|
| |
Volume 3 [ATH-BOI]: Aitdran to Balzac | |
MenuContact & About
|
Aitdran, JeanAITDRAN, JEAN, nephew of Gerard, was born at Lyons in 1667. AlphabetALPHABET, vol. i. p. 613), such as the Russian. In these a modified form, in which only the top of the upper loop appears, stands as the second letter, with the value of the original sound b; whilst the old symbol B comes third with the phonetic value v or w. In Egypt this letter was originally a hieroglyph for a crane, and afterwards represented also the sound b. The symbol and its phonetic value… AthensATHENS, the name of several towns in the United States of America, the chief of which are the following :(1.) The capital of a county of the same name in the S.E. of the state of Ohio, finely situated on the Hocking River. AthensATHENS ('Aqvac, A THEN/E) was the name of as many as nine towns in various parts of the Grecian world, among which Athence Diades, in the N.W. of Eubcea, a town belonging to the Athenian confederation, is worthy of mention. But it was the capital of Attica which invested the name of Athens with an undying charm for the poet, the artist, the philosopher, the historian, for all time. It is situated … Atherton, Or CiiowbentATHERTON, or CIIOWBENT, a township in the parish of Leigh and hundred of West Derby, in Lancashire, 200 miles from London. Athias, JosephATHIAS, JOSEPH, a celebrated rabbi and printer at Amsterdam, whose editions of the Hebrew Bible are noted for the general correctness of the text. Athletic SportsATHLETIC SPORTS. Although this term is undoubtedly derived from the ancient (18A7rat, the derivation does not exactly indicate its present meaning, inasmuch as our modern athletes are distinctly defined to be amateurs, in contradistinction to professionals. In fact, the former pursue the agonistic art, and should be styled " agonistics," if we may be allowed to invent such a word, rather than athl… AthloneATHLONE, a market-town and parliamentary borough of Ireland, lying partly in West Meath and partly in Roscommon, 76 miles W. of Dublin. The River Shannon divides the town into two portions, which are connected by a handsome new bridge, opened in 1844. The rapids of the Shannon at this point are obviated by means of a canal about a mile long, which renders the navigation of the river practicable fo… Athor, Athyr, HatuorATHOR, ATHYR, HATUOR, the name of the Egyptian divinity corresponding to Aphrodite or Venus. Her name meant " the abode of Hor " or Horns, and she was the mother of that deity in some of his types, and as such a form of Isis, of whom she was a higher or celestial manifestation. Her name occurs as early as the 4th dynasty, when she is styled the mistress of the tree, or sycamore, ne/ia, or the tree… AthosATHOS is, strictly speaking, the terminal peak of the most eastern of the three peninsular promontories which stretch south from the coast of Turkey (Macedonia), like the prongs of a trident, into the Archipelago. The name is, however, frequently extended to the whole peninsula which was formerly known as Acte. The peak rises like a pyramid, with a steep summit of white marble, to a height of 6780… AtiiletjeATIILETJE (40Xnrai.), amono. the Greeks and Romans, was the designation of persons who contended for prizes (3.0Xa) in the public games, exclusive of musical and other contests, where bodily strength was not called into play, though here also the word was sometimes applied, and it was even extended to horses which had won a race, and again metaphorically, e.g., to persons who had exerted themselve… Atlantis, AtalaATLANTIS, ATALA.NrIS, or ATLANTICA, an island mentioned by Plato and other classical writers, concerning the real existence of which many disputes have been raised. In the Tiinceus, Critias relates how his grandfather Critias had been told by Solon some remarkable events in early Athenian history which he had learned from the Egyptian priests at Sais, whose records went much further back than the … AtlasATLAS CATAas), in Greek Mythology, called sometimes a son of Japetus and the nymph Asia, or of Uranus and Gaia, and at other times traced to a different parentage, but always known as the being who supported on his shoulders the pillars on which the sky rested. He knew the depths of the sea (Odyssey, vii. 245), and in the first instance seems to have been a marine creation. The pillars which he su… AtlasATLAS, a mountain-chain of Northern Africa, between the great desert of the Sahara and the Mediterranean. The range has been but partially explored, and geographers differ as to its extent, some considering it to reach from Cape Ghir on the Atlantic to Cape Bon, the north-east point of Tunis, while others include under the name the whole mountain system between Cape Nun and the greater Syrtis. In … AtmosphereATMOSPHERE is the name applied to the invisible elastic envelope which surrounds the earth, the gaseous matter of which it is composed being usually distinguished by the name of air. Storms and weather generally, solar and terrestrial radiation, the disintegration of rocks, animal and vegetable life, twilight, and the propagation of sound, are some of the more striking phenomena which are either t… Atmospheric RailwayATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY, a railway in which the pressure of air is used directly or indirectly to propel carriages, as a substitute for steam. It was devised at a time when the principles of propulsion were not so well understood as they are now, and when the dangers and inconveniences attendant on the use of locomotives were very much exaggerated. It had been long known that small objects could be pr… AtomATOM, supra, p. 46. Sir William Thomson= has shown that if we suppose all space filled with a uniform incompressible fluid, and if we further suppose either that material bodies are always generating and emitting this fluid at a constant rate, the fluid flowing off to infinity, or that material bodies are always absorbing and annihilating the fluid, the deficiency flowing in from infinite space, t… AtomATOM (ciTopios) is a body which cannot be cut in two. The atomic theory is a theory of the constitution of bodies, which asserts that they are made up of atoms. The opposite theory is that of the homogeneity and continuity of bodies, and asserts, at least in the case of bodies having no apparent organisation, such, for instance, as water, that as we can divide a drop of water into two parts which … AtooiATOOI, one of the larger Sandwich Islands, in the North Pacific Ocean. AtratoATRATO, a river of Colombia, South 'America, which, after a course of 250 miles, almost due N., for the most part through a low and swampy region, falls into the Gulf of Uraba or Darien. AtreusATREUS, in Greek Legend, a son of Pelops, had, with his brother Thyestes, settled in AIyceum, where he succeeded Eurystheus in the sovereignty, in which he was secured by the possession of a lamb or ram with a golden fleece. Atri Or AtriaATRI or ATRIA, the ancient Hadria, a town of Naples, in the province of Abruzzo Ulteriore I., situated on a steep mountain 5 miles from the Adriatic, and 18 miles S.E. of Teramo. AtriumATRIUM, in Ecclesiastical Antiquities, denotes an open place or court before a church. AtriumATRIUM, the principal apartment in a Roman house, was entered through the odium or janua, which opened off the vestibulum, a clear space between the middle of the house and the street, formed by the projection of the two sides. It was generally quadrangular in shape, and was roofed all over, with the exception of a square opening, called compluvium, towards which the roofs sloped, and by which the… AtrophyATROPHY (a priv., rpocb, nourishment), a term in medicine used to describe a state of wasting due to some interference with the function of healthy nutrition. In the living organism there are ever at work changes involving the waste of its component tissues, which render necessary, in order to the preservation of life, the supply and proper assimilation of nutritive material. It is also essential … AtroposATROPOS (a priv., and Tp&av, to turn), the eldest of the three Moirai, Parca, or Fates. AttachmentATTACHMENT, in English Law, is a process from a court of record, awarded by the justices at their discretion, on a bare suggestion, or on their own knowledge, and is properly grantable in cases of contempt. It differs from arrest, in that he who arrests a man carries him to a person of higher power to be forthwith disposed of ; but he that attaches keeps the party attached, and presents him in cou… Attachment, ForeignATTACHMENT, FOREIGN, is an important custom prevailing in the city of London, whereby a creditor may attach money owing to his debtor, or property belonging to him in the possession of third parties. The person holding the property or owing the money must be within the city at the time of being served with the process, but all persons are entitled to the benefit of the custom. The plaintiff having… Attachment Op DebtsATTACHMENT OP DEBTS. - It was suggested by the common law commissioners in 1853 that a remedy analogous to that of Foreign Attachment might be made available to creditors, after judgment, against debts due to their debtors. Accordingly, the Common Law Procedure Act, 1854, enacted that any creditor, having obtained judgment in the superior courts, should have an order that the judgment debtor might… Attachment Out Of ChanceryATTACHMENT OUT OF CHANCERY enforced answers and obedience to decrees and orders of that court, now merged in the High Court of Justice under the Judicature Act, 1873, and was made out without order upon an affidavit of the due service of the process, &c., with whose requirements compliance was sought. A corporation, however, is proceeded against by distringas and not by attachment. It was formerly… AttainderATTAINDER, in the Law of England, was the immediate and inseparable consequence from the common law upon the sentence of death. When it was clear beyond all dispute that the criminal was no longer fit to live, he was called attaint, attinctus, stained or blackened, and could not, before the 6 and 7 Vict. c. 85, ? 1, be a witness in any court. This attainder took place after judgment of death, or u… AttentionATTENTION, in Psychology, may be defined as the concentration of consciousness, or the direction of mental energy upon a definite object or objects. By means of it we either bring within the circle of our conscious life perceptions and ideas which would not otherwise have risen from their obscurity, or render clearer and more distinct some of those already under notice. Its mode of operation and t… Atterbom, Per Daniel AmadeusATTERBOM, PER DANIEL AMADEUS, a Swedish poet, was born in Ostergothland in 1790, studied in the University of Upsala from 1805 to 1815, became Professor of Philosophy there in 1828, and died in 1855. He was the leader in the great romantic movement which revolutionised Swedish literature. In 1807, when in his 17th year, he founded at Upsala an artistic society, called the Aurora League, the member… Atterbury, FrancisATTERBURY, FRANCIS, a man who holds a conspicuous place in the political, ecclesiastical, and literary history of England, was born in the year 1662, at Middleton in Buckinghamshire, a parish of which his father was rector. Francis was educated at Westminster School, and carried thence to Christ Church a stock of learning which, though really scanty, he through life exhibited with such judicious o… At Tgereau, Pierre Francois CuarlesAT_TGEREAU, PIERRE FRANCOIS CUARLES, Duke of Castiglione, was the son of obscure parents, and born in 1757. After serving for a short period in the armies of France, he entered the Neapolitan service, and for some time supported himself by teaching fencing at Naples. In 1792 he joined the Republican army that watched the movements of Spain. He rose rapidly to the rank of brigadier-general, and com… AtticaATTICA, the most famous district of ancient Greece, is a triangular piece of ground projecting in a south-easterly direction into the .tEgean Sea, the base line being formed by the continuous chain of Mounts Cithaeron and Parnes, the apex by the promontory of Sunium. It is washed on two sides by the sea, and this feature seems to have given rise to the name; for, notwithstanding the unusual lette… Atticus Herodes, Tiberius ClaudiusATTICUS HERODES, TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS, a very wealthy citizen of Athens, was born about 104 A.D. His grandfather's estates had been confiscated for treachery, but the fortunes of the family had been restored by the discovery in his father's house of an enormous sum of money, which the Emperor Nerva, permitted them to retain. This great wealth Herodes afterwards increased by his marriage. He received … Atticus, TitusATTICUS, TITUS Pomroxrus, the friend of Cicero, was one of the most distinguished men during the period of the decline and fall of the Roman republic. His life gives an admirable picture of the classical man of culture, who, withdrawing from the stir of political affairs, devoted himself to literary and artistic pursuits. He was born at Rome 109 B.C., and was thus three years older than Cicero, al… Attila, Or EtzelATTILA, or ETZEL, the famous leader of the Huns, surnamed the " Fear of the World," or the " Scourge of God," was born probably about 406 A.D. His father Mundzuk, king of the Huns, was succeeded by his brothers Octar and Rhuas ; and on the death of Minas, in 434, Attila and his brother Bleda together ascended the throne. They ruled not only over the Huns, but over nearly all the tribes north of th… AttockATTOCK, a town and fort of British India, in the Panjab, situated on the eastern bank of the Indus, in 33? ? 