country of Western Asia, which is now divided between Turkey, Russia, and Persia. Its political relations, and consequently its geographical limits, were subject to frequent variation, but in its widest extent it may be described as reaching from the Caucasus in the N. to the Mountains of Kurdistan in the S., and from the… Armenian Church, TheARMENIAN CHURCH, THE, is one of the oldest Eastern Christian churches not in communion with the orthodox Greek Church or with the Church of Rome. ; the Liturgy, said to be very old, was improved ; and the Armenian bishops took part in several of the synods of the church, notably in the third oecumenical council (Ephesus, 431 A.D.) About 450 A.D. the Armenian Church suffered a severe persecution, w… Armenian LanguageARMENIAN LANGUAGE. The Armenian or Haikan language is an offshoot of the Iranian branch of the Indo-Germanic family of languages. Its earliest stage is probably represented in the cuneiform inscriptions of Van, on which see Hincks, in Jour. R. Asiatic Soc., vol. ix. (1848), and Mordtmann, in Zeitschrift d. deutschenmorgent. Gesellschaft, vol. xxvi, (1872). The existing literature of the Armenians … Armenian LiteratureARMENIAN LITERATURE. With the exception of a few fragments incorporated in later writers, the pre-Christian literature of Armenia has totally perished. The early Armenians seem to have possessed a body of traditional and historical songs analogous to the Shale-nameh of Persia, the memory of which lingered long among the common people, especially in the province of Koghten. Portions of these have b… Armenian VersionARMENIAN VERSION. The Armenian version of the Bible was undertaken in the year 410 by Miesrob, with the aid of his pupils Joannes Ecelensis and Josephus Pal. nensis. It appears that the patriarch Isaac first attempted, in consequence of the Persians having destroyed all the copies of the Greek version, to make a translation from the Peshito ; that Miesrob became his coadjutor in this work; and tha… Arm Felt, Gustav MauritzARM FELT, GUSTAV MAURITZ, BARON, afterwards COUNT, eldest son of a Finnish nobleman, was born at Jura in 1757. He entered the army and gained the favour of Gustavus III., who appointed him to a post in the service of the Crown Prince, and afterwards made him general of a division of the army in the war against Russia. He was successful in his military operations, and also materially aided the king… Arminius, JamesARMINIUS, JAMES, a distinguished Dutch theologian, author of the modified Reformed theology that receives from him its name, was born at Oudewater, South Holland, 1560. Arminius is a Latinised form of his family name Hermanns or Hermannson. His father, a cutler, died while he was an infant, leaving a widow and three children. Theodore /Einilius, a priest, who had turned Protestant, adopting James,… ArmisticeARMISTICE, a temporary suspension of hostilities by mutual agreement between two nations at war, or their respective forces. An armistice may be either general or particular : in the first case, there is a complete cessation of hostile operations in every part of the dominions of the belligerent powers ; in the second, there is merely a temporary truce between two contending armies, or between a b… Arms And ArmourARMS AND ARMOUR. The history of arms and armour forms one of the most suggestive chapters in the history of civilisation. The use of stone weapons appears to have been universally characteristic of the earlier, as it is still distinctive of the ruder races of mankind. The forms of the weapons fabricated in this intractable material were of necessity few and simple. The commonest and most widely di… Armstrong, JohnARMSTRONG, JOHN, a physician, litterateur, and poet, the friend of Thomson, Mallet, and Wilkes, was born about 1709 at Castleto?n, Roxburghshire, where his father was parish minister. He graduated M.D. at Edinburgh university, and soon afterwards settled in London, where, however, his professional success was small. In all probability he paid more attention to literature than to medicine. He was, … ArmyARMY, "a collection of armed men obliged to obey one man" (Johnson); "a collection of troops of all arms formed into brigades and divisions, placed under the orders of one commander, with a general and special staff and administrative departments; provided with all necessary war materiel, and destined to act offensively and defensively against the enemy" (Block, Dictionnaire de l'Economie Politigu… Arnaud, HenriARNAUD, HENRI, the celebrated pastor, military leader, and historian of the Vaudois, was born, in 1641, at La Tour, or La Torre, in Piedmont. He is said to have served under William of Orange, and it is probable that he received pecuniary assistance from that prince in his efforts to restore the exiled Vaudois to their native valleys. Owing to the cruelties of Victor Amadeus of Savoy, from two to … ArnauldARNAULD, A.NaLIQUE (called Ang6lique de Saint-Jean), niece of the first or great Angelique, was born in 1624. Arnauld, AntoineARNAULD, ANTOINE, one of the greatest French theologians and philosophers, was born at Paris, Feb. 8, 1612. His father was the most famous advocate of the time, and had gained special distinction by his defence of the university against the Jesuits in 1594. Of his large family, Antoine was the twentieth and youngest child. As he was at first destined to follow his father's profession, he turned hi… Arnauld, Jacqueline MameARNAULD, JACQUELINE MAME (better known by her religious name, Marie Angelique de Ste Magdeleine), born 8th September 1591, was the second daughter of Antoine Arnauld, the celebrated advocate. She was early destined for the church, and assumed the dress of a novice in 1599. By concealing her age from the Pope, her father obtained a bull nominating her abbess of Port-Royal when she was little more t… Arndt, Ernst MoritzARNDT, ERNST MORITZ, a distinguished German patriot, poet, and historical and miscellaneous writer, was a native of the island of Riigen in the Baltic, which at the time of his birth belonged to Sweden. He was born at Schoritz on the 26th December 1769. The second of a family of eight, he inherited from his father the sound mind in the sound body, good sense, practical sagacity, warm feeling, and … Arndt, JohnARNDT, JOHN, was a famous Protestant theologian of the 16th century, and may be regarded as the founder of the German Pietism of a later generation. He was born at Ballenstadt, in Anhalt, in 1555, and studied in a variety of universities - in Helmstedt in 1576 ; in Wittenberg in 1577, when the crypto-Calvinist controversy was at its height, and where he took the side of Melanchthon and the crypto-… Arne, Thomas AugustineARNE, THOMAS AUGUSTINE, musical composer, was born in London on the 28th May 1710, his father being an upholsterer. Intended for the legal profession, he was educated at Eton, and afterwards apprenticed to an attorney. His natural inclination for music, however, proved irresistible, and his father, finding from his performance at an amateur musical party that he was already a skilful violinist, fu… ArnhemARNHEM, or .A.nNuam (according to some the Arenacuns of the Romans, Arnoldi Villa in the Middle Ages), the chief town in the province of Guelderland, in the Netherlands, on the right bank of the Rhine along the slope of the Veluwe Hills. It is a clean and prosperous place, in a pleasant and beautiful district, and is much frequented by the wealthy merchants of the Low Countries, whose villas and g… ArnicaARNICA. A genus of plants belonging to the natural order Compositce (composite family). The flowers are clustered in heads (capitula), and are surrounded by an involucre composed of two rows of small leaflets called bracts. The outer flowers of the head are strap-shaped (ligulate), and contain pistils only, while the inner or central florets are tubular and have both stamens and pistils. The style… Arnim, Bettina VonARNIM, BETTINA VON, famous for her acquaintance and correspondence with Goethe, was a member of the Brentano family, and born at Frankfort, April 4, 1785. Her acquaintance with Goethe continued from 1807 until 1811, when it was brought to a close by her offensive behaviour to his wife. Shortly after his death she published an extensive correspondence alleged to have passed between the parties. Its… Arnim, Ludwig Achim VonARNIM, LUDWIG ACHIM VON, a distinguished German poet and novelist, was born at Perlin in 1781. He studied at Vienna and Gottingen, and took the degree of M.D., though he never practised as a physician. His attention, however, in his early years seems to have been specially directed towards the natural sciences, and his first literary performance (Theorie der Elektrisehen Erscheinungen) was in that… Arnim, Or ArnheimARNIM, or ARNHEIM, JOHAN GEORG BARON VON, one of the most distinguished men during the period of the Thirty Years' War, both as a general and as a diplomatist, was born in 1586, at Boitzenburg, in the province of Brandenburg. He entered the Swedish army, and served under Gustavus Adolphus. In 1626 he, though a Protestant, was induced by Wallenstein to join the imperial army. He gained great distin… Arnisybus, HenningusARNISYBUS, HENNINGUS, a German physician, was born at Halberstadt, probably