54' N. lat., and 72? 20' E. long. The place is both of political and commercial importance, as the Indus is here crossed by the military and trade route through the Khaibar Pass into Afghanistan. Alexander the Great, Tamerlane. and Nadir Shah, are believed to have successively crossed the I… AttorneyATTORNEY, in English Law, signifies, in its widest sense, any substitute or agent appointed to act in " the turn, stead, or place of another." The term is now commonly confined to a class of qualified agents who undertake the conduct of legal proceedings for their clients. By the common law the actual presence of the parties to a suit was considered indispensable, but the privilege of appearing by… Attorney-generalATTORNEY-GENERAL, the chief law officer appointed to manage all the legal affairs and suits in which the Crown is interested. He is appointed by patent, authorising him to hold office during the Queen's pleasure. He is ex ofrio the leader of the bar, and only counsel of the highest eminence are appointed to the office. The royal mandate of 14th December 1814 gives him precedence in all the courts,… AttractionATTRACTION. That the different parts of a material system influence each other's motions is a matter of daily observation. In some cases we cannot discover any material connection extending the one body to the other. We call these cases of action at a distance, to distinguish them from those in which we can trace a continuous material bond of union between the bodies. The mutual action between two… Attwood, ThomasATTWOOD, THOMAS, musical composer, was born in London in 1767. As one of the boy choristers in the chapel royal he received his early instruction in music from Nares and Ayrton. In 1783 he was sent to study abroad at the expense of the Prince of Wales, who had been favourably impressed by his skill as a performer on the harpsichord. After spending two years at Naples, Attwood proceeded to Vienna, … Atwood, GeorgeATWOOD, GEORGE, an author celebrated for the accuracy of his mathematical and mechanical investigations, and considered particularly happy in the clearness of his explanations, and the elegance of his experimental illustrations, was born in the early part of the year 1746. He was educated at Westminster school, to which he was admitted in 1759. Six years afterwards he was elected of to Trinity Col… Atys, Attis, Or AttesATYS, ATTIS, or ATTES, in the Phrygian and _Lydian Mythology, a youth beloved for his beauty by the goddess Rhea, there called Agdistis. Like Adonis, he was a personification of the changes in nature, from the beauty of spring and summer to the severity and darkness of winter. The story, as told at Pessinus, the centre of the worship of the goddess, was that she had born to Zeus a being both male … AubeAUBE, a department of France, bounded on the N. by the department of Marne, N.W. by Seine-et-Marne, Ti. by Yonne, S. by Cote-cl'Or, and E. by Haute-Marne. It consists of a portion of Champagne and Vallage, with a small part of Burgundy, and has an area of 2317 square miles. Its general inclination from S.E. to N.W. presents little variety of surface, the only elevations being a double line of hill… AubenasAUBENAS, a town of France, department of Ardeche, near the river of that name, 14 miles S.W. of Privas. Auber, DanielAUBER, DANIEL Fri.A2,.;cots Err.vr, musical composer, the chief representative of the French school, was the son of a Paris printseller. He was born at Caen, in Normandy, on the 29th January 1782, while his mother was on a visit to that town. Destined by his father to the pursuits of trade, he was allowed, nevertheless, to indulge his fondness for music, and learnt to play at an early age on sever… AubinAUBIN, a town of France, in the department of Aveyron and arrondissement of Villefranche, principally remarkable for its extensive mines of coal, sulphur, and alum. AuburnAUBURN, the capital of Cayuga county, in the state of New York, on the railway between Albany and Buffalo, 174 miles W. of the former. The irregularity of the surface on which the city is built has prevented the complete carrying out of the rectangular arrangement of streets, which is so much in favour in the United States, but the thoroughfares are wide and lined with trees, and the houses for th… AubussonAUBUSSON, a town of France, situated in a picturesque valley on the banks of the Creuse, in the department to which that river gives its name. AuchAUCH, the ancient Climber-rum or Augusta Auscorum, one of the most ancient cities of France, capital of the department of Gers. In Cmsar's time this was the chief town of the Ausci. In the 8th century it became the capital of Gascony; and when that district was divided into countships, was the capital of Armagnac. The site of the modern town does not exactly coincide with that of the ancient, bein… AuchterarderAUCHTERARDER, a town and parish of Scotland, county of Perth, 15 miles W.S.W. of Perth. AucklandAUCKLAND, a province of New Zealand, consisting of the northern portion of North Island, and bounded for the most part on the S. by the 39th parallel of latitude. In the N.W. it runs out into a peninsula between 200 and 300 miles in length, with a very irregular coast-line, especially on the eastern side. The total area of the province is about 17,000,000 acres, of which nearly 11,275,000 are stil… AucklandAUCKLAND, WILLIAm EDEN, BARON, an eminent diplomatist and politician, third son of Sir Robert Eden, Bart., of West Auckland, was born in 1744. He was educated at Eton and Oxford, and adopted the profession of the law. At the age of twenty-seven he resigned his practice at the bar, and engaged in political life as under-secretary to Lord Suffolk. By the favour of the duke of Marlborough, he obtaine… Auckland, George EdenAUCKLAND, GEORGE EDEN, EARL OF, Governor-General of India, born 20th August 1784, was the second son of the subject of the preceding notice. He completed his education at Oxford, and was admitted to the bar in 1809. His elder brother was drowned in the Thames in the following year ; and in 1814, on the death of his father, he took his seat in the House of Lords as Baron Auckland. He supported the … Auckland IslandsAUCKLAND ISLANDS, a group discovered in 1806 by Captain Briscoe, of the English whaler " Ocean," about 180 miles S. of New Zealand, in lat. 50? 24', long. 166? 7' E. AuctionAUCTION, a mode of selling property by offering it to the highest bidder in a public competition. By 8 Viet. c. 15, the uniform duty of ?10 per annum is imposed on every licence to carry on the business of auctioneer, but duties on sales by auction are abolished. It is the duty of an auctioneer to sell for the best price he can obtain, and his authority cannot be delegated to another unless by spe… AudeAUDE, a southern department of France, forming part of the old province of Languedoc, bounded on the E. by the Mediterranean, N. by the departments of Herault and Tarn, N.W. by Upper Garonne, W. by Ariege, and S. by that of Eastern Pyrenees. It lies between lat. 42' 40' and 34' 30' N., and is 80 miles in length from E. to W., and 60 miles in breadth from N. to S. Area, 2341 square miles. The depar… Audebert, Jean BaptisteAUDEBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE, a distinguished French naturalist and artist, was born at Rochefort in 1759. He studied painting and drawing at Paris, and gained considerable reputation as a miniature painter. In 1787 he was employed to make drawings of some objects in a natural history collection, and was also a contributor in the preparation of the plates for Olivier's Ilistoire des Insectes. He thus a… AuditorAUDITOR, a person appointed to examine the accounts kept by the financial officers of the Crown, public corporations, or private persons, and to certify as to their accuracy. The multifarious statutes regulating the audit of public accounts have been superseded by the 29 and 30 Viet. c. 39, which gives power to the Queen to appoint a "comptroller and auditor-general," with the requisite staff to e… Audjeus, Or AudiltsAUDJEUS, or AUDILTS, a reformer of the 4th century, by birth a Mesopotamian. Audouin, Jean VictorAUDOUIN, JEAN VICTOR, a distinguished French entomologist, was born at Paris, April 27, 1797. He began the study of law, but was diverted from it by his strong predilection for natural history, which subsequently led him to enter the medical profession. In 1824 he was appointed assistant to Latreille in the entomological chair at the Paris museum of natural history, and succeeded him in 1833. He e… AudraAUDRA.N, the name of a family of French artists and engravers, who for several generations were distinguished in the same line. AudranAUDRAN, Orl.RARD, or GIRARD, the most celebrated French engraver, was the third son of Claude Audran, and was born at Lyons in 1640. He was taught the first principles of design and engraving by his father ; and, following the example of his brother, went to Paris to perfect himself in his art. He there, in 1666, engraved for Le Brun Constantine's Battle with Maxentius, his Triumph, and the Stonin… Audubon, John JamesAUDUBON, JOHN JAMES, a well-known naturalist, was born in 1781 in Louisiana, where his parents, who were French Protestants, had taken up their residence while it was still a Spanish colony. They afterwards settled in Pennsylvania. From his early years he had a passion for observing the habits and appearances of birds, and attempting delineations of them from nature. At the age of fifteen he was s… AugeiasAUGEIAS (AL-yetes, A44as, cf. iXt.ov airy;;), in Greek Legend, a son of Helios, the sun. AugsburgAUGSBURG, a celebrated city of Germany, capital of the circle of Swabia and Neuburg in Bavaria, the principal seat of the commerce of South Germany, and of commercial transactions with the south of Europe. It derives its name from the Roman Emperor Augustus, who, on the conquest of Rhaetia by Drusus, established a Roman colony named Augusta rindelicorum (about 14 B.c.) In the 5th century it was sa… AugursAUGURS, in Roman Antiquities, a college or board appointed to interpret, according to the books (libri augurales) in which the science of divination was laid down, the auspicia or signs of approval or disapproval sent by Jupiter on the occasion of any public transaction. At first, it is said, there were only two augurs, one from each of the tribes Ramnes and Tities. Two more were added by Numa, an… AugustAUGUST, originally Sextilis, as being the sixth month in the pre-Julian Roman year, received its present name from the Emperor Augustus. AugustaAUGUSTA, a city of Georgia, in the United States of America, the capital of the county of Richmond. It is situated in a beautiful plain, on the Savannah River, 231 miles from its mouth, and has extensive railway communication. Like other American cities it is spacious and regular in its plan, Greene Street, for example, being 168 feet in width, with a row of trees extending along each side. The pr… AugustaAUGUSTA, the capital of the State of Maine, and seat of justice, is situated on the Kennebec River (in Kennebec county), 43 miles from its mouth, in lat. 44? 19' N., long. 69? 