about 1580. ArnoARNO (the ancient ARNUS), a celebrated river of Italy. It rises in Monte Falterona, in the Apennines, descends into the valley of Casentino, in Upper Tuscany, passes the town of Bibbiena into the plain of Arezzo, where it receives the Chiana as a tributary, and enters the narrow valley of Laterina. Thence it issues through the rocky defile Dell' Inferno, pours into the lovely Val d'Arno, sweeps be… ArnobiusARNOBIUS, called Afer, and sometimes the Elder, was a native of Sicea Venerea in Numidia. The date of his birth is uncertain, but it must have been during the latter part of the 3d century of our era. He was a teacher of rhetoric, and at first an opponent of Christianity. His conversion is said by Jerome to have been occasioned by a dream ; and the same writer adds that the bishop to whom Arnobius… Arnold Of BresciaARNOLD OF BRESCIA, remarkable as a forerunner of the Reformation and assailant of the Pope's temporal power, was born about the beginning of the 12th century, and became a priest in his native city. The fame of Abe-lard's eloquence induced him to repair to France for the sake of becoming his disciple. On his return he bitterly attacked the temporal dominion of the Pope and tire wealth of the clerg… Arnold, SamuelARNOLD, SAMUEL, a distinguished English composer, was born at London in 1740. He received a thorough musical education at the Chapel Royal under Dr Nares, and when little more than twenty years of age was appointed composer at Covent Garden Theatre. Here, in 1765, he produced his popular opera, The Maid of the Mill. In 1776 he transferred his services to the Haymarket Theatre. In 1783 he was made … Arnold, ThomasARNOLD, THOMAS, a clergyman of the Church of England, was born at West Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, on the 13th of June 1795. He was the son of William and Martha Arnold, the former of whom occupied the situation of collector of customs at Cowes. Deprived at an early age of his father, who died suddenly of spasm in the heart in 1801, his initiatory education was confided by his mother to her siste… Arno, Or AquilaARNO, or AQUILA, tenth bishop and first archbishop of Salzburg, was one of those learned churchmen whom Charles the Great gathered round him, and who did so much to frame and strengthen that alliance between the Emperor and the Pope which lay at the basis of the Holy Roman empire of the West. The occasion of his introduction to the emperor was the defeat of Thassilo, duke of Bavaria, who had made … Arnott, NeilARNOTT, NEIL, M.D., F.R.S., a distinguished physician and physicist, was born at Arbroath, 15th May 1788. His parents, who were Roman Catholics, removed to Blairs, near Aberdeen, when Arnott was eight years old, and three years afterwards took up their abode in Aberdeen, which enabled him to attend the grammar school there. In 1801 he entered IVIarischal college, where he took special interest in … Arnotto, Or AnnattoARNOTTO, or ANNATTO, is a dyeing material produced from the seeds of Bixa Orcllcma (Nat. ArnsbergARNSBERG, a city of Westphalia, in Prussia, the chief town of a government and circle of the same name, 51? 24' N. lat., 8? 7' E. long. It is situated on an eminence almost surrounded by the River Ruhr, 44 miles S.E. of Munster, and 58 miles E.N.E. of Dusseldorf. It is the seat of the provincial authorities, and has a court of appeal, a Catholic gymnasium, which was formerly the Benedictine abbey … ArrackARRACK, a name derived from the Arabic arak (perspiration), and applied to a spirituous liquor distilled in India, Ceylon, and Java, and generally consumed in Eastern countries. In Ceylon arrack is distilled from the fermented juice called toddy, drawn front the unexpanded flower-spathes of various palms, chiefly the Palmyra palm (Borassus flabelliformis) and the cocoa palm (Cocos nucifera). On th… ArraignmentARRAIGNMENT (from arraisonner, arraigner, Old Fr., ad rationem ponere, to call to account), a law term, properly denoting the calling of a person to answer in form of law upon an indictment. ArranARRAN, an island on the west coast of Scotland, near the mouth of the river Clyde, which forms part of the county of Bute. It is about 20 miles in length, by from 8 to 11 in breadth, and contains a superficial area of 165 square miles, or 105,814 acres, of which about 14,431 are cultivated. This island is rugged and mountainous, particularly in the northern part, in which the valleys are deep and … ArrasARRAS (the Kemetc-tcum of the Romans), a fortified city of France, chief town of the department of Pas de Calais, and formerly capital of the province of Artois. Its name, otherwise Atrecht, is like Artois, a corruption of the name of the Atrebates. It is situated on both sides of the Scarpe, where that river receives the Crinchon, 32 miles N.E. of Amiens, and 100 miles N.N.E. of Paris. The town i… ArrestARREST (from the French arrester, arreter, to stop or stay) is the restraint of a man's person, for the purpose of compelling him to be obedient to the law, and is defined to be the execution of the command of some court of record or officer of justice. Arrests are either in civil or in criminal cases. I. In Civil Cases. - The arrest must be by virtue of a precept or order out of some court, and m… ArrestmentARRESTMENT, in Scottish Law, denotes that process by which a creditor detains the goods or effects of his debtor in the hands of third parties till the debt due to him shall be paid. It is divided into two kinds, - lst, Arrestment in security, used when proceedings are commencing, or in other circumstances where a claim may become, but is not yet, enforceable; and 2d, Arrestment in execution, foll… ArriaARRIA, the wife of Cmcina Pzetus, who, having been engaged in the conspiracy of Scribonianus against the Emperor Claudius, 42 A.D., was condemned to death. Arria, resolving not to survive her husband, stabbed herself with a dagger, which she then handed to him with the words, " Ptus, it does not pain me." Her daughter, also called Arria, was the wife of Thrasea ; and when he was condemned to death… ArriltsARRILTS, surnamed Pius, was the son of Aurelius Fulvus, (Nismes). He was born r51( near Lanuvium, 86 A.D., aud, having lost his father,4, was brought up under the gF"i his maternal grandfather, a man of integrity and culture, and on terms of friendship with the success the offices of qurestor and prretor, he obtained the consulship in 120 A.D.; was next chosen one of the four consulars for Italy … ArrowrootARROWROOT. A large proportion of the edible starches obtained from the rhizomes or root-stocks of various plants are known in commerce under the name of arrowroot. Properly the name should be restricted to the starch yielded by two or three species of Marantct, the chief of which is .3f. arundinacea ; and when genuine or West Indian arrowroot is spoken of, it is understood that this is the variet… ArsenalARSENAL (supposed to be derived from arx navalis, whence the Romaunt word arthenal, signifying generally a " citadel," though primarily it meant simply a naval citadel'), is an establishment for the construction, repair, receipt, storage, and issue of warlike stores. A first class arsenal, which can renew the materiel and equipment of a large army must embrace a gun factory, carriage factory, labo… Arsenic And Its CompoundsARSENIC AND ITS COMPOUNDS. Although arsenic was not recognised as a metallic element till the 18th century, several of its compounds were known from remote antiquity; and the name apo-evocOv (from 40-7y, male) was applied by Dioscorides to the yellow sulphide of arsenic, orpiment, on account of its very potent properties. To the present day the term arsenic is more frequently applied to arsenious … ArtaxerxesARTAXERXES, a royal Persian name, borne first by several of the kings of the Achmmenian dynasty of the Persian empire, and found also in the later Sassanian dynasty. The original and native form of the name, as ascertained from the cuneiform inscriptions of ancient Persia, is Artakhshatra (see Rawlinson, Jour. Asiat. Soc. xi. p. 35). The Hebrew transcript, occurring with slight differences of spel… Artedi, PeterARTEDI, PETER, an eminent naturalist, was born in the province of Angermania, in Sweden, on the 22d February 1705. His parents were poor, but found means to give him a liberal education, and with this view sent him to the college of Hernosand. Intending to become a clergyman, he went, in 1724, to study theology at Upsal ; but he turned his attention to medicine from the strong bent of his mind for… ArtemidorusARTEMIDORUS, a native of Ephesus, flourished during the reign of Marcus Aurelius. He called himself The Daldian, from Daldia, or Daldis, a small town in Lydia, the birth-place of his mother, in order to distinguish himself from Artemidorus, the geographer, who was likewise a native of Ephesus. The work by which he is known, 'OVEL(OOKFATCKO., the Interpretation of Dreams, is said to have been writt… ArtemisARTEMIS [DIANA], in Greek. Mythology, twin sister of Apollo, but born a day before him, as it was said at Athens for the sake of explaining the fact of the 6th of each month being sacred to her, while the 7th was his day. It might seem, too, that their mother, Leto, had borne them in two different