50 W. Augustan HistoryAUGUSTAN HISTORY is the title bestowed upon a collection of the biographies of the Roman emperors, from Hadrian to Carinus, written under Diocletian and ConstanIII. - so tine, and usually regarded as the composition of six authors,----YElius Spartianus, Julius Capitolinus, 2Elius Lampridius, Vulcatius Gallicanus, Trebellius Pollio, and Flavius Vopiscus. Upon investigation, however, there appears g… Augusti, John Christian WilliamAUGUSTI, JOHN CHRISTIAN WILLIAM, a distinguished German theologian, was born at Eschenberga, near Gotha, in 1772. He was of Jewish descent, his grandfather having been a rabbi who had been converted to the Christian faith. His early education he received partly from Moller, pastor of Gierstdt, who introduced him to the study of Hebrew, and partly at the gymnasium at Gotha. He then proceeded to the… AugustineAUGUSTINE (AURELIUS A UGUSTINUS), one of the four great fathers of the Latin Church, and admittedly the greatest of the four, more profound than Ambrose, his spiritual father, more original and systematic than Jerome, his contemporary and correspondent, and intellectually far more distinguished than Gregory the Great, the last of the series. The theological position and influence of Augustine may … Augustine, Or AustinAUGUSTINE, or AUSTIN, ST, the first archbishop of Canterbury, was originally a monk in the Benedictine convent of St Andrew at Rome, and was educated under the famous Gregory, afterwards Pope Grege..y I., by whom he was sent to Britain with forty monks of the same order, to carry out the favourite project of converting the English to Christianity. The missionaries set out with much reluctance, for… AugustovoAUGUSTOVO, a city iu Russian Poland, in the government of Suvalki, situated on the river Netta, near a lake, which abounds iu fish. Augustus And The August An AgeAUGUSTUS AND THE AUGUST AN AGE, The name of Augustus was the title of honour given by the Romans to the emperor Caius Julius Cusar Oetavianus, or, as he was originally designated, Caius Octavius. This title was intended to be hereditary in his family, but all the succeeding Csars or emperors of Rome continued to adopt it, long after they had ceased to be connected with the first Augustus by blood.… Augustus IiAUGUSTUS II. (also, and more accurately, designated FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I.), Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, second son of John George III. of Saxony, was born at Dresden, 12th May 1670. His personal beauty was remarkable, and from his great physical strength he received the surname of The Strong, by which he is commonly distinguished. He was very carefully educated, and spent several years t… Augustus IiiAUGUSTUS III., or FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II., Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, only legitimate son of Augustus the Strong, was born at Dresden, 7th October 1696. He was brought up in the Protestant faith, but in 1712, while on his travels, he entered the Church of Rome, though his change of opinion was not publicly known till 1717. In 1733 he succeeded his father as elector of Saxony, and put for… Aulic CouncilAULIC COUNCIL (from the Latin aulu, a hall, in German, 1?eichshofrath), one of the two supreme courts of the old Germanic empire, the other being the imperial chamber (Reickskammergericht). It was called into existence in 1501 by the Emperor Maximilian, and was by him intended to counterbalance the influence of the imperial chamber, which he had been compelled to form by the states six years befor… AulisAULIS, a town in Bceotia, supposed to have been situated on a rocky peninsula between two bays, about three miles S. of Chalcis. AumaleAUMALE, formerly ALBEMARLE, from the Latin Alba Marla, a town of France, in the department of Seine Inferieure, on the banks of the Bresle, 35 miles N.E. of Rouen. Aungervyle, RichardAUNGERVYLE, RICHARD, commonly known by the name of Richard de Bury, was born in 1281, at Bury St Edmund's in Suffolk, and educated at the university of Oxford. He entered the order of Benedictine monks, but was shortly afterwards appointed tutor to the prince of Wales. On the accession of his pupil to the throne as Edward III., he was promoted to various offices of dignity, and was finally made bi… AurayAURAY, a small town of France, situated on the slope of a hill near the mouth of the river of the same name, in the department of Morbihan, 10 miles W. of Vannes. AurelianusAURELIANUS, C.Emus, a celebrated Latin physician, born probably at Sicca in Numidia, but regarding whose life scarcely anything is known. The very date at which lie flourished is quite uncertain. In his books he refers frequently to Soranus, and does not mention Galen, from which it has been inferred that he lived at a period intermediate between these two writers, i.e., during the 2d century A.D.… Aurelius AntonlnusAURELIUS ANTONLNUS, MARcus, the noblest of pagans, the crown and flower of Stoicism, was born at Rome 121 A.D., the date of his birth being variously stated as the 21st and the 26th April. His original name was Marcus Annius Verus. His father, Annius Verus, died while he was praetor ; his mother, who survived her husband, was Domitia Calvilla or Lucilla. By both his parents he was of noble blood, … Aureola, AureoleAUREOLA, AUREOLE, the radiance or luminous cloud which, in paintings of sacred personages, is represented as surrounding the whole figure. AurichAURICH, a town of Prussia, in the province of Hanover, situated on the Trecktief canal. AurifaberAURIFABER (the Latinised form of the name GOLDSCF131IDT), JOANXES, a Lutheran divine, celebrated as the III. - ra friend of Luther and as one of the editors of his works, was born in 1519 in the county of Mansfeldt, or, more probably, in the town of Weimar. After completing his education at the university of Wittenberg, where he heard the lectures of Luther, he became tutor to Count Mansfeldt, and… Aurifaber, JoannesAURIFABER, JOANNES, a Lutheran divine, born at Breslau in 1517. Aurora PolarisAURORA POLARIS, Atutonl BOREALIS and AUSTR1LIS, POLAR LIGHT, NORTHERN LIGHTS, or STREAMERS, an electrical meteor, appearing most frequently in high latitudes, in the form of luminous clouds, arches, and rays, of which the latter sometimes meet at a point near the zenith, and form what is called a boreal crown. The arches are sometimes single ; sometimes several concentric ones are seen, and they a… Aurungabad, Or AuraAURUNGABAD, or AURA.NG.ABA 13, a city of India, in the native state of Haidarabad, or the Nizam's dominions, situated in 19? 51' N. lat., and 75? 21' E. long., 138 miles from PiIna, 207 from Bombay via Mina, and 270 from Haidarabad. It was founded about the year 1620, under the name of Gurka, by Malik Ambar, an Abyssinian, who had risen from the condition of a slave to great influence. Subsequentl… AurungzebeAURUNGZEBE, one of the greatest of the Moghul emperors of Hindustan, was the third son of Shah Jeltan, and was born in October 1618. His original name, Mahomet, was changed by his father, with whom he was a favourite, into Aurungzebe, meaning ornament of the throne, and at a later time he assumed the additional titles of Mohi-eddin, reviver of religion, and Alam-gir, conqueror of the world. At a v… Auschwitz, Or OswiecimAUSCHWITZ, or OSWIECIM, a town in Galicia, Austria, on the right bank of the Sola, a tributary of the Wechsel, 33 miles W.S.W. of Cracow. AuscultationAUSCULTATION (auscultare, to listen), a term in medicine, applied to the method employed by physicians for determining, by the sense of hearing, the condition of certain internal organs. The ancient physicians appear to have practised. a kind of auscultation, by which they were able to detect the presence of air or fluids in the cavities of the chest and abdomen. Still no general application of th… Ausonius, Decimus MagnusAUSONIUS, DECIMUS MAGNUS, a Roman poet of the 4th century, was the son of an eminent physician, and born at Burdigala (Bordeaux) about 310 A.D. His education was conducted with unusual care, either because his genius was very promising, or because the scheme of his nativity, which had been cast by his maternal grandfather, was found to promise great fame and advancement. He made extraordinary prog… Aussig, Aussyenad, Or LabemAUSSIG, AUSSYENAD, or LABEM, a town of Austria, in Bohemia, situated in a mountainous district, at the conwood, there is a large export of coal from the neighbouring mines. Austen, JaneAUSTEN, JANE, one of the most distinguished modem British novelists, was born December 16, 1775, at the parsonage of Steventon, in Hampshire, of which place her father was for many years rector. Her life was singularly tranquil and void of incident, so that but few facts are known concerning her from which an idea of her character can be formed. She was tall and attractive in person, and of an ext… AusterlitzAUSTERLITZ, a small town of Moravia, 12 miles E.S.E. of Briinn, containing a magnificent palace belonging to the prince of Kaunitz-Rietberg, and a beautiful church. Austin, JohnAUSTIN, JOHN, one of the ablest English writers on jurisprudence, was born on the 3d March 1790. At an early age he entered the army, and passed five years in military service. He then retired, applied himself to the study of law, and was called to the bar in 1814. His powers, though admirably adapted for grasping the fundamental principles of law, were not of a nature to render him successful in … Austin, Sarah TaylorAUSTIN, SARAH TAYLOR, translator and miscellaneous writer, was born in 1793. She was one of the Taylor family of Norwich, several of whose members had distinguished themselves in the fields of literature and science. She was the youngest child of her family, received a liberal and solid education at home, chiefly from her mother, and had the advantage, too, of enjoying in her father's house much i… AustralasiaAUSTRALASIA, one of the six great geographical divisions of the globe, is situated, as its name indicates, south of Asia, between the equator and 50? S. lat., and 110' and 180? E. long. Australia Or New HollandAUSTRALIA or NEW HOLLAND, the largest island-continent of Australasia, is situated within 100 47' and 39? 11' S. lat., and 113? and 153? 30' E. long. It measures 2500 miles in length from west to east, by 1950 miles in breadth from north to south, and contains an area of about 3,000,000 square miles - nearly the same as that of the United Stai - s of America, exclusive of Alaska. It is surrounded … AustriaAUSTRIA, or more strictly AUSTBIA-HLNGARY (Ger. Oesterreich, and Oesterreick-Ungarn), is an extensive country in the southern portion of Central Europe, lying between long. 9? and 26? E., and lat. 42? and 51? N. It thus extends through 17 degrees of longitude and 9 degrees of latitude, and has an area of about 240,000 English square miles. With the exception of the islands in the Adriatic, and the… AutochthonesAUTOCHTHONES, in Greek: Mythology, the first human beings who appeared in the world, and who, as their name implies, were believed to have sprung from the earth itself. Instead of one pair as the first parents of the whole race, each district of Greece had its own autochthones, who, according to the prominent physical features of the neighbourhood, were supposed to have been produced from trees, r… Auto-da-feAUTO-DA-FE (Act of Faith), a public solemnity of the Inquisition in Spain and Portugal, at which the sentences of the court were read ; those who were declared innocent were formally absolved, and the condemned were handed over to the secular power for punishment. AutographAUTOGRAPH (cirrOs and ypcickccv), that which is written with a person's own hand, an original manuscript as opposed to an apograph or copy, is used to designate either a whole document (e.g., a letter) or a signature only. The latter is perhaps the more common use of the term. The interest attaching to the possession of autographs of distinguished men, which has created a new branch of industry, i… AutolycusAUTOLYCUS of PITANE, in /Eolis, was one of the earliest?Greek writers on mathematics and astronomy. AutomatonAUTOMATON (from ain-4, self, and ,(xj.(.0, to seize), a self-moving machine, or one in which the principle of motion is contained within the mechanism itself. According to this description, clocks,' watches, and all machines of a similar kind, are automata, but the word is generally applied to contrivances which simulate for a time the motions of animal life. If the human figure and actions be rep… AutunAUTUN, the capital of an arrondissement of the same name in the department of Sabne and Loire, in France, is picturesquely situated on the declivity of a hill, at the foot of which flows the Arroux. It is one of the most ancient towns of France ; and when Cmsar invaded Gaul it was the most important of the iEdui. Its name was then Bibracte, but being afterwards much improved and embellished by Aug… AuvergneAUVERGNE, a district, and formerly a province, of France, corresponding to the departments of Cantal and Fuy-de-Dome, with the arrondissement of Brioude in Haute-Loire. It is divided into Lower and Upper by the River Rue ; the distinction between the two portions being well marked by their physical features. Upper Auvergne is rugged and mountainous, and is covered with evidences of volcanic activi… AuxentiusAUXENTIUS of CAPPADOCIA. was an Arian theologian of some eminence. AuxerreAUXERRE (the ancient Autissiodurum), a town of France, in the department of Yonne, situated on the banks of the Yonne, in a wine-producing district, and built in an antique fashion. AuxonneAUXONNE (formerly Assonium, i.e., ad ,..5'onam, from its position on the Saone), a city of France, in the arrondissement of Dijon and department of Cote d'Or. It is Long. 5' 24' E., lat. 47' 13' N. Population, 5911. AVA, the former capital of the Burman empire, lies in 21? 52' N. let., and 96' 1' E. long. It is situated on the Irawadi, which is here 3282 feet broad, and which, making a bend out of… AvallonAVALLON, a town of France, in the department of Yonne, finely situated on a granite rock, at the foot of which flows the river Voisin or Cousin. AvatchaAVATCHA, one of the numerous volcanoes of Kamchatka, in lat. 53? 17' N., and long. 158? 50' E. AvellinoAVELLINO, a fortified city of Italy, in the province of Principato Ulteriore, at the foot of Mount Vergine, and 28 miles E. of Naples. AvempaceAVEMPACE. Anti BEKR MOHAMMED InN JAHYA, surnamed Ibn Eadja or Ibn Sayeg (i.e., son of the goldsmith), whose name has been corrupted by the Latins into Avernpace, Avenpace, or Aben Pace, was the earliest and one of the most distinguished of the Arab philosophers in Spain. Almost nothing is known of the events in his life; he was born, probably at Saragossa, towards the close of the 11th century, an… Avenbrtjgger, Or AuenbrucgerAVENBRTJGGER, or AUENBRUCGER, LEOPOLD, a physician of Vienna, the discoverer of the important mode of investigating diseases of the chest and abdomen by auscultation. AventinusAVENTINUS [JoHANN THURMAYR], author of the Annals of Bavaria, was born in the year 1466 at Abensberg. He studied first at Ingoldstadt, and afterwards in the university of Paris. In 1503 he privately taught rhetoric and poetry at Vienna, and in 1507 he publicly taught Greek at Cracow, in Poland. In 1509 he read lectures on some of Cicero's works at Ingoldstadt, and in 1512 was appointed preceptor t… AvenzoarAVENZOAR [ABU MERWAN ABDALMALEC IBN Zomt], an eminent Arabian physician, who flourished about the end of the 11th or beginning of the 12th century, was born at Seville, where he exercised his profession with great reputation. His ancestors had been celebrated as physicians for several generations, and his son was afterwards held by the Arabians to be even more eminent in his profession than Avenzo… AverageAVERAGE, a term used in maritime commerce to signify damages or expenses resulting from the accidents of navigation. Average is either general or particular. General average arises when sacrifices have been made, or expenditures incurred, for the preservation of the ship, cargo, and freight, from some peril of the sea, or from its effects. It implies a subsequent contribution, from all the parties… AvernusAVERNUS, a lake of Campania in Italy, near Bai, occupying the crater of an extinct volcano, and about a mile and a half in circumference. From the gloomy horror of its surroundings, and the mephitic character of its exhalations, it was regarded by ancient superstition as an entrance to the infernal regions. It was especially dedicated to Proserpine, and an oracle was maintained on the spot. In 214… AverroesAVERROES, known among his own people as AbfilWalid Mohammed Ibn-Ahmed Ibn-Mohammed Imc-Rosma, the kadi, was born at Cordova in 1126, and died at Marocco in 1198. His early life was occupied in mastering the curriculum of theology, jurisprudence, mathematics, medicine, and philosophy, under the approved teachers of the time. The years of his prime were a disastrous era for Mahometan Spain, where al… AversAVERS A, a town of Italy, province of Terra di Lavoro, situated in a beautiful plain covered with orange-groves and vineyards, about midway between Naples and Capua. AvesnesAVESNES, a town of France, in the department of Nord, situated in a fertile district on the Greater Helpe. AveyronAVEYRON, a department in the S. of France, bounded on the N. by Cantal, E. by Lozere, S. by Herault and Tarn, and W. by Tarn et-Garonne and Lot, containing an area of 3429 square miles. It corresponds to a large portion of the ancient district of Rouergue in Guienne, which formerly gave its name to a family of counts. Its earliest inhabitants known to us were the Rutheni, whose capital -was Segodu… AvicebronAVICEBRON. The writer referred to by the Scholastics of the 13th century under this name was supposed by them to be an Arabian philosopher, and was accordingly classed along with Avempace, Abubacer, and others. Recent researches have shown that this is an error, and that this author, about whom so little was known, is identical with Salomon ben Gebirol, a Jewish writer, several of whose religious … AvicennaAVICENNA (in Arabic, Abu Ali el-Hosein Ibn-Abdallah IBN-SINA) was born about the year 980 A.D at Afshena, one of the many hamlets in the district of Bokhara. His mother was a native of the place ; his father, a Persian from Balkh, filled the post of tax-collector in the neighbouring town of Harmaitin, under Nuh ibn Mansir, the Samanide emir of Bokhara. On the birth of Avicenna's younger brother th… AvienusAVIENUS, Rufus FESTUS, a Latin poet, who appears to have flourished in the latter half of the 4th century. AviglianoAVIGLIANO, a town of Italy, in the province of Basilicata, 11 miles N.N.W. of Potenza. AvignonAVIGNON, the chief town of the department of Vaucluse in France, situated in a beautiful plain, on the left bank of the Rhone, not far from the entrance of the Durance. It is surrounded by its ancient crenellated walls, which are in a state of remarkable preservation, and, on the outside, by a line of pleasant boulevards planted with trees. A precipitous rock rises from the river's edge ; and from… AvilaAVILA Y ZUNIGA, Luis D', author of a Spanish history of the wars of Charles V. AvilaAVILA, a province of Spain, one of the modern divisions of the kingdom of Old Castile, situated between long. 4? 14' and 5? 55' W., and lat. 40? 48' and 41? 18' N. It is bounded on the N. by Valladolid, E. by Segovia and Madrid, S. by Toledo and Caceres, and W. by Salamanca. The area is 2570 square miles ; population, 176,769. It naturally divides itself into two sections, differing completely in … Avila, Gil GonzalezAVILA, GIL GONZALEZ D', a Spanish biographer and antiquary, was born at Avila about the year 1577, and died there in 1658. Aviles, San Nicolas DeAVILES, SAN NICOLAS DE (the Latin Flavionavia), a town of Spain, in the province of Oviedo, about a league-from the sea-coast, in lat. 43? 34' N., long. 5? 58' W. Avlona, Or ValonaAVLONA, or VALONA (the ancient Ai,Xo'.), a town and seaport of Albania, in the eyelet of Yanina. It stands on an eminence near the Gulf of Avlona, an inlet of the Adriatic, almost surrounded by mountains, The port, which is protected by the island of Sasseno, the ancient Saco, is the best on the Albanian coast. It is visited weekly by Austrian steamers, and carries on considerable intercourse with… AvolaAVOLA, a city on the coast of Sicily, in the province of Syracuse, with 11,912 inhabitants. It manufactures straw-mats, and has trade in wine, grain, oil, honey, &c. ; and there are sugar plantations. AVON, the name of several rivers in England, Scotland, and France. The word is Celtic, appearing in Welsh as afon, in Manx as son, and in Gaelic as ahlzuinn (pronounced avain), and is radically ident… AvranchesAVRANCHES (ancient Abrincatce, or Ingena), a town of France, in the department of Manche. It was an important military station of the Romans, and has in more modern times sustained several sieges, the most noticeable of which was the result of its opposition to Henry IV. It stands on a wooded hill, commanding a fine view of the bay and rock of St Michel, about three miles distant. At the foot of t… Axholm, Or A XelholmAXHOLM, or A_XELHOLM, an island in the N.W. part of Lincolnshire, England, formed by the rivers Trent, Idle, and Don. It consists mainly of a plateau of slight elevation, and comprises the parishes of Althorpe, Belton, Epworth, Timmy, Luddington, 0 wston, and Crowle ; the total area being about 47,000 acres. At a very early period it would appear to have been covered with forest ; but this having … AxiomAXIOM, from the Greek ctEL/La, is a word of great import both in general philosophy and in special science ; it also has passed into the language of common life, being applied to any assertion of the truth of which the speaker happens to have a strong conviction, or which is put forward as beyond question. The scientific use of the word is most familiar in mathematics, where it is customary to lay… AxminsterAXMINSTER, a market-town of England, in the county of Devon, 147 miles from London, and 24 from Exeter. It takes its name from the River Axe, on which it stands. The ancient abbey-church, or rninster, which adorns the centre of the town, was built by King Athelstan to commemorate a victory over the Danes. The town was formerly distinguished for its production of the best and most costly descriptio… AyamonteAYAMONTE, a fortified city of Spain, in the province of Huelva, on the left bank of the Guadiana, about 2 miles from its mouth. AylesburyAYLESBURY, a market-town, parliamentary borough, and railway junction, in the county of Buckingham, 39 miles N.W. of London. It stands on a gentle eminence in the centre of a fertile vale, and consists of several streets and lanes irregularly built, but well paved and lighted. The county-hall, market-house, and county gaol are handsome buildings, as is also the parish church, an ancient structure … AylesfordAYLESFORD, a village of England, in the county of Kent, 3i miles from Maidstone, and 32 from London. Aylmer, JohnAYLMER, JOHN, Bishop of London in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was born in the year 1521 at Aylmer-hall, in the parish of Tilney, in the county of Norfolk. Whilst a boy, he was noticed for his precocity by the marquis of Dorset, afterwards duke of Suffolk, who sent him to the university of Cambridge. He afterwards proceeded to Oxford, where he completed his studies and took his degree in divinity… Ayr, County OfAYR, COUNTY OF, or AYRSHIRE, a Scottish county, bounded by Wigtownshire and the stewartry of Kirkcudbright on the S. ; by Kirkcudbright, Dumfries, and Lanark on the E.; and by Renfrewshire on the N. On the W. it has a coast line extending to 70 miles on the Irish Sea and the Firth of Clyde. The county contains 1149 square miles, or 735,262 acres. The middle part, which is the broadest, is about 26… Ayrer, JacobAYRER, JACOB, one of the earliest dramatists of Germany, was born in 1560, probably at Nuremberg, - at least he resided there when a mere boy. His first occupation was keeping an iron-store, which he did with considerable success. After studying law for some time at Bamberg, where he attained a good position as a lawyer, he returned to Nuremberg, and continued to practise there, acquiring the free… Ayton, Sir RobertAYTON, SIR ROBERT (1570-1638), a Scottish lyrical poet, the second son of Andrew Ayton of Kinaldie in Fife-shire, was educated at the University of St Andrews, and seems afterwards to have resided for several years in France, where he gained considerable reputation as a poet and scholar. On the accession of James VI. in 1603, Ayton published a very elegant Latin panegyric, which at once brought hi… Aytoun, William EdAYTOUN, WILLIAM ED/IONSTOTINE, a Scottish poet, humourist, and miscellaneous writer, was born at Edinburgh, 21st June 1813. He was the only son of Roger Aytoun, a writer to the Signet, and the family was of the same stock as Sir Robert Ayton noticed above. From his mother, a woman of marked originality of character and considerable culture, he derived his distinctive qualities, his early tastes in… Azais, Pierre HyacintheAZAIS, PIERRE HYACINTHE, a brilliant French writer on philosophy, was born at Sorreze in 1766, and died at Paris in 1845. He was educated at the college in his native town ; and at the age of 17 joined a religions body with the view of afterwards entering the church. He remained only a year in this society, and then accepted an appointment as teacher in the college at Tarbes. The duties of this of… Azara, Don Felix DeAZARA, DON FELIX DE, a Spanish naturalist, was born 18th May 1746, and died in 1811. He studied first at the university of Huesca, and afterwards at the military academy of Barcelona. In 1764 he entered the army as a cadet, and in 1767 obtained an ensigncy in the engineer corps. In 1781 he was appointed, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel of engineers and captain in the navy, on a commission to l… Azara, Don Jose NicholasAZARA, DON JOSE NICHOLAS n', the elder brother of the naturalist, born in 1731, was appointed in 1765 Spanish agent and procurator-general, and in 1785, ambassador at Rome. Azeglio, Massimo TaparelliAZEGLIO, MASSIMO TAPARELLI, MARQUIS D', an eminent Italian author and statesman, was born in October 1798, at Turin. He was descended from an ancient and noble family of Piedmont, and was the son of a military officer, who, when the subject of this notice was in his fifteenth year, was appointed ambassador to Rome. The boy went with him, and, being thus introduced to the magnificent works of art f… AzerbijanAZERBIJAN (so called, according to SirWilliam Ouseley, from a fire -temple ; azer, fire, and baijan, a keeper), a provine? of Persia, corresponding to the ancient Atropatene. It is separated from a division of the Russian Empire on the N. by the River Araxes, and from Irak on the S. by the Kizil-Uzen, or Golden Stream, while it has the Caspian Sea and Milan on the E. and Asiatic Turkey on the W. I… Azimgar1iAZIMGAR1I, a district and city in the Benares division of British India, and under the jurisdiction of the Lieutenant-Governor of the North-Western Provinces, lies between 25? 