places, since the birth-place of Apollo was Delos, while that of his sister is called Ortygia. But th… ArtemisiaARTEMISIA, daughter of Lygdamis, succeeded her husband in the kingdom of Halicarnassus, which was a dependency of the Persian empire. Artesian WellsARTESIAN WELLS, the name applied to water-springs rising above the surface of the ground by natural hydrostatic pressure, on boring a small hole down through a series of strata to a water-carrying bed enclosed between two impervious layers. In Europe this mode of well-boring was first practised in the French province of Artois, whence the name Artesian is derived. At Aire, in that province, there … ArteveldeARTEVELDE, Pusair vAx, son of the above, lived in retirement till 1381. Some years before that date enmity had again arisen between Count Louis of Flanders and the somewhat turbulent citizens of Ghent, who, under one Hyons, had exp lled the count's adherents, plundered his house, and slain several of his officers. Hyons died in 1379, and in 1381 the citizens, under Peter van der Bosch (Dubois), we… Artevelde, Jacob VanARTEVELDE, JACOB VAN, a celebrated Flemish popular leader in the 14th century, was a brewer in Ghent. His enormous wealth, great eloquence, and general talent for administration, easily made him the most prominent and powerful man on the side of the citizens in their struggle against the encroachments of Count Louis of Flanders. The people of Ghent gave him the command of their forces, and he bani… ArthropodaARTHROPODA. The Aristotelian distinction of Malacostraca, or Crustaceans, and Entoma, or Insects, has been referred to by Agassiz as in reality more precise than Linnmus's last classification (1766), in which his Crustaceans form part of the Apterous group of insects. But whereas the Greek naturalist recognised the notchings which indicate annuli, somites, or body-rings, in Coleoptera and the othe… Arthur, Or ArtusARTHUR, or ARTUS, a hero of the Welsh Tales, the Chronicles of Geoffrey of Monmouth, and the Romances of the Round Table. His exploits, even the most fabulous, passed with historians, before the days of historical criticism; subsequently a reaction led to the figure of Arthur being regarded as nothing but a Celtic myth. The truth, so far as it is possible to arrive at it, lies between these two ex… Articles, The Thirty-nineARTICLES, THE THIRTY-NINE, of the Church of England, contain the public standard of religious belief adopted by that body. They were drawn up by Archbishop Parker, sanctioned by Convocation in 1562, and published by royal authority in the following year. The general principles of this body of doctrine, and the form into which it was thrown, had been gradually developed during the previous attempts… ArtoisARTOIS, an ancient province of the north of France, corresponding to the present department of Pas de Calais, with the exclusion of the arrondissments of Boulogne and Montreuil, which belonged to Picardy. It is a rich and well-watered champaign, producing abundance of grain and hops, and yielding excellent pasture for cattle. The capital of the province was Arras, and the other important places we… Aru IslandsARU ISLANDS, a group of about thirty islands, nominally under the Dutch government of the Moluccas, which lie south of New Guinea, between lat. 5? 20' and 6? 55' S., long. 134? 10' and 134? 45' E. Tana-busar, the largest island, is 80 miles from north to south, and is crossed by three river-like creeks tanning east and west, called Watelai, Vorkai, and Maykor. No part exceeds 100 feet in elevation… ArundelARUNDEL, a town in Sussex, on the river Arun, about 4 miles from its mouth, 10 miles E. of Chichester, 19 W. of Brighton, and 55 S.W. of London' . It is built on the slope of a hill surmounted by the castle of the duke of Norfolk, which dates from the time of Alfred the Great. It confer on its possessor the title of Earl of Arundel. At till time of the Conquest thi castle was rebuilt by Roge: de M… Arundelian Or Oxford MarblesARUNDELIAN or OXFORD MARBLES, part of a collection of ancient sculptures and antiquities, including the famous Parian Chronicle, formed by Thomas earl of Arundel, and presented by his grandson, the Hon. Henry Howard (afterwards duke of Norfolk), to the University of Oxford in the year 1667. They were purchased for the first proprietor in 1624 by Mr (afterwards Sir William) Petty, who, along with J… Arundel, ThomasARUNDEL, THOMAS, Archbishop of Canterbury, born in 1353, was the second son of Robert, earl of Arundel and Warren. At 22 years of age he was raised to the bishopric of Ely, to the church and palace of which he was a great benefactor. In 1386, after the deposition of the earl of Suffolk, he was appointed lord chancellor of England; he was deprived of this office in 1389, but again reinstated. In 13… Arval BrothersARVAL BROTHERS (Fratres Arvales), in Roman Antiquities, a college or priesthood (sacerdotes arvorum), consisting of twelve members, elected for life from the highest ranks in Rome, and always apparently, during the empire, including the emperor. Their chief duty was to offer annually public sacrifice for the fertility of the fields (ut fruges ferant area). The origin of the brotherhood was traced … AryanARYAN, a technical term, applied to one of the great families of language, which extends from India to Europe, and which, for that reason, is called also Indo-European,. Friedrich Schlegel, who first recognised the family relationship of these languages (Die Sprache and Weisheit der Indier, 1808), assigned to them the name of Indo-Germanic, name still used by preference by many scholars in Germany… AsafuitidaASAFUiTIDA, a gum-resin obtained principally from 11'arthex asafoetida, and probably also from one or two other closely allied species of mnbelliferous plants. It. is produced in the southern provinces of Persia, in Bokhara, and in Beloochistan, and the plant grows as far south as the Chenab Valley in the Panjab. Narthex asafoetida grows to a height of from 5 to 6 feet, and when the plant has atta… AsbenASBEN, a country of Central Africa, known also as Aix, which see. ASBESTOS, or ASBESTUS (from cla-Parroc, 2112CO228221- able), is a variety of the amphibole or hornblende family of minerals, and akin to tremolite, actinolite, and common hornblende. The chemical composition of the whole family is chiefly silica, magnesia, alumina, and ferrous oxide, but varies considerably. Those containing most ir… AscalonASCALON, now ASKULAN, one of the five chief cities of the Philistines, on the coast of the Mediterranean, 12 geographical miles N. of Gaza. It was a well-fortified town, and the seat of the worship of Dereeto. Though situated in the nominal territory of the tribe of Judah, it was never for any length of time in the possession of the Israelites. After the fall of the Macedonian empire, it became, l… AscensionASCENSION, a solitary island in the Atlantic Ocean in lat. 7? 56' S. and long. 14? 24' W., about 7)m miles in length and 6 in breadth, with an area of 34 square miles, and within the immediate influence of the south-east trade-wind. It is one of the peaks of a submarine ridge which separates the northern and southern basins of the Atlantic. The whole character of the island is volcanic, and its su… AsceticismASCETICISM, from Greek (10-icerns, meaning the exercise or training to which the athletes subjected themselves when preparing for the games or contests, is used metaphorically to denote the habitual practice of exercising restraint over, or subduing, the bodily desires and affections which tend to lower objects, in order thereby to advance in the higher life of purity and virtue. It is the means b… AschaffenburgASCHAFFENBURG, a town in the government of Lower Franconia, in the kingdom of Bavaria, at the confluence of the Aschaffa with the Maine, near the foot of the Spessart-Wald. Its chief buildings are the Johannisburg, built (1605-14) by Archbishop Sweikard of Kronberg, which contains a library, with a number of incunabula, a collection of engravings and paintings ; the StOkirche, or cathedral, founde… AschamASCHAM, RocEn, a very distinguished scholar and writer, was born at Kirby Wiske, a village in Yorkshire, near Northallerton, about the year 1515. John Ascham, his father, was house-steward in the family of Scroop, and by his wife Margaret was connected with several respectable families. A short time before his death, Sir Anthony Wingfield having conceived a predilection for his third son Roger, to… AscherslebenASCHERSLEBEN, a manufacturing city of Prussia, in the government of Magdeburg, formerly the chief town of a circle. It contains one Roman Catholic and five Protestant churches, a synagogue, a poor-house, an asylum for destitute children, and several schools. The discovery of coal in the neighbourhood has at once stimulated and altered its industries. In addition to the manufacture of woollen wares… AsclepiadesASCLEPIADES, of Prusa in Bithynia, a celebrated physician, flourished at Rome in the end of the 2c1 century B.C. AscoliASCOLI (Asculum Piceizum), the chief town and a bishop's see in the Italian province of Ascoli Thum, situated on a rising ground on the river 'Pronto (Truentus), a few nines to the west of the Apennines, and commanding a large and