38 3" and 26? 24' 45 N. lat., and 82? 44' 15" and 84? 10' 45" E. long. It is bounded on the N. by the river Ghagra, separating it from Gorakhpur district ; on the E. by Ghazipur district and the river Ganges ; on the S. by t… Azingarii CityAZINGARII CITY, the principal place in the district of the same name, is situated on the river Tons, in 26? 0' N. lat., and 83? 14' E. long. The city is said to have been founded about 1620 by a powerful landholder named Azim Khan, who owned large estates in this part of the country. For municipal income and population, see above. AZO, a distinguished professor of civil law in the university of Bo… AzoffAZOFF, or Asov (in Turkish, Asak), a town on the left bank of the southern arm of the Don, about 20 miles from its mouth. Azoff, The Sea OfAZOFF, THE SEA OF, an inland sea of Southern Europe, communicating with the Black Sea by the Strait of Yenikale, the ancient Bosphorus Cimmerius. To the Romans it was known as the Palus Mceotis, from the name of the neighbouring people, who called it in their native language Temarenda, or Mother of Waters. Possibly to account for the outward current into the Black Sea, it was long supposed to poss… Azores, The, Or Western IslandsAZORES, THE, or WESTERN ISLANDS, are situated in the Atlantic Ocean, and extend in an oblique line from N.W. to S.E., between 36? 55' and 39' 55' N. lat., and between 25? and 31? 16' W. long. They are generally considered as pertaining to Europe, though separated by a distance of 800 miles from the coast of Portugal. They are divided into three distinct groups : the south-eastern consisting of Sai… AzotusAZOTUS, the name given by Greek and Roman writers to Ashdod, or Eshdod, an ancient city of Palestine, now represented by a few remains in the little village of Esdud, in the pashalik of Acre. It was situated a short distance inland from the Mediterranean, on the usual military route between Syria and Egypt, about 18 geographical miles N.B. of Gaza. As one of the five chief cities of the Philistine… AzpeitiaAZPEITIA, a town of Spain, in the province of Guipuzcoa, on the left bank of the Urola, 15 miles S.W. of San Sebastian. AztecsAZTECS, the native name of one of the tribes that occupied the table-land of Mexico on the arrival of the Spaniards in America. It has been very frequently employed as equivalent to the collective national title of Nahuatlecas, or Mexicans. The Aztecs came, according to native tradition, from a country to which they gave the name of Aztlan, usually supposed to lie towards the but the satisfactory … Azuni, Domenico AlbertoAZUNI, DOMENICO ALBERTO, a distinguished jurist and writer on international law, was born at Sassari, in Sardinia, in 1749. He studied law at Sassari and Turin, and in 1782 was made judge of the consulate at Nice. In 1786-88 he published his Dizionario Universals Ragionato della Giurisprudenza Mercantile. In 1795 appeared his systematic work on the maritime law of Europe, Sistema Universale dei Pr… Ba1llet, AdrienBA1LLET, ADRIEN, a French writer and critic, was born in June 1649, at the village of Neuville, near Beauvais, in Picardy, and died in January 1706. His parents could only afford to send him to a small school in the village, but he picked up some Latin from the friars of a neighbouring convent, who brought him under the notice of the bishop of Beauvais. By his kindness Baillet received a thorough … Baader, Franz Saver VonBAADER, FRANZ SAVER VON, an eminent German philosopher and theologian, born 27th March 1765 at Munich, was the third son of F. P. Baader, court physician to the elector of Bavaria. His two elder brothers were both distinguished, the eldest, Clemens, as an author, the second, Joseph, as an engineer. Franz when young was extremely delicate, and rrom his seventh to his eleventh year was afflicted wit… BaalBAAL is a Semitic word, which primarily signifies lord or owner, and then, in accordance with the Semitic way of looking at family and religious relations, is specially appropriated to express the relation of a husband to his wife, and of the deity to his worshipper. In the latter usage, which does not occur among the Arabian Semite; the word Baal seems at first to have been a mere title of deity … Babatag, Or BabadagBABATAG, or BABADAG, a city of Turkey in Europe, in the government of Bulgaria and sanjak of Silistria. Babbage, CharlesBABBAGE, CHARLES, a distinguished English mathematician and mechanician, was born, 20th December 1792, at Teignmouth in Devonshire. He was educated at a private school, and afterwards entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1814, Though he did not compete in the mathematical tripos, he acquired a great reputation at the university. In the year after his graduation he contributed … BabelBABEL was the native name of the city called Babylon by the Greeks. It means "gate of god," or "gate of the gods," and was the Semitic translation of the original Accadian designation Ca-dimirra. According to Gen. xi. 1-9, mankind, after the deluge, travelled from the mountain of the East (or Elwand), where the ark had rested, and settled in Shinar (Sumir, or the north-west of Chaldea). Here they … BaberBABER. ZEHIR-ED-DIN MAllomEr, surnamed Baber, or the Tiger, the famous conqueror of India and founder of the so-called Moghul dynasty, was born on the 14th February 1483. He was a descendant of Genghis Khan and Timm., and his father, Omar Sheikh, was king of Farghana, a district of Transoxiana, lying east of Samarcand. Omar died in 1495, and Baber, though only twelve years of age, succeeded to the… Babeuf, Francois-noelBABEUF, FRANcOIS-NOEL, surnamed by himself G racchus Babeuf, the earliest of the French socialists, was born in 1762, in the department of Aisne. From his father, a major in the Austrian army, he received special instruction in mathematics, but was deprived of him by death at the age of sixteen. Established as a land-surveyor at Hoye, in the Somme department, lie became a fervid advocate of the Re… Babi, Or BabyBABI, or BABY, the appellation of a remarkable modern sect in Persia, is derived from the title gate) assumed by its founder, Seyed Mohammed Ali, born at Shiraz about 1824, according to Count Gobineau, but ten years earlier according to Kasem Beg. Persia, as is well known, is the least strictly Mahometan of all Mahometan countries, the prophet himself occupying an almost secondary place or great m… Babrius, Or BabriasBABRIUS, or BABRIAS, or GABRIAS (the original name being possibly Oriental), a Greek fabulist, who wrote, according to Sir G. C. Lewis, shortly before the Augustan age, though dates have been assigned to him from 250 B.C. to 250 A.D. One of his editors, Boissonade, believes that he was a Roman. His name occurs in some of the old grammarians, and a few fragments were ascribed to him. The first crit… BabylonBABYLON (the modern Mika) is the Greek form of Babel or Bab-ili, "the gate of god" (or, as it is sometimes written, "of the gods"), which, again, is the Semitic rendering of Ca-diinirra, the ancient name of the city in the Turanian language of the primitive Aceadian population of the country. It is doubtful whether the god meant was Merodach or Anu, Merodach being the patron divinity of Babylon in… Babylonia And AssyriaBABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. Geographically, as well as ethnologically and historically, the whole district enclosed between the two great rivers of Western Asia, the Tigris and Euphrates, forms but one country. The writers of antiquity clearly recognised this fact, speaking of the whole under the general name of Assyria, though Babylonia, as will be seen, would have been a more accurate designation. It… BacchiglioneBACCHIGLIONE, a river of north-eastern Italy, which, rising in the mountains eastward of Trent, passes by Vicenza and Padua, and, after a course of 90 miles, falls into the lagune of Venice, south of Chioggia. BacchylidesBACCHYLIDES, BatcxvXths, a famous Greek lyric poet, born at lulis in Ceos, was the nephew of Simonides, and flourished about 470 years before Christ. Baccio Della PortaBACCIO DELLA PORTA, called FRA BA RTOLOMME0 DI S. MARCO, a celebrated historical and portrait painter, was born at Savignano, near Florence, in 1469, and died in 1517. He received the first elements of his artistic education from Cosimo Roselli ; and after leaving him, devoted himself to the study of the great works of Leonardo da Vinci. Of his early productions, which are distinguished for their … Bache, Alexander DallasBACHE, ALEXANDER DALLAS, a distinguished American physicist, who has gained a wide reputation as superintendent of the great American Coast Survey, was a great-grandson of Benjamin Franklin, and was born at Philadelphia, 19th July 1806. In 1821 he entered the military academy at West Point, and graduated there with the highest honours in 1825. For some time he acted as assistant professor in the a… BachelorBACHELOR, a word of various meaning, and of exceedingly obscure origin. In modern times the most common siguifications of it are - (1), an unmarried person; (2), one who has taken the lowest degree in any of the faculties at a university. At various times, however, it has signified either a young man in general, from which the first of the modern meanings was easily developed; or a knight who was … BachianBACHIAN, one of the East Indian islands belonging to the group of the northern Moluccas, situated immediately south of the equator, and lying with its subordinate islands, Man dioli and Kasiruta, between 127?and 127?and 50' E. long. It is of an irregular form, consisting of two distinct mountainous parts, united by a low isthmus, which a slight subsidence would submerge. The area is estimated at a… Bach, Johann-sebastianBACH, JOHANN-SEBASTIAN, was born at Eisenach in Thuringia, on March 21, 1685, the same year which gave birth to his great contemporary Handel. His father held a musical appointment from the town council, being himself descended from a musician. The family of the Bachs, like those of some of the great Italian painters, may be cited as one of the most striking instances of hereditary artistic genius… Bach, Karl Philipp EmmanuelBACH, KARL PHILIPP EMMANUEL, second son of the above, was born at Weimar on the 14th March 1714, and died at Hamburg on the 14th September 1788. Ile was perhaps the most highly gifted musician of the eleven brothers, and his influence on the development of certain musical forms gives him a prominent place in the history of the art. He studied at the Thomasschule and afterwards at the university of… BackgammonBACKGAMMON, a game played with dice, said to have been invented about the 10th century (Strutt). The etymology of the word backgammon is disputed; it is probably Saxon, - Bmc, back ; samen, game, i.e., a game in which the players are liable to be sent back. Other derivations are, Dan. bakke, tray, gammen, game (Wedgwood); and Welsh, back, little, canzmaun, battle (Henry). Backgammon is played by t… Bacon, Francis, Baron VerulamBACON, FRANCIS, BARON VERULAM, VISCOUNT ST ALBAN, was born at York House in the Strand, London, on the 22d January 1561. He was the youngest son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, the celebrated lawyer and statesman, who for twenty years of Elizabeth's reign held the seals as lord keeper. His mother, the second wife of Sir Nicholas, was a daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, formerly tutor to Edward VI. She was a w… Bacontiiorpe, Or BaconBACONTIIORPE, or BACON, JOHN, called The Resolute Doctor, a learned monk, born towards the end of the 13th century, at Baconthorpe, a village in Norfolk. After spending the early part of his life in the convent of Blakeney, near Walsingham, he removed to Oxford, and from that city to Paris, where he obtained great reputation for his learning, and was esteemed the principal of the Averroists. In 13… BacsanyiBACSANYI, JANos, a Hungarian poet, was born at Tapoleza, May 11, 1763, and died at Linz, May 12, 1845. In 1785 he published his first work, a patriotic poem, The Valour of the Magyars. In the same year he obtained a situation as clerk in the treasury at Kaschau, and there, in conjunction with other two Hungarian patriots, edited the Magyar Museum, which was suppressed by the Government in 1792. In… Bactria, Or BactrianaBACTRIA, or BACTRIANA, an ancient country of Central Asia, lying to the south of the River Oxus, and reaching to the western part of the Paropamisan range, or Hindu Kush. It was sometimes regarded as including the district of Margiana, or Merv, which was more frequently considered as distinct. The character of the country is very various, and has been well described by Curtius, whose account is co… BacupBACUP, a town of England, in Lancashire, 20 miles N. from Manchester. BadajosBADAJOS, the capital of the above province, is a fortified city, and the see of a bishop. It is situated about 5 miles from the Portuguese frontier, on a slight elevation near the left bank of the Guadiana, and is one of the principal stations on the railway between Madrid and Lisbon. The height is crowned by the ruins of a Moorish castle. A strong wall and bastions, with a broad moat and outworks… BadaklisliaBADAKLISLIA,N, a country of Central Asia, situated in the upper valley of the Kokcha river, one of the principal head streams of the Oxus. The name has been variously spelt Badascian, Balacian, Balakhshan, Balashan, Balaxien and Balaxia. Including Wakhan, it lies between 35? 