fertile plain. It possesses a citadel, a cathedral, built on the site of a basilica erected by Con stantine on the ruins of a temple of Hercules, a number of other churc… Asconius Pedianus, QuintusASCONIUS PEDIANUS, QUINTUS, author of some commentaries on Cicero, was born probably a year or two before the Christian era, and died about 83 A.D. He is supposed to have been a native of Padua. Some minor works ascribed to him have been lost ; all that are now extant consist of commentaries on some of Cicero's orations. These notes, written in very pure Latin, relate chiefly to matters of law, hi… AsgardASGARD (from As, god, and yard, home or hall), the home of the JESIR, q.v., the Olympus of northern mythology. The city of Asgard is fabled to have been built on the highest part and in the middle of Ida's plain, which is the very centre of the universe. Here the JEsir erected a court for themselves with seats for twelve, and one high seat for Odin, the All-father, also a lofty abode for the godde… AsgillASGILL, Jony, an eccentric writer who flourished during of the 17th and 18th centuries. The exact date of his birth is uncertain. Ife was bred to the law, and gained considerable reputation, not only by his skill in his profession, but from his first published writings. These consisted of two pamphlets - the first advocating the establishment of some currency other than the usual gold and silver, … Ashby-de-la-zouchASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH, a market-town of England; county of Leicester, 17 miles north-west of Leicester, on the railway from that city to Burton. The town, which derives the adjunct to its name from the Norman family of La Zouch, consists principally of one long street. It contains six churches and chapels, and has a grammar school and several charity schools. The church of St Helen is a fine old build… Askew, Or AscueASKEW, or ASCUE, ANNE, one of the numerous sufferers for the cause of the Reformation in the reign of Henry VIII., was a lady of great worth and. beauty, of a good family in Lincolnshire, and in correspondence with Queen Catherine Parr and the chief ladies of the court. At first a Roman Catholic, she had gradually become convinced of the falsity of transubstantiation ; and her husband, irritated a… Asmai Or AsmayiASMAI or AsMAYI (full name, ABU SAID ABD-ELMELEK TEN. KORAIR EL-AS:MAI), is one of the most important representatives of Arabic literature in the Sth century of the Christian era. Ile was born at Basra 740 or 741 A.D, and attained, by his extensive erudition, to the high rank of preceptor to Harumal-Rashid, whose court was in that generation the great focus of intellectual activity in the East. As… Asmodeus Or AschmedaiASMODEUS or ASCHMEDAI, an evil demon who appears in later Jewish tradition, and concerning whom there has been much vague and fanciful speculation. AsoloASOLO, the ancient Acelum, a fortified town of Northern Italy, in the province of Treviso, about 19 miles distant from the city of that name. It is built in a beautiful and healthy situation, and possesses a cathedral and the ruins of a Roman aqueduct. In the neighbourhood is the former palace of Catharine Cornaro, queen of Cyprus, now turned into a dairy. Not far off is the quarry of Rocca. Popul… AspasiaASPASIA, a beautiful hetcera of Athens, celebrated in history by her connection with Pericles, was a native of Miletus, and settled in Athens, following the example of her countrywoman, Thargelia, who had become very famous during the time of the Persian wars. Her beauty, but still more her remarkable accomplishments, gained for her an extraordinary reputation, which was increased after her associ… AspasiusASPASIUS, a Peripatetic philosopher, and one of the most prolific commentators on Aristotle, flourished probably towards the close of the 1st century A.D., or perhaps during the reign of Antoninus Pius. AspendusASPENDUS (or, as the name appears on the more ancient coins, ESTFENDYS), a city of Pamphylia, in Asia Minor, situated on an isolated hill near the river Eurymedon (Capri-su) at the extremity of the plain of Perga. It was founded by a colony from Argos, five centuries before the Christian era, and attained to great prosperity, as is attested, not only by the statements of Greek and Roman writers, b… Aspen TreeASPEN TREE, called also the trembling-leaved poplar (Populus tremzela), is a native of Britain, and is found generally in moist places, sometimes at a considerable elevation, 1600 feet or more, in Scotland. Asphalt, Or AsphaltumASPHALT, or ASPHALTUM (it'o-c5aXT.n, Aristotle, Bitu-nen, Pliny), the German Bergpech, or mineral pitch, so called from the Lams Asphaltites or Dead Sea, where it was found in ancient times, is a product of the decomposition of vegetable and animal substances. It is usually found of a black or brownish-black colour, externally not unlike coal, but it varies in consistency from a bright pitchy cond… AssamASSAM, a province of British India. Until the beginning of 1874 Assam formed the north-east division of the territories under the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal. In that year it was erected into a separate administration, presided over by a Chief Commissioner, who acts directly under the Governor-General of India in council. The district of Cachar was added to the old division of Assam, and now for… Assarotti, Ottavio Giovanni BattistaASSAROTTI, OTTAVIO GIOVANNI BATTISTA, the founder of schools for the education of deaf-mutes in Italy, was born at Genoa in 1753. He received an excellent education; and after qualifying himself for the church, he entered the society of the Pietists, " Scuole Pie," who devoted themselves to the training of the young. His superior learning rendered his services very valuable, and he was appointed t… AssassinsASSASSINS, a secret military and religious sect formed in Persia and Syria during the 11th century A.D. To understand clearly its nature and tenets, it is necessary to refer to the doctrines of the Ismaelites, of whom it was a branch, and who were themselves an offshoot from the great body of the Shiites. The Shiites, one of the two sects into which the Mahometans had separated, held in opposition… AssayingASSAYING. This term is used in metallurgy to denote a chemical operation in which the quantity of one ingredient of a mineral or alloy is determined ; it is chiefly used in reference to the precious metals, gold and silver, and it is in this connection that the subject will here be treated of. In the wider acceptation of the term in which it is used amongst practical metallurgists, assaying means … Asser, John, Or Asserius MenevensisASSER, JOHN, or ASSERIUS MENEVENSIS, was born in Pembrokeshire, and educated in the monastery of St David's by the Archbishop Asserius, who, according to Leland, was his kinsman. Here he became a monk, and by his assiduous application soon acquired universal fame as a person of great abilities and profound learning. King Alfred, always a munificent patron of genius, about the year 880 sent for him… AssetsASSETS, a technical English law word, derived through the old Norman phraseology from the same source as the French asses, enough, and signifying the property of a debtor available for the satisfaction of his creditors. Thus the property of a bankrupt is termed his assets, and is the fund out of which his liabilities must be paid. When a person dies, the goods which come to executors or administra… AssideansASSIDEANS, in Greek 'Ao_e8gioc, is a transcription of the Hebrew chasidim, pious ones, a word frequent in the Psalms (xxxvii. 28, lxxix. 2, &c., - E.V. generally saints). In the first book of Maccabees the name of Assideans appears as the designation of a society of men zealous for the law (1 Mac. ii. 42, according to the correct text as given by Fritzsche), and closely connected with the scribes … AssisiASSISI (ancient Asisium), a city of Italy in the province of Perugia. Association Of IdeasASSOCIATION OF IDEAS, or MENTAL ASSOCIATION-, is a general name used in psychology to express the conditions under which representations arise in consciousness, and also is the name of a principle of explanation put forward by an important school of thinkers to account generally for the facts of mental life. The more common expression, from the time of Locke, who seems to have first employed it, h… AssyriaASSYRIA. The two great empires which grew up on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates can be separated as little historically as geographically. It is proposed. therefore, to treat both under the heading BABYLONIA. From the beginning their history is closely intertwined ; and the power of the one is a measure of the weakness of the other. This interdependence of Assyrian and Babylonian history was… AstarteASTARTE [AsxrAnorH] was the chief goddess of the Phoenicians in Zidon, where was a temple in her honour. In Tyre also she had a temple, and from thence her worship was transplanted to Carthage. At what time it may have been introduced among the Jews is not known, but its power of attracting them may be seen by reference to 2 Kings xxiii. 13 ; 1 Kings xi. 5 ; Judges ii. 13. Among classical writers … AsterASTER, a genus of composite plants (Compositor), found largely in North America, and scattered sparingly over Asia, Europe, and South America. They are usually perennial, and their flowers are arranged in numerous heads (capitula). Asters receive the name of Michaelmas and Christmas daisies, because they have heads like daisies, and, when the weather is mild, they flower up to these periods of the… AsteroidsASTEROIDS, the name given to a large number of small planets, which revolve round the sun in orbits lying between those of Mars and Jupiter. Ast, George Anthony FrederickAST, GEORGE ANTHONY FREDERICK, a German philosopher and philologist of considerable distinction, was born at Gotha in 1778. He was educated at the gymnasium of that town, and afterwards at the university of Jena. He distinguished himself as a student, and in 1802 he became a privat-docent in his alma mater. Three years later he was appointed professor of classical literature in the university of L… AsthmaASTHMA (ao-B,ua, a gasping, do-0,uaim, to gasp for breath), a disorder of respiration characterised by severe paroxysms of difficult breathing, usually followed by a period of complete relief, with recurrence of the attacks at more or less frequent intervals. The term is often incorrectly employed in reference to states of embarrassed respiration, which are plainly due to permanent organic disease… AstiASTI, a large and well-built town of Italy, in the province of Alessandria (Piedmont), situated on the left bank of the Tanaro. It is the see of a bishop, the chief town of a circondario, and a station on the Turin and Alessandria railway. Its Gothic cathedral dates from 1348, besides which there are a large number of churches, a college, an old castle, and a theatre. In the Middle Ages Asti was a… Astorga, EmmanueleASTORGA, EMMANUELE u', a distinguished musical composer, was born at Palermo about 1680. His father, a baron of Sicily, took an active part in the attempt to throw off the Spanish yoke, but was betrayed by his own soldiers and publicly executed. His wife and son were compelled to be spectators of his fate ; and such was the effect upon them, that Ernmanuele fell into a state of gloomy despondency,… Astor, John JacobASTOR, JOHN JACOB, an enterprising American merchant, founder of the Astor Library at New York, was born at the village of Walldorf near Heidelberg, on the 17th July 1763. His father was a peasant, and his early years were spent in the common labours of the farm. At sixteen he joined an elder brother, a musical instrument maker, in London, and at twenty sailed for the United States. On the voyage … Astrabad, Or AsterabadASTRABAD, or ASTERABAD, a small province of Persia, bounded on the N. by the Caspian Sea and the desert, on the S. by the Elburz Mountains, W. by Mazanderan, and E. by the river Gourgan. The country, although mountainous, and interspersed with dense forests, in which it is scarcely possible to travel, possesses beautiful and fertile valleys, producing rice, wheat, and other grains in abundance, or… Astrabad, Or AsterabadASTRABAD, or ASTERABAD, the capital of the above province, is situated near the mouth of the River Gourgan, which flows into the Caspian, and at the head of a sheltered bay, convenient for shipping. It is a straggling town, about 3i miles in circuit, and picturesque in appearance, from the buildings being intermingled with trees and gardens. At one time of greater size, it was reduced by Nadir Sha… AstrakhanASTRAKHAN, the capital of the above government, is situated on a small island in the Volga, about 30 miles above the influx of that river into the Caspian. It is a large, rambling, wood-built city, " dusty in summer, windy in autumn, frozen-up in winter, and knee-deep in mud in spring." It consists of three parts, - (1.) The Kremlin, or citadel, dating from 1550, which stands on a bill, and contai… AstrakhanASTRAKHAN, a government of European Russia, bounded on the S.E. by the Caspian Sea, N.E. by Orenburg, N. by Saratov, W. by the country of the Don Cossacks, and S.W. by the government of the Caucasus. It lies between lat. 44? 50' and 49? 50' N. and between long. 43? 30' and 51? 0' E. It has an area of about 84,948 square miles, divided into two nearly equal parts by the Volga, and consists chiefly … AstrologyASTROLOGY, the so-called science by which various nations, in various ways, have attempted to assign to the material heavens a moral influence over the earth and its inhabitants. For long ages astronomy and astrology were identified. Isidore of Seville is the first to distinguish between the two ; nor did astronomy wholly rid itself of astrology, till, with the system of Copernicus, the conviction… Astruc, JeanASTRUC, JEAN', a celebrated physician, was born in 1684 at Sauves, in Languedoc. His father, a Protestant clergyman, bestowed great pains upon his early education, after which he studied at the university of Montpellier, where, having commenced the study of medicine, he took his degree as doctor of physic in 1703. In 1706 he lectured at Montpellier as substitute for Professor Chirac. He studied mo… AsturiasASTURIAS, one of the ancient provinces of Spain, formerly (from 1388 downwards) conferred as a principality on the heir-apparent to the throne. By the new division of Spain in 1833, the province took the name of Oviedo, though not to the exclusion, in ordinary usage, of the older designation. It is bounded on the N. by the Bay of Biscay, on the S. by Leon, on the W. by Galicia, and on the E. by Sa… Asuncion, Or AssumptionASUNCION, or ASSUMPTION, the capital of the Republic of Paraguay in South America. It is situated in the midst of a fertile territory on the eastern bank of the River Paraguay (here upwards of 600 yards in width), about 18 miles above the most northerly mouth of the Pilcomayo. It was one of the earlier Spanish settlements in this part of America, being founded in 1535 by Gonzalo de Mendoza and Jua… AsylumASYLUM (c10-113.0v), in Greek Antiquities, a temple enclosure, within which protection from bodily harm was afforded to all who sought it and could prove their danger. In a general sense, all Greek temples and altars were clo-aa, that is, it was a religious crime to remove by force any person or thing once under the protection of a deity. But it was only in the case of a small number of temples th… AtacamATACAM.A, a district of South America, extending along the W. coast from 21? to 25? S. lat., partly belonging to Chili, and partly to Bolivia, - the 24th parallel, according to the treaty of 1866, being recognised as the line of demarcation. (1.) The Chilian province has an area of about 38,000 square miles, with a population of 82,300. It is bounded S. by the province of Coquimbo, W. by the Pacif… AtahuallpaATAHUALLPA (atahu, Latin virtus, and allpa, sweet), called the last of the Incas, was the son of Huayna Capac, eleventh Inca of Peru, by the daughter of the conquered sovereign of Quito. Ills brother Iluascar succeeded lIuayna Capac ; for, as Atahuallpa was not descended on both sides from the line of Incas, Peruvian law considered him illegitimate. He obtained, however, the kingdom of Quito, whet… AtalantaATALANTA, in Creek Legend, (1) was connected with Arcadia, where, at her birth, she had been exposed on a hill, her father Jasion having expected a son. At first she was suckled by a she-bear, and then saved by huntsmen, among whom she grew up to be skilled with the bow, swift, and fond of the chase, like the virgin goddess Artemis. At the hunt of the Calydonian boar her arrows were the first to h… Ataxy, LocoATAXY, LOCO.MOTOR (a priv., 7146.s, order - Synonyms, Progressive locomotor ataxy, Tabes dorsalis, Posterior spinal sclerosis), a disease of the nervous system, manifesting itself principally by disordered movements of the limbs in locomotion. This disorder is not, as was once supposed, a form of paralysis (there being no diminution of muscular strength), but is dependent on the loss of the power … Ateianasius, StATEIANASIUS, ST, Bishop of Alexandria, and one of the most illustrious defenders of the Christian faith, was born at Alexandria about the year 297. Of his family, circumstances, or early education nothing can be said to be known, although a legendary story has been preserved by Rufinus of Aquileia as to the manner in which he came, while yet a boy, under the notice of his predecessor, Alexander. I… AtellaATELLA, an ancient city of Campania, about 9 miles from Naples. AthelstanATHELSTAN, or .ZETIIELSTAN, son of King Edward the elder, and grandson of Alfred the Great, was born in 895. There has been much doubt with regard to his legitimacy, as his mother, Ecgwyn, is said to have been of humble origin ; but these suspicions appear to rest on slight foundations. On the death of Edward in 925, Athelstan, who had been named by him as his successor, was elected king by the Me… AthenaATHENA ('A.OnvEc,'ANvn,'Athivala), in Greek Mythology, a goddess who, from being originally a personification of the clear, bright upper region of the sky, had, as early as the time of the epic poets, changed, or advanced, so as to embody under a divine form a conception of the clear insight of the human mind in its various functions. This upper air or ether seemed to be a distinct element in the … Ath, Or AetiiATH, or AETII, a city of Belgium, in