50' and 38? N. lat., and between 69? 30' and 74? 20' E. long. The chief ascertained positions are as follows : Faizabad, 37?… BadalocchioBADALOCCHIO, Sim, surnamed ROSA, a painter and engraver, was born at Parma in 1581, and died in 1641 or 1647. BadenBADEN,the chief town of a circle in Lower Austria, about 12 miles S. of Vienna on the railway to Gratz. It is beautifully situated at the mouth of the romantic Heleizenthal, near the banks of the Schwachat, a rapid stream with several waterfalls, and has become a favourite summer resort with the inhabitants of the neighbouring capital. The warm baths, which give name to the town, are thirteen in n… BadenBADEN, Switzerland, a small town in the canton of Aargau, on the Limmat, 14 miles N.W. of Zurich. It is much frequented on account of its warm medicinal springs, which are about 20 in number, and vary in temperature from 98? to 126? Fahr. About 15,000 persons visit the place annually. Tacitus, in the first book of his Histories (c. 67), incidentally speaks of it as in .mod one ?extructes loces,amc… BadenBADEN (or BADEN-BADEN, to distinguish it from other places of the name), a town and celebrated watering-place of Germany, in the grand duchy of Baden. It stands on the side of a hill, near the Oos or Oel, in a beautiful valley of the Black Forest, 18 miles S.W. of Carlsruhe ; and it is connected by a branch with the Manheim and Basel railway. The superiority of its situation, its extensive pleasur… Baden, The Grind Duchy OfBADEN, THE GRIND DUCHY OF, is situated in the S.W. of Germany, between 47? 32' and 49? 52' N. lat., and between 7? 27' and 9? 50' E. long. It is bounded on the N. by Bavaria and Hesse Darmstadt; W. by Rhenish Bavaria, Alsace, and Lorraine ; S. by Switzerland ; and E. by Wiirtemberg and part of Bavaria. At the commencement of the present century Baden was only a margraviate, with an area little exc… BadgerBADGER (3Ieles), a family of Plantigrade Carnivora, possessing greatly elongated bodies and short limbs, each of the latter furnished with five toes, provided at their extremities with long, powerful claws, by means of which they form deep burrows in the earth. The carnassial tooth, which in the bears is wholly tuberculate, is in the badgers provided also with a cutting edge, their whole dentition… BadiaBADIA Y LEBLICH, DOMINGO, a celebrated Spanish traveller, better known under his assumed. name of Ali Bey, was born in Biscay in the year 1766. After receiving a liberal education he devoted particular attention to the Arabic language, and made special preparation otherwise for his Oriental travels. Under the name of Ali Bey and in Mussulman costume, he visited Egypt, Marocco, Tripoli, Arabia, and… Badius, Jodocits Or JosseBADIUS, JODOCITS or JOSSE, sometimes called BADIUS A.SCENSIUS from the village of Asche, near Brussels, where he was born in 1462, was au eminent printer at Paris, whose establishment was celebrated under the name of PreZuni Ascensianunz. BadmintonBADMINTON, a game of recent introduction. It may be played in or out of doors, by any number of persons from two to eight ; two or four makes the best game. The following description applies to the outdoor game ; the indoor follows the same plan, modified only by circumstances affecting a room. A. tolerably level surface is required to form a ground. Turf or asphalt is the best. The size of the g… BadnurBADNUR, the headquarters of the district of Bettll, consists, besides the European houses, of two bazars. BadrinathBADRINATH, a town and celebrated temple in Hindustan, in the British district of Garhwal, situate on the right bank of the Vishnuganga, a tributary of the Alaknanda River, in the middle of a valley nearly 4 miles in length, and 1 in breadth, in 30? 44' N. lat. and 79' 32' E. long. The town is small, containing only twenty or thirty huts, in which reside the Brahmans and the attendants on the templ… BaenaBAENA, a town of Spain, in the province of Cordova, 8 leagues S.E. of the city. It is picturesquely situated, near the River Marbello, on the slope of a hill crowned with a castle, which formerly belonged to Gonzalo de Cordova, and is now the property of the Altamira family. It has four parish churches and three schools, one of which, exclusively for girls, has a high reputation in the province. T… BaezaBAEZA (ancient Beatia), a city of Spain, in the province of Jaen. It stands on a considerable elevation, about 3 miles from the right bank of the Guadalquivir. Lat. 37? 59' N., long. 3? 2S' W. It is well built, and has a cathedral and several fine public buildings, among which the most worthy of notice are the university (founded in 1533, and for some time defunct), the oratorio of the order of St… Baffin's Bay, Or Baffin's SeaBAFFIN'S BAY, or BAFFIN'S SEA, is properly neither a bay nor a sea, but pars of the long strait or inlet which separates Greenland from .the N.E. coast of America. Baffin, WilliamBAFFIN, WILLIAM, an able and enterprising English seaman, born in 1584. BagatelleBAGATELLE is an indoor game, probably derived from the old English shovel-board, described by Cotton in his Compleat Gamester (1674), though many consider that its invention is due to the French. Like billiards, chess, and draughts, its origin is not certainly known; but whatever its genesis, its name is undoubtedly French. Bagatelle games are played on an oblong board, usually from six to ten fee… Baggesen, Jens EmmanuelBAGGESEN, JENS EMMANUEL, the most prominent literary figure in Denmark during the latter part of last century, was born on the 15th of February 1765, at Korsor. His parents were very poor, and before he was twelve he was sent to copy documents at the office of the clerk of the district. By dint of indomitable perseverance, he managed to gain an education, and in 1782 entered the university of Cope… BaghdadBAGHDAD, a city of Asia, formerly the capital of the empire of the caliph, and long renowned for its commerce and its wealth, is situated on an extensive and desert plain, which has scarcely a tree or village throughout its whole extent ; and though it is intersected by the Tigris, it stands mostly on its eastern bank, close to the water's edge. Old Baghdad on the W. is now considered as merely a … BaghdadBAGHDAD, a Turkish pashalic or government of Asia, computed to have an area of above 100,000 square miles. It stretches in a N.W. direction, from the mouth of the Shalt-el-Arab at Bussorah, to Merdin, situated near the source of the Tigris ; and from the confines of Persia to the banks of the Khabour, which separates it from the pashalic of Diarbekir. Its general boundaries are the Euphrates and t… Baglivi, GiorgioBAGLIVI, GIORGIO, an illustrious Italian physician, descended from a poor persecuted Armenian family, was born at Ragusa in 1669, and assumed the name of his adoptive father, Pietro Angelo Baglivi, a wealthy physician of Lecce. He studied successively at the universities of Salerno, Padua, and Bologna ; and after travelling over Italy, he went in 1602 to Rome, where, through the influence of the c… Bagneres -De-bigorreBAGNERES -DE-BIGORRE (the liens Aquensis of the Romans), the capital of an arrondissement in the department of Hautes-Pyrdnees, is situated on the left bank of the Adour, 13 miles S.E. of Tarbes. It is one of the principal watering-places in France, and is much admired for its picturesque situation and the beauty of its environs, particularly the valley of Campan, which abounds with beautiful gard… Bagneres-de-luchonBAGNERES-DE-LUCHON, a small well-built town of France, department of Haute-Garonne, pleasantly situated in the valley of the Luchon, at the foot of the Pyrenees. BagpipeBAGPIPE (Fr. musette, Ger. Sackpfeife, Ital. cornamusa), a musical instrument of unknown antiquity, which seems to have been at one time or other in common use among all the nations of Europe, and still retains its place in many Highland districts, such as Calabria, the Tyrol, and the Highlands of Scotland. The wind is generally supplied by a blowpipe, though in some cases bellows are used. These … Bagration, Peter, PrinceBAGRATION, PETER, PRINCE, a distinguished Russian general, descended from the noble Georgian family of the Bagratides, was born in 1765. In 1782 he entered the Russian army and serTed for some years in the Caucasus. In 1788 he was engaged in the siege of Oczacow, and afterwards accompanied Suwaroff, by whom he was highly esteemed, through all his Italian and Swiss campaigns. He particularly distin… Bahamas, Or LiicayasBAHAMAS, or LIICAYAS, a very numerous group of islands, cays, rocks, and reefs, comprising an area of 3021 square miles, lying between 21? 42' and 27? 31' N. lat. and 72?40' and 79?5' W. long. They encircle and almost enclose the Gulf of Mexico, stretching more than 600 miles from the eastern coast of Florida to the northern coast of St Domingo, and are traversed by only three navigable channels -… BahiaBAHIA, a province of the Brazilian empire, situated on the S.E. coast, and extending from the Rio Grande do Belmonte in the S. to the Rio Real in the N. It is bounded by Sergipe and Pernambuco on the N., by Piauhi on the by Goyaz on the W., and on the S. by Minas Geraes and Espirito Santo. It has an area of 202,272 square miles, and its population is stated at 1,450,000. Bahia sends 14 deputies to… BahiaBAHIA, or, in full, SAN SALVADOR DA BAHIA DE TODOS OS SANTOS, a large city, and, till 1763, the capital of Brazil, is situated on the S.E. coast on the Bay of All Saints, from which it takes its name, in 13? S. lat., and 38? 20' W. long. Built partly along the foot and partly on the top of a steep hill, it consists of an upper and lower town, communication between the two being effected by large f… BahianBAHIAN, a once renowned city in the territory now subject to the Afghans, in 34? 50' N. lat., 67? 44' E. long. Its remains lie in a valley of the Hazara country, on the chief road from Kabul towards Turkestan, and immediately at the northern foot of that prolongation of the Indian Caucasus now called Koh-i-Baba (see vol. i. pp. 227, 241). The passes on the Kabul side are not less than 11,000 and 1… Bahrdt, Karl FriedrichBAHRDT, KARL FRIEDRICH, a German theologian, distinguished for his extreme rationalism and Ills erratic life, was born in 1741 at Bischofswerda, of which place his father, afterwards professor of theology at Leipsic, was for some time pastor. He was educated chiefly at the celebrated school of Pforta, and afterwards entered the university of Leipsic, where he studied theology, and at first attache… BahreinBAHREIN, the principal island of a cluster in the Persian Gulf, in an indentation of the Arabian coast. It is about 70 miles long and nearly 25 broad, and is very flat and low except towards the east, where a range of hills attain an elevation of 800 or 900 feet. The climate is mild, but humid, and rather unhealthy. The soil is for the most part fertile, and produces rice, pot herbs, and fruits, o… BaiburtBAIBURT, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the pashalic of Erzeroum, and 65 miles W.N.W. from that city. Bail AlBAIL AL (i.e., Baialchal, or Abundant Water), a great fresh-water lake of Siberia, in the government of Irkutsk, 397 miles in length from S.W. to N.E., and from 13 to 54 miles in breadth, with an area of about 12,500 square miles. This vast reservoir is situated 1360 feet above the level of the sea, in the midst of steep mountain ranges, that often rise sheer from the water's edge in lofty walls o… BailenBAILEN, a town of Spain, in the province of Jaen, 24 miles N.N.W. of Jaen. It seems to correspond to the ancient Bteeula, where Scipio gained signal victories over Hasdrubal. 209 B.C., and over Mago and Masinissa, 206 B.C. (Polyb., x. 38, xi. 20 ; Liv., xxvii. 18-20, xxviii. 13). In the neighbourhood also, in 1212, was fought the great battle of Navas de Tolosa, where Alphonso VIII. is said to hav… BaileyBAILEY, Or BAILY, NATHANAEL or NATHAN, an eminent English philologist and lexicographer, whose Etymological English Dictionary, published apparently in 1721, was a great improvement on all previous vocabularies, and really formed the basis of Johnson's great work. Bailey, SamuelBAILEY, SAMUEL, an able writer on philosophical and literary subjects, was born at Sheffield in 1791. His father carried on a large general business in that town, and for some years the son devoted himself to mercantile pursuits. It was not long, however, before he gave up this occupation, and, having a competent fortune, withdrew from all business concerns, with the exception of the Sheffield Ban… Bailie, William BalfourBAILIE, WILLIAM BALFOUR, M.D., eldest son of Captain John Baikie, RN., was born at Kirkwall, Orkney, on the 21st August 1824. He studied at Edinburgh, and, on obtaining his degree, joined the royal navy. He early attracted the notice of Sir Roderick Murchison, through whom he was appointed surgeon and naturalist to the Niger Expedition of 1854. The death of the senior officer occurring at Fernando… BailleulBAILLEUL, an ancient town of France, in the department of Nord, near the Belgian frontier, situated on a rising ground to the north of the River Lys. Baillie, De MatthewBAILLIE, DE MATTHEW, anatomist and physician, was born in the manse of Shotts, Lanarkshire, in 1761. He came of a highly gifted family : his father, the Rev. James Baillie, was successively clergyman of the parishes of Shotts, Bothwell, and Hamilton, in Lanarkshire, and afterwards professor of divinity in the university of Glasgow ; his mother was Dorothea, sister of the celebrated William and Joh… Baillie, JoannaBAILLIE, JOANNA, poet and dramatist, was born at the manse of Bothwell, on the banks of the Clyde (Scotland), in 1762. At an early period of her life she removed with her sister Agnes to London, where their brother, the celebrated Dr Matthew Baillie, was settled. The two sisters were left a small competence by their uncle, Dr William Hunter, and took up their residence at Hampstead, on the outskir… Baillie, RobertBAILLIE, ROBERT, a prominent Scotch Presbyterian of the 17th century, was born at Glasgow in 1602. He graduated in 1620 at the university of that town, and then applied himself to the study of divinity. In 1631, after he had been ordained and had acted for some years as regent in the university, he was appointed to the living of Kilwinning in Ayrshire. The church disputes of the century were just … Bailly, Jean SylvainBAILLY, JEAN SYLVAIN, a French astronomer and orator, was born at Paris on the 15th September 1736. He was originally intended for the profession of a painter ; his own inclinations, however, tended strongly towards literary pursuits, and it is said that at a very early age he had completed two tragedies. But his acquaintance and friendship with the celebrated mathematician Lacaille, and perhaps t… Baily, Edward HodgesBAILY, EDWARD HODGES, a distinguished sculptor, was born at Bristol, 10th March 1788, and died at London, 22d May 1867. His father, who was a ship-carver of great repute, destined him for a commercial life, but even at school the boy showed his natural taste and remarkable talents by producing numerous wax models and busts of his schoolfellows, and afterwards, when placed in a mercantile house, st… Baily, Fra2BAILY, FRA2.cCIS, an English astronomer, was born in Berkshire in the year 1774, and for many years carried on business as a stockbroker in London. While amassing a large.fortune by his business, he applied the profound mathematical knowledge for which he was distinguished to the doctrine of probabilities, and published several interesting works on that subject, as, Tables for the Purchasing and R… BainbridgeBAINBRIDGE, Da Jonx, physician and astronomer, was born at Ashby-de-la-Zouche, in Leicestershire, in the year 1582. Baines, EdwardBAINES, EDWARD, for many years. proprietor and editor of the Leeds Mercury, and M.P. for Leeds from 1834 to 1841, was born in 1774 at Walton-le-Dale, a village distant a little way from Preston, in Lancashire. He was educated at the grammar schools of Hawkshead and Preston, and at the age of sixteen was apprenticed to a printer in the latter town. After remaining there four years and a half he rem… Baines', Matthew TalbotBAINES', MATTHEW TALBOT, eldest son of the above, was horn in 1799, and died in 1860. Baini, GiuseppeBAINI, GIUSEPPE, a learned musical critic and composer of church music, was born at Rome in 1775, and died there in 1844. BairamBAIRAM, a Turkish or Persian word meaning feast, is the name applied to the two great Mahometan festivals. Baird, GeneralBAIRD, GENERAL Sin DAVID, Bark, was born at Newbyth in Aberdeenshire, in December 1757. He entered the British army in 1773, and was sent to India with the 73d Highlanders in 1779. In the following year he had the misfortune to fall into the hands of Hyder Ali, in the Mysore chief's perfidious attack on a handful of British troops at Perambucum. The prisoners, it is well known, were most barbarous… Baireuth, Or BayreutfiBAIREUTH, or BAYREUTFI, the capital of the circle of Upper Franconia, in Bavaria, is pleasantly situated in a valley on the left bank of the Red Maine, 40 miles N.N.E. of Nuremberg. It is well built, with broad, regular, and well-paved streets, and is partially surrounded by old walls. The river is crossed here by two bridges. Most of the buildings are of comparatively modern date, the city having… Bajus, Or De BayBAJUS, or DE BAY, MICHAEL, a celebrated theologian, was born at Melin in Hainaut in 1513. He distinguished himself highly during his course of study at Louvain, and was quickly promoted to a professorship in the college of that town. In 1549 he took his doctor's degree, and two years later he was appointed regius professor of divinity. On account of his eminence in theological learning he was sele… Bajza, AntonBAJZA, ANTON, a distinguished Hungarian poet and critic, was born at SEiicsi in 1804. His earliest contributions were made to Kisfaludy's Aurora, a literary paper of which he was editor from 1830 to 1837. He also wrote largely in the Kritische Bldtter, the Athenasune, and the Figyelinez5, or Observer. His criticisms on dramatic art were considered the best of these miscellaneous writings. In 1830 … Bak ArganjBAK ARGANJ, a district of British India in the Dacca division, under the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, situated between 23? 14' 27" and 21? 48' N. lat., and 89? 55' 10" and 91? 4' 50" E. long. It is bounded on the N. by the districts of Dacca and Faridpur, from which it is separated by the Padnut and Mainakatikhal; on the E. by the by the Bay of Bengal; and on the W. by J CSS3f and Faridpur distr… BakerBAKER, Six RICHARD, author of the Chronicle of the Kings of England, was born at Sissinghurst, in Kent, about the year 1568. He was educated at Oxford, took the degree of Master of Arts, and in 1603 received the honour of knighthood. In 1620 he was made high sheriff of Oxfordshire ; but having engaged to pay some debts of his wife's family, he was reduced to poverty, and obliged to betake himself … Baker, HenryBAKER, HENRY, a distinguished naturalist, was born in Fleet Street, London, in 1698. At the age of fifteen he was apprenticed to a bookseller, with whom he remained for seven years. He then became clerk to Mr Forster, attorney, whose deaf and dumb daughter he instructed carefully, and with such success that for a time he devoted himself to the training of persons similarly afflicted. During this p… BakewellBAKEWELL, a market-town in Derbyshire, on the River Wye, 152 miles from London. BakhchisaraiBAKHCHISARAI (Turkish, the Garden Palace), a town of Russia in the government of Taurus, situated in a narrow gorge on the banks of a small stream called the Chiryuk-Su, about 10 miles S.S.W. of Simpheropol. Of unknown origin, it became towards the close of the 15th century the residence of the Tatar khans ; and its chief objects of interest are the remains of its splendour under the Tatar dynasty… BakingBAKING. The art of baking consists in heating anything in an oven or fire so as to harden it, and in this sense the term is used when applied to the manufacture of bread, porcelain, pottery, and bricks. It is also applied to certain modes of dressing or cooking animal food ; thus we speak of baked meats, pies, &c. In the present article the baking of flour or meal for use as human food will alone … Baku, Or BadkuBAKU, or BADKU, the chief town of the government of the same name, in the Russian province of Transcaucasia (Daghestan), situated in the peninsula of Apsheron, on the west coast of the Caspian, and possessing one of the most spacious and convenient ports in that sea. Long. 49? 53' E., lat. 40? 23' N. It is built in the form of an obtuse triangle, on the slope of an arid hill, and is defended by a … BalaBALA.SOR, a district of British India in the Orissa division, under the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, lies between 20? and 21? N. lat., and in 86? and 87? E. long., and is -bounded on the N. by the district of Midnapur ; on the S. by Cattack district, from which it is separated by the Baitaranf river ; on the AV. by the tributary states of Keunjhar, Nilgiri, and Morbhanj ; and on the E. by the Ba… BalaBALA, a market-town of Wales, county of Merioneth, and hundred of Penllyn, at the northern extremity of the lake of the same name, 17 miles N.E. of Dolgelly. BalaamBALAAM, or rather BILEAM, the son of Beor, belonging to Pethor, by the River Euphrates in Aram, is represented in Scripture as a seer who possessed the power of blessing and cursing effectually. According to the narrative in Numbers xxii.?xxiv., he was invited by Balak, king of Moab, to come and curse Israel, in order to ensure the latter's defeat. Jehovah, however, forbade him to go as he was req… BalaghatBALAGHAT, a British district in the Central Provinces of India, situated between 21? and 23? N. lat. and 80? and SI? E. long.; bounded on the N. by the district of Mandhi; on the E. by the district of Chhattisgarh ; on the S. by Chhattisgarh and Bhandara ; and on the W. by the district of Semi. Balrighat forms the eastern portion of the central plateau which divides the province from east to west.… BalanceBALANCE. For the measurement of the "mass " of (i.e., of the quantity of matter contained in) a given body we possess only one method, which, being independent of any supposition regarding the nature of the matter to be measured, is of perfectly general applicability. The method - to give it at once in its customary form - consists in this, that after having fixed upon a unit mass, and procured a … Balance Of PowerBALANCE OF POWER. The theory of the Balance of Power may be said to have exercised a preponderating influence over the policy of European statesmen for more than two hundred years, that is, from the Treaty of Westphalia until the middle of the present century ; and to have been the principal element in the political combinations, negotiations, and wars which marked that long and eventful period of… BalasorBALASOR, the principal town and administrative headquarters of the above district, situated on the River Burdbalang, in 21? 