the province of Hainaut, situated on the river Dender, a navigable confluent of the Schelde, rather more than 30 miles by rail from Brussels. It is well built, and possesses a parish church (St Julian's), dating originally from 1393, and remarkable for the height of its spire ; a college, founded in 1416; a town-house, erected about 1600 ; an orphan asylum, a t… BaseBASE (Gr. nacris, Lat. spira, basis, Fr. and Ital. base, Ger. Fuss), that part of a column on which the shaft stands. The only base used by the Egyptians was a mere square plinth. The Assyrians evidently understood the value of a base as an architectural accessory, and some bases shown on the bas-reliefs are strongly moulded. But all actually remaining are like the one . recently placed in the Bri… BattlementBATTLEMENT (Fr. bretcssc, Ital. ,iiier/o, Ger. Zinne), a parapet with a series of notches in it, from which arrows may be shot, or other instruments of defence hurled on besiegers. The raised portions are called merlons, and the notches embrasures, or erenelles. The former were intended to cover the soldier while discharging his weapon through the latter. Their use is of great antiquity ; they are… BelgianBELGIAN Anmv. By a law passed in 1868 the strength of the Belgian army was fixed at 100,000 men on war footing, and 40,000 in time of peace. It is formed by conscription, to which every able-bodied male is liable on completing his 19th year. Substitution, however, is permitted, and substitutes or volunteers actually form a large part of the army. The annual contingent is 12,000 men. The period of … BilliograBILLIOGRA.P11Y. The General Suldect - Lubbock's Prehistoric Tunes, Land., 1865 ; Tyler's Researches into the EarlyHistory of Mankind, Lond., 1870 ; Steven's Flint Chips, a Guide to Prehistoric Archeology, Sze., Loud., 1870 ; Ferrmsson's Rude Stone Monuments in all Countries, their Ages and Uses, Lond., 1S72 ; Lyell's Antiquity of Man (2d ed.), Loud., 1873 ; Southall's Recent Origin of Man, Philade… BroachBROACH (from broche, a spit), new used to designate a particular form of spire, the sides of which, with the angles of the tower, finish with a sort of haunching. (See SPIRE.) BurritEss, anciently written Botrasse, or Boterasse (Ital. puntello, Fr. contrefort, Ger. Strebepfeilcr), masonry projecting from a wall, and intended to strengthen the same against the thrust of a roof or vault. Buttresses … CanopyCANOPY, the upper part or cover of a niche, or the projecting ornament over an altar or scat or tomb. The word is supposed to he derived from conopxum, the gauze covering over a bed to keep off the gnats (traf,c4), a mosquito curtain. Early English canopies are generally simple, with trefoiled or cinquefoiled heads; but in the later styles they are very rich, and divided into compartments with pen… CapitalCAPITAL (Gr. Kfcbcf.A.alov, Lat. capitulum, Ital. capitcllo, Sp. clutpitel, Ger. A'"nauf, Kapital, Fr. chapiteau), the upper part of a column, pilaster, pier, Ice. Capitals have been used in every style down to the present time. That mostly used by the Egyptians was bell-shaped, with or without ornaments. The Persians used the double-headed bell, forming a kind of bracket capital. The Assyrians ap… CaufCAUF,C an upheaval or disturbance of the valley, and there can be little doubt that many earthquakes, that are manifestly not of volcanic origin, are due to this simple cause. It is obvious, then, that when a hole is bored down through the upper impermeable layer to the surface of the lake, the water will be forced up by the natural law of water seeking its level, to a height above the surface of … CeilingCEILING (ltal. soffit?, soppalcho, Fr. plafond, lambris, Ger. Classification Of Vie ScorpionesCLASSIFICATION OF VIE SCORPIONES. - The following is Koch's systematic division of the scorpions.' Order SCORNONES. Fain. I. With six eyes, Scorpionides. - Ono genus only, Scorpius (Ehrb.) Fam. II. Eight eyes, Buthides. - Five genera : Buth.us (Leach) Opistophthalmus (Koch) ; Brotheas (Id.); Teleganus (Id.); and Ischnwrus (Id.) Fem. III. Ten eyes, Centrurides. - Two genera: Centrurus (Ehrb.) ; and… ColumnsCOLUMNS. - In the rock-cut tombs and temples we come to the earliest forms of columnar architecture now existing ; and Sir Gardner Wilkinson considers that he can trace the process by which the plain, square, uncarved pier was gradually developed into the ornamental column of the complete Egyptian style. Thus in the case of a plain pier, the first thing was to cut off the angles, making it an octa… Corbie StepsCORBIE STEPS, a Scottish term for the steps formed up the sides of the gable by breaking the coping into short horizontal pieces. CORNICE (Fr. corniche, Ger. Kranz), the projection at the top of a wall finished by a bloeking-course, common in classic architecture. In Norman times, the wall finished with a corbel table, which carried a portion of plain projecting work, which was finished by a copin… DatilDATIL, (Rev. Early AmericanEARLY AMERICAN. - T. J. Hutchinson, Two Years in Peru; C. R. Markham, Travels in Peru ; E. G. Squier's Pamphlet (1870) ; J. L. Stephens and F. Catherwood, Incidents of Travel. List of Plates accompanying this Article. Plate VII. Egyptian. - Plan, section, and elevations of the temple of Apollinopolis :Magna at Edfoo. Grecian Doric. - Plan, elevations, and details of Octastyle temples. Grecian DOri… EndoplasticaENDOPLASTICA. Enemies Of SpidersENEMIES OF SPIDERS. - Preying upon all the insect tribes, and occasionally upon lizards (F. Pollock, Ann. N. H, October 1872) and earth-worms (E. Simon in Ann. Soc. Ent. France, 1873, 5 set.. torn. iii. p. 114 - and Zoologist, 1856, p. 5021), spiders are also themselves preyed upon by both lizards and insects. More than one species of parasitic hymenoptera tend to keep spiders within due bounds ; … EntablaturesENTABLATURES. - These are nearly alike in all orders, and may be described as a cornice and architrave without a frieze. The former consists of a fillet or regula, beneath which is what is generally called a large hollow or cavetto; but in reality the upper half is a quarter round, and tho lower nearly straight. Under this moulding is a bold torus which separates the cornice from the architraves, … Eriographimie, And SerpulidieERIOGRAPHIMIE, and SERPULIDIE Lie. M Sabe17a vesiculosa, Mont. (After (fig. 15). Montagu.) . II. The A. OLICOCII/ETA are annelids without tentacles, cirri, or specialised branchial processes. Bristles, variously grouped, from two to eight and upwards in each transverse series. They are hermaphrodite, and the young undergo no metamorphosis. The body is enveloped in a delicate cuticle resembling tha… EstradeESTRADE, a French term for a raised platform. (Sec DAIs.) EUSTYLE (Gr. EZ, well, and aTaos, a column), a species of inter-columniation, to which a proportion of two diameters and a quarter is assigned. This term, together with the others of similar import - pycnostyle, systyle, diastyle, and arnostylereferring to the distances of columns from one another in composition, is from Vitruvius, who assi… EtymolociesETYMOLOCIES. - I3elief in the influence of the heavens, the air, and. the flight of birds upon human affairs has left traces in all languages. The Greek _cri-po,BoAci?cu, and the Latin siderari, sideratio, templum, have been already referred to. In French, hear, rnalhcar, heurcax, malheureux, are all derived from the Latin augurium; the expression ne S011.4 WIC mauvaise Mile, born under an evil st… FlowerFLOWER (W. FontFONT, the vessel used in the rite of baptism. 'Die earliest extant is supposed to be that in which Constantine is said to have been baptised; this is a porphyry labrum from a Roman bath. Those in the baptisteries in Italy are all large, and were intended for immersion ; as time went on, they seem to have become smaller. What they were in Saxon times is uncertain, though it is not improbable that s… FortificationsFORTIFICATIONS. - Next to the temples, the grandest buildings were perhaps the fortifications. GableGABLE, sometimes Gavil (Fr. pignon, Ital. colma, Ger. Giebel). When a roof is not hipped or returned on itself at the ends, its ends are stopped by carrying up the walls under them in the triangular form Of the roof itself. This is called the gable, or, in the case of the ornamental and ornamented gable, the pediment. Of course gables follow the angles of the slope of the roof, and differ in the v… General ObservationsGENERAL OBSERVATIONS. - The sub-order Scorpiones forms a remarkably homogeneous group. It has been divided, however, into several families by Koch (Die Amain.); and various genera, based principally on the number and distribution of the eyes, the form of the fore margin of the cephalo-thorax, and the structure of the comb-like appendages attached to the under side of the abdomen, have been charact… Geoffroy St IiilaireGEOFFROY ST IIILAIRE (Isidore). GeologyGEOLOGY. - Limestone, coal, and petroleum are found ; with oil springs, mineral springs, and brine springs. The mountains on the opposite sides of the valley are characterised by distinct systems, those on the north being composed of primitive formations, while those on the south partake largely of sandstone, shell-limestone, and coal. Some valuable minerals are met with. Gold-dust is found in all… Groin'ed VaultingGROIN'ED VAULTING (Lat. fornix, testudo, Fr. yogic d'arete, Ital. forniee), the system of covering a building with stone vaults which cross and intersect each other, as opposed to the barrel vaulting (vomlte de bereeau), or series of arches placed side by side. The earliest groins are plain, without any ribs, except occasionally a sort of wide band from wall to wall, to strengthen the construction… Groin RibGROIN RIB, and also GROINED VAULTING.) The earliest groining had no ribs. In early Norman times plain flat arches crossed each other, forming Ogive Ribs. These by . degrees became narrower, had greater projection, and were chamfered. In later Norman work the ribs were often formed of a large roll placed upon the-flat band, and then of two rolls side by side, with a smaller roll or a fillet between… HallHALL (Fr. salle, salon, Ital. sale, salon, Ger. Seal), the principal apartment in the large dwellings of the Middle Ages used for the purposes of receptions, feasts, &c. In the Norman castle the hall was generally in the keep above the ground floor, where the retainers lived, the basement being devoted to stores and dungeons for confining prisoners. Later halls, indeed some Norman halls (not in ca… HistoryHISTORY. - Assam was the province of Bengal which remained most stubbornly outside the limits of the Mughal empire and of the Muhammadan polity in India. Indeed, although frequently overrun by Musalman armies, and its western districts annexed to the Bluhammadan vice-royalty of Bengal, the province maintained an uncertain independence till its invasion by the Burmese towards the end of the last ce… Hotel DieuHOTEL DIEU (Fr. maison dieu, Ital, ospedale, lo spedale), the name for an hospital in medieval times. In England there are but few remains of these buildings, one of which is at Dover ; abroad there are many. The most Celebrated is the one at Angers, described by Parker. They do not seem to differ much arrangement of plan from those in modern days - the accommodation for 'the chaplain, medicine, n… IiartmannIIARTMANN (R.). Internal OrganisationINTERNAL ORGANISATION. - The Muscular System Of contraction of their fibres. Those which set in motion the legs move, one after the other, by means of small and exceedingly fine muscles, of the two kinds ordinarily known as extensors, to raise the joint, and flexors, to lower it. All these muscles act with great rapidity, and enable the legs to move in every direction according to the mode in whic… Internal StructureINTERNAL STRUCTURE. - The Organs of Digestion consist, in many species, of a short intestinal canal, which branches out into lateral cmca, " a sct partie stomachale," and has an anal orifice on the lower side of the abdomen, morn or less near to its posterior extremity (Walck, Ins. Apt., iii. 135). The researches of Dujardin (Ann, Sc. Nat. 1845, tom. iii. p. 14) show in two families (Hydrachnides … Iron WorkIRON WORK, in medieval architecture, as an ornament is chiefly confined to the hinges, Re., of doors and of church chests, Re. Specimens of Norman iron work are very rare. Early English specimens are numerous, and very elaborate. In some instances not only do the hinges become a mass of scroll work, but the surface of the doors is covered by similar ornaments. In both these periods the design evid… JohnJOHN, the second duke (also duke of Greenwich), son of the preceding, was born on the 10th October 1678. He entered the army in 1694, and in 1701 was promoted to the command of a regiment. On the death of his father in 1703, he was appointed a member of the Privy Council, and at the same time captain of the Scotch horse guards, and one of the extraordinary lords of Session. In return for his servi… KeepKEEP (Fr. donjon), the inmost and strongest part of a medieval castle, answering to the citadel of modern times. The arrangement is said to have originated with Gundulf, the celebrated bishop of Rochester.. The Norman keep is generally a very massive square tower, the basement or stories partly below ground being used for stores and prisons. The main story is generally a great deal above ground le… LabelLABEL, the outer projecting moulding over doors, windows, arches, Re., sometimes called Dripstone or Weather Moulding, or Hood-Mould. The former terms seem scarcely applicable, as this moulding is often found inside a building? where no rain could come, and consequently there is no drip. The latter term is described under Hoop-110E1,m In Norman times the label frequently did not project at all, an… LemmaLEMMA 1. To find the value of a sum to be received at a future time in the event of the happening of a given contingency. - Suppose that the sum of 1 is to be received in n years' time, provided that a certain event shall then happen (or shall have then happened), the probability of which is p. We have seen that the value of 1 to be certainly received in n years' time is v". In order to introduce … LintiiLINTII (Gr. xrAtrOor, a square tile). In the Roman orders the lowest member of the base of a column is square and vertically faced ; this is called a plinth. Ponntm, strictly something upon or against which the foot may be placed ; and in this sense, probably, it was applied to the wall which bounds the arena of an amphitheatre, and is thereby at the feet of the most advanced of the spectators. Po… MeyerMEYER (IL R.). Funft. Berieht d. Offenbach Verein, 1864, p. 68. MILNE-EDWARDS (Alphonse), Compt. Rend., 1870, lxx. p. 341 ; Nouv. Arch. Mus., BulL vi. p. 7, pl. 1; Recherches pour Senir it FIIIstoire Nat. des Mammiferes. Mr/ART (St George). Pro. Zool. Soc., 1565, p. 43; 1865, p. 545; 1873, p. 500; Trans. Zool. Soc., vol. vi. p. 175 ; Philosophical Transactions, 1867, p. 299 ; Nan and Apes, 1873. 3… MouldingMOULDING (Lat. modulus, Ital. modanatura, Fr. mold-21re, Ger. Sims/ark). When any work is wrought into long regular channels or projections, forming curves or rounds, hollows, &e., it is said to be moulded, and each separate member is called a moulding. In mediaeval architecture the principal mouldings are those of the arches, doors, windows, piers, &c. The remains of Saxon work are so few, that w… ObelisksOBELISKS. - The obelisks of Egypt are generally huge monoliths of red granite or syenite. Their use originated, no doubt, in the custom of setting up stones to commemorate particular events. The Egyptians embellished these stones, first, by working them to a fine face, and afterwards by covering them with carvings. They stand frequently in pairs before the propylon of the temples, as at Karnak and… Otoy EaOTOY EA '4v 67vcrt Trarlip aPapCZY TE OEWY TE." Such was Homer's astrology. But as, in course of time, each superior race in turn degenerated through the effects of conquest, either by mixing with inferior races, or by oppressing their equals (thus, for instance, the Lacedmmonians mixed with the Messenians or Helots, and thus the primitive Aryans oppressed the Dravidian tribes), as each race passe… PanelPANEL (Fr. panneau, ,Ital. quadretto, formello, Ger. Feld), properly the piece of wood framed within the styles and rails of a door, filling up the aperture, but often applied both to the whole square frame and the sinking itself ? also to the ranges of sunken compartments in cornices, corbel tables, groined vaults, ceilings, he. In Norman work these recesses are generally shallow, and more of the… ParapetPARAPET (from the Italian porapetto, something which comes against the breast, i.e., to lean against, Fr. parapet, Ger. PhysicalPHYSICAL AsrEcrs. - Assam is a fertile series of valleys, with the great channel of the Brahmaputra (literally-, the Sort of Brahnui) flowing down its middle, and an infinite number of tributaries and water-courses pouring into it from the mountains on either side. The Brahmaputra spreads out in a sheet of water several miles broad during the rainy season, and in its course through Assam forms a n… PilastersPILASTERS. - These are employed in all ages, though they do not always accord with the order of the columns. PillarPILLAR, or Beaaatt (Fr. pilier, Ital. pilastro, colonna, Ger. Pfeiler), a word generally used to express the round or polygonal piers or those surrounded with clustered columns, which early the main arches of a building. Saxon and early Norman pillars are generally stout cylindrical shafts built up of small stones. Sometimes, however, they are quite square, sometimes with other squares breaking ou… PinnaclePINNACLE (Fr. pinacle, PlOiS07?, Ital. pinaeolo, - literally a little feather - Ger. Pinnakyl), an ornament originally forming the cap or crown of a buttress or small turret, but afterwards used on parapets at the corners of towers and in many other situations. Some writers have stated there were no Norman pinnacles ; but conical caps to circular buttresses, with a sort of finial, are not uncommon… PortcullisPORTCULLIS (M. Let. cataracta, Fr. hem, coulisse, Ital. saracinesea, Cer. Fallgatter), a strong-framed grating of oak, the lower points shod with iron, and sometimes entirely made of metal, hung so as to slide up and down in grooves with counterbalances, and intended to protect the gateways of castles, &c. The defenders having opened the gates and lowered the portcullis, could send arrows and dart… Post And PanePOST AND PANE Wona, a name given to the carpentry framing of old wooden houses, panne in old French signifying any liori? zontal piece of timber, as a head, sill, or purlin, though its use now is confined to the latter, sills and plates at present being called sablieres . Where timber was abundant, and stone scarce structed of small oak trees, 6 or 7 inches square, roughly trimmed by the axe ; the… Preservation Of SpidersPRESERVATION OF SPIDERS. - Beautiful as are the colours and markings of numbers of spiders, especially of those found in the tropics, and elegant and curious as are many of their forms and structures, it has yet been found a matter of difficulty to make them good-looking, sightly, cabinet objects. By ordinary care and skilful manipulation, however, most of them can be preserved and displayed very … Private DwellingsPRIVATE DWELLINGS. - Of these little is known, except from paintings found in the tombs. One noted ruin at alIedinet Haboo has, indeed, been supposed to be that of a palace ; but one of the latest authorities, M. Mariette, throws doubt on this, considering that it was erected partly for defence and partly as a triumphal monument. The ordinary dwellings seem, like the houses in the Labyrinth, to ha… PulpitPULPIT (Fr. ehaire de lYglise, Ital. pulpito, Ger. Kanzel), a raised platform with enclosed front, whence sermons, homilies, &c., were delivered. Pulpits were probably derived in their modern form from the ambones in the early Christian church. There are many old pulpits of stone, though the majority are of wood. Those in churches are generally hexagonal or octagonal ; and some stand on stone base… Rood-loft, Rood-screen, Rood-13eamROOD-LOFT, ROOD-SCREEN, ROOD-13EAM, JURE GALLERY, &C., the arrangement to carry the crucifix or rood, and to screen off the chancel from the rest of the church during the breviary services, and as a place whence to read certain parts of those services. (See Juan?...) Sometimes the crucifix is carried simply on a strong transverse beam, with or without a low screen, with folding-doors below hut for… SandiforthSANDIFORTH (G.). Ontleedkundige Beaehryving van een Volwassen Orangand phalangers ; the canines and premolars of Canis and Thylacinia; the grinders of Peromeles and Urotrichus; the external form and habit of body of Mots, Sorex, and Antechinus; and the peculiar dorsal shields in tortoises and certain frogs. But if some naturalists are disposed to admit that the common origin of the Cebidce and Sim… SchmidtSCHMIDT. ScreenSCREEN, any construction subdividing one part of a building from another - as a choir, chantry, chapel, &c. SlackSLACK. Pro. Acad. N. Sc. Phil., 1861, pp. 24, 463; 1862, p. 507; 1867, p. 34. Srix (J. B.). Simiarnm et Vespertilionum Brazil. Sp. Norm; Denkschr. I. li. Akad. d. W166. no Thinellen, 1813, Math.-phys. Cl., p. 321; Ibid., 1818, p. 607 ; Fror. Not., voL (1824), p. 196. SwcenOE. P. Z. S., 1062, p. 350, pl. 42; Tama (F.). Arteries. 31 tiller's Archly. of Anat., 1852, p. 419. TIEDEMAKN (F.). Ieones Cer… SpanishSPANISH Aran% Spain, once the proudest of nations, has been brought so low by years of misrule and anarchy that she can scarcely now be classed among the powers of Europe; and the army which under Charles V., the Duke of Alba, and the Constable of Bourbon had proved itself so formidable, has been reduced to a state of disorganisation that makes any detailed notice of it impossible. The martial spi… SpireSPIRE (Fr. aiguillc, peke, hats gnglio, Ger. Spitze), a sharply- pointed pyramid or large pinnacle, generally octagonal in England, and forming a finish to the tolls of towers. In this country, in Norman times, the only attempt at anything like a spire consisted in the termination of some turrets, as those at Rochester, at St Peter's, Oxford, he.; but these are rather PINNACLES (which see) than sp… StageSTAGE, an elevated door, particularly the various stories of a bell-tower, Sc. The term is also applied to the plain parts of buttresses between cap and cap where they set back, or where they are divided by horizontal strings and panelling. It is used, too, by 1Villiam of Worcester to describe the compartments of windows between transom and transom, in contradistinction to the word bay, which sign… StatuesSTATUES. - Connected with the temples, and forming an important part of their decorative features, were gigantic portions. Stephen EvoidiusSTEPHEN EVOIDIUS, nephew of Joseph Simon and Joseph Aloysius, was the chief assistant of his uncle Joseph Simon in his work in the Vatican Library. He was titular archbishop of Apamea in Syria, and held several rich pre- bends in Italy. His literary labours were very extensive. His two most important works were a description of certain valuable MSS. in his Bibliothecce Mediceo-Laurentiance et Pala… TabernacleTABERNACLE, a species of niche or recess in which an image may be placed. In Norman work there are but few remains, and these generally over doorways. They are shallow and comparatively plain, and the figures are often only in low relief, and not detached statues. In Early English work they are deeper, and instead of simple arches there is often a canopy over the figure, which was placed on a smal… TemplesTEMPLES. - The Egyptian temples range from the time that Thebes became the capital (about 2000 B.c.) down to the time of the Cmsars. Of all the temples, the most remarkable is perhaps the rock-cut one of Aboosimbel, in Nubia, supposed to have been excavated in the 14th century B. C. The facade was cut in the steep face of a rock, the entrance doorway being flanked by two gigantic statues (66 feet … The Argentine RepublicTHE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC comprises the greater part of what was formerly.the Spanish viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. On the separation of the country from Spain the remainder of the viceroyalty seceded from the authority of the government established at Buenos Ayres, and formed the three important republics of Bolivia, Paraguay, and the Banda Oriental del Uruguay, commonly called either the Oriental Re… TiieatresTIIEATRES. - The Greek theatre deserves a short notice. It was entirely different from ours, having neither pit, boxes, nor roof, except the usual velarium, as a protection from the sun. Its plan was somewhat more than a semicircle, having seats cut out of the side of some hill convenient for the purpose. Round the top was a colonnade, and at the back of the stage was the scena. This and the colon… TombsTOMBS. - The great reverence paid by the Egyptians to the bodies of their ancestors, and their careful preservation of them by embalmment, necessitated a great number and vast extent of tombs. Some of these, erected long after the building of pyramids had ceased, are built up above ground; others are caves cut in the sides of rocks; others are passages tunnelled under ground to a great extent. The… TowerTOWER (Gr. fle)p-yos, Lat. turris, Fr. tour, clocker, Ital. torre, Ger. Therm), an elevated building originally designed for purposes of defence. Those buildings are of the remotest antiquity, and are, indeed, mentioned in the earliest Scriptures. In medieval times they are generally attached to churches, to cemeteries, to castles, or are used as bell-towers in public places of large cities. In ch… TraceryTRACERY, the ornamental filling in of the heads of windows, panels, circular windows, Re., which has given such characteristic beauty to the architecture of the 14th century. Like almost everything connected with mediaeval architecture, this elegant and sometimes fairy-like decoration seems to have sprung from the smallest beginnings. The circular-headed window of the Normans gradually gave way to… TysonTYSON (E.). Varieties Of SoilsVARIETIES OF SOILS. - The soil is exceedingly rich and well adapted to all kinds of agricultural purposes, and for the most part is composed of a rich black loam reposing on a gray sandy clay, though occasionally it exhibits a light yellow clayey texture. The land may be divided into three great classes. The first division is composed of hills, the largest group within the valley being that of the… Vegetable ProductsVEGETABLE PRODUCTS : TEA. - The most important article of commerce produced in Assam is tea. The rice crop covers a very great proportion of the cultivated land, but it is used for local consumption. The tea plantations occupy only a very small area, but they are the one great source of wealth to the province, and the necessities of tea cultivation are the chief stimulants to the development of As… Zoological Position And Affinities Of ApesZOOLOGICAL POSITION AND AFFINITIES OF APES. and Lophionzys ; the compound tooth structure of Orycteropus and Myliobati ; the coexistence of a certain form of By universal consent apes are placed in the highest rank dentition with a saltatorrhabit iry Macropus and 31-acroseeof all brutes, and, excepting man, are generally taken to lides; the presence of bat eight carpal bones in Troglodytes and Indris; the course of the vertebral artery in Auehenia and Hyrntecophaga; the flying membrane in certainsquirrels Madagascar is the special home of the half-apes or lemurs.
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