28' 45" N. lat., and 86?'59 33" E. long., about 8 miles from the sea-coast as the crow flies, and 16 by the river. Balbi, AdrianBALBI, ADRIAN, one of the most eminent geographers (iques de la Monarchie Portugaise, which contains some curious observations respecting that country under the Roman sway, and on the state of literature and the arts. BalboaBALBOA, VAsco NUREZ DE, one of the bravest and most successful of the Spanish discoverers of America, was born at Xeres de los Caballeros, in Estremadura, about the year 1475. He was by birth a hidalgo, or gentleman, but was in poor circumstances. Little is known of his life till the year 1501, when he was oue of the company of adventurers who followed Roderigo de Bastidas in his voyage of discove… Balbo, CesareBALBO, CESARE, an important Italian writer and statesman, was born at Turin, November 21, 1789. His father, Prospero Balbo, held a high position in the Piedmontese court, and at the time of Cesare's birth was syndic of the capital. His mother, a member of the Azeglio family, died when he was three years old ; and he was brought up in the house of his great-grandmother, the countess of Bugino, " a … BalbrigganBALBRIGGAN, a seaport of Ireland, in the county of Dublin and parish of Balrothery, 18i miles N.N.E. of the capital. Balde, Jak0dBALDE, JAK0D, a modern Latin poet of considerable repute, was born at Ensisheim in Alsace in 1603, and died in 1668. Baldi, BernardinoBALDI, BERNARDINO, a distinguished mathematician and miscellaneous writer, was descended of a noble family at Urbino, in which city he was born on the 6th of June 1533. He pursued his studies at Padua with extraordinary zeal and success, and is said to have acquired, during the course of his life, no fewer than sixteen languages, though according to Tiraboschi, the inscription on his tomb limits t… Baldinger, Er Est GottfriedBALDINGER, ER EST GOTTFRIED, a German physician of considerable eminence, and the author of a great number of medical publications, was born near Erfurt, 13th May 1738. Baldin Iicci, FilippoBALDIN IICCI, FILIPPO, a distinguished Italian writer on the history of the arts, was born at Florence about 1624, and died in 1696. BaldovinettiBALDOVINETTI, A.LESSIO, was a distinguished painter of Florence in the 15th century, whose works have now become very scarce. Hogarth takes him as a type of those obscure artists to whom the affected amateurs of his time were wont to ascribe old paintings - " 'Tis a fine piece of Alessi() Baldovinetti, in his third manner." His father, Baldovinetti, belonged to a merchant family of good standing a… Balduinus, JacobusBALDUINUS, JACOBUS, a distinguished professor of civil law in the university of Bologna. BaldurBALDUR, one of the most interesting figures of the Scandinavian mythology, was the son of Odin and Frigg. His name (from baldr, the foremost or pre-eminent one) denoted his supreme excellence and beauty. In the Gylfeginning we read that he was so amiable that all loved him, so beautiful that a light seemed to shine about him, and his face and hair were for ever refulgent. He was the mildest, wises… BaldusBALDUS, an eminent professor of the civil law, and also of the canon law, in the university of Perugia. He came of the noble family of the Ubahli ; and his two brothers, Angelus de Ubaldis and Petrus de Ubaldis, were almost of equal eminence with himself as jurists. He was born in 1327, and studied civil law under Bartolus at Perugia, where he was admitted to the degree of doctor of civil law at t… Baldwin, ThomasBALDWIN, THOMAS, a celebrated English prelate of the 12th century, was born of obscure parents at Exeter, where, in the early part of his life, he taught a grammar school. After this he took orders, and was made archdeacon of Exeter ; but he resigned that dignity, and became a Cistercian monk in the monastery of Ford in Devonshire, of which, in a few years, he was made abbot. In the year 1180 he w… Balearic IslandsBALEARIC ISLANDS, a remarkable group in the western part of the Mediterranean Sea, lying to the S. and E. of Spain, between 38? 40' and 40? 5' N. lat., and between 1? and 5? E. long. The name, as now employed, includes not only the ancient Insulce Baleares (Major and _Minor), but also the Pityusce or Pine Islands, as the two more western were called. The origin of the name Baleares is a mere matte… Bale, JohnBALE, JOHN, Bishop of Ossory, in Ireland, was born at Cove, near Dunwich in Suffolk, in November 1495. He was educated in the monastery of the Carmelites at Norwich, and afterwards at Jesus College, Oxford. He belonged at first to the Roman Catholic Church, but was converted to the Protestant religion by Thomas Lord Wentworth. On the death of Lord Cromwell, the favourite of Henry VIII., who had pr… Bales, PeterBALES, PETER, a famous caligraphist, and one of the first inventors of short-hand writing. He was born in 1547, and is described by Anthony Wood as a " most dexterous person in his profession, to the great wonder of scholars and others." We are also informed that "he spent several years in sciences among Oxonians, particularly, as it seems, in Gloucester Hall; but that study, which he used for a d… Balfe, Michael WilliamBALFE, MICHAEL WILLIAM, was born, in 1808, at Limerick in Ireland. His musical gifts became apparent at an early age. The only instruction he received was from his father, and a musician of the name of Horn ; and it seems to have been limited to a superficial training of the voice, and to some lessons on the pianoforte. At one time Balfe also practised the violin, and was even bold enough to play … BalfourBALFOUR, Six JAMES, of Pittendreich, at one time lord president of the Supreme Court in Scotland, an active and unscrupulous politician during the stormy period of the reign of Mary. He was originally educated for the church, and adopted the principles of the Reformers. With Knox and others he was condemned to the galleys on account of the part he had taken in the murder of Beaton, but after their… Balfour, RobertBALFOUR, ROBERT, a learned Scotchman, born about the year 1550, who was for many years principal of the Guienne College at Bordeaux. Balfour, Sir JamesBALFOUR, SIR JAMES, Bart., of Denmylne and Kinnaird, an eminent annalist and antiquary, was born about 1600. Balfroosii, Or BarfurositBALFROOSII, or BARFUROSIT, a large commercial town of Persia, province of Mazanderan, on the River Bhawal, which is here crossed by a bridge of nine arches, about twelve miles distant from the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, where the small town of Meshed-i-Sir serves as a kind of port. Built in a low and swampy, though fertile country, and approached by deep and almost impassable roads, it wou… Balguy, JoeinBALGUY, JOEIN, an eminent English theologian and moral philosopher, was born at Sheffield on August 12, 1686. He received his early education partly under his father, and partly under Mr Daubuz, his father's successor, in the grammar-school of that town. He entered St John's College, Cambridge, in 1702, graduated Bachelor of Arts in 1706, was ordained to the ministry in 1710, and soon after obtain… BaliolBALIOL, or Rumor., SIR JOHN DE, an English baron, after whom Balliol College in Oxford has been named, was the son of Hugh Baliol, of Bernard's Castle, in the diocese of Durham. Bali, Or Little JavaBALI, or LITTLE JAVA, one of the Sunda Islands, in the Eastern Seas, separated from Java by the straits of the same name, which are a mile and a half wide. It is 75 miles in length ; its greatest breadth is 50 miles. A chain of mountains crosses the island in a direction E. and W., and terminates on the E. in the volcanic peak Gunungazung, 12,379 feet above the sea-level. The climate and soil are … Balite, JeanBALITE, JEAN, a French cardinal, who raised himself from a very mean station to dignity and honours. BalkanBALKAN (the ancient licernms), a mountain range that separates the waters of the Lower Danube from those that flow into the Archipelago ; or, in the more extended application of the name, the whole mountain system from the Adriatic to the Euxine. The main chain has a mean elevation of 4000 or 5000 feet, and rises in various parts to a height of 7000 or 8000. Especially towards the east it breaks u… BalkhBALKH, the ancient Baetra or Zariaspa, was formerly a great city, but is now for the most part a mass of ruins, situated on the right bank of the Adimiah or Balkh river, in a large and fertile plain 1800 feet above the sea. The modern name is, according to Vambery, the Turkish batik, or balikh, a city. The ruins, which occupy a space of about twenty miles in circuit, consist chiefly of fallen mosq… BallaBALLA.Ri [BELLARY], a district in the Madras Presidency, lies between 13' 40' and 15? 58' N. lat., 75? 44' and 78? 19' E. long. It is bounded on the N. by the Nizdm's territory, from which it is separated by the TungbhadrA river ; on the E. by the districts of Kadapa and Karnul ; on the S. by the Mysore country ; and on the W. by Mysore' and the Bombay district of Dharwar. Its extreme length from … BalladsBALLADS. The word ballad is derived from the Old French bailer, to dance, and originally meant a song sung to the rhythmic movement of a dancing chorts. Later, the word became the technical term for a partiimlar form of old fashioned French poetry, remarkable for its involved and recurring rhymes. " Laisse moi aux Jeux Floraux de Toulouse toutes ces vieux poesies Francoises comme ballades," says J… Ball Anche, PierreBALL ANCHE, PIERRE Salo's, a distinguished French philosopher of the theocratic school, was burn at Lyons in 1776. His health from infancy was extremely delicate, his nervous system was weak, and he was frequently subject to hallucinations and mental disorders. This weakness was much aggravated by his experience of the horrors consequent on the insurrection at Lyons and the siege of that town, dur… Ballarat, Or BallaaratBALLARAT, or BALLAARAT, a large and flourishing city of Australia, iu the province of Victoria. It is situated about 58 miles N.W. of Geelong, with which it is connected by railway, and about 6G miles W.N.W. of Melbourne, at an elevation of 1437 feet above the level of the sea, on a small river known as the Yarowee Creek. It consists of three portions, - Ballarat West, Ballarat East, and Sebastopo… BallaterBALLATER, a village of Aberdeenshire, Scotland, on the River Dee, 42 miles W. from Aberdeen. BallenstedtBALLENSTEDT, a city in the duchy of Anhalt-Bernburg. BalletBALLET is a word, the signification of which depends upon the century in which we find it employed. Originally derived from the Greek 13a,U.ICetv, to dance, it has passed through the medimval Latin ballare (with ballator as synonymous with saltator) to the Italian ballare and ballata, to the French ballet, to the old English word ballette, and to ballad. In old French, according to Rousseau, balle… BallinaBALLINA, a seaport and market-town of Ireland, county of Mayo, 18 miles N.N.E. of Castlebar, situated on the River Moy, which is here crossed by two bridges. It has a parish and a Roman Catholic church (the latter being in the suburb of Ardnaree on the opposite side of the river), Baptist and Methodist chapels, a court-house, three branch banks, a workhouse, hospital, dispensary, barracks, and sev… BallinasloeBALLINASLOE, a town of Ireland, province of Connaught, 91 miles W.S.W. of Dublin. Ball, JohnBALL, JOHN, a Puritan divine, of whom Baxter speaks in very high terms, was born, in 1585, at Cassington, or Chessington, near Woodstock, and died in 1640. He entered Bmzenose College, Oxford, in 1602, and remained there five years. He then migrated to St Mary's Hall, from which he took his bachelor's degree in 1608. Soon after graduating he went into Cheshire to act as tutor to the children of La… BallotBALLOT, or secret voting, has been employed in political, legislative, and judicial assemblies, and also in the proceedings of private clubs and corporations. At Athens, the dicasts, in giving their verdict, generally used balls of stone (psepla) or of metal (sponduli). Those pierced in the centre, or black in colour, signified condemnation ; those unpierced, or white, signified acquittal. The box… BallycastleBALLYCASTLE, a seaport town of Ireland, county Antrim, situated on a bay opposite Rathlin island. BallymenaBALLYMENA, a town of Ireland, county Antrim, on the Braid, an affluent of the Maine, two miles above their junction. It is 33 miles N.N.W. of Belfast, with which it is connected by railway. The town owes its prosperity chiefly to its linen trade, introduced in 1733, which gives employment to the greater part of the inhabitants. It has a parish church, several chapels and schools, a market-house, a… Balmez, Jaime LucienBALMEZ, JAIME LUCIEN, a Spanish ecclesiastic, eminent as a political writer and a philosopher, was born at Vich in Catalonia, on the 28th August 1810, and died there on the 9th July 1848. Balmoral CastleBALMORAL CASTLE, a residence of Hex' Majesty Queen Victoria, on the right bank of the River Dee, about 9 miles above Ballater and 50 miles from Aberdeen. Balnaves, HenryBALNAVES, HENRY, a Scottish Protestant, born at Kirkcaldy in Fife, in the reign of James V., and educated at the university of St Andrews. There is some doubt both as to the exact date of his birth, which has been fixed as 1520, and as to the rank in society to which he belonged. He completed his studies on the Continent, and, returning to Scotland, entered the family of the Earl of Arran, who at … BalsamBALSAM, an oleo-resin or natural compound of resin and essential oil, in such proportions that the substance is in a viscous or semi-fluid condition. The gradations from a solid resin to a limpid essential oil are insensible, and most resins have a balsamic consistency on their exudation, only hardening by exposure to air. It has been proposed to limit the name balsam to such substances as contain… BaltaBALTA, the chief town of a circle of the same name in the Russian government of Podolia. BaltardBALTARD, Louis PIERRE, a distinguished French architect and engraver, was born at Paris in 1765, and died in 1846. Baltic SeaBALTIC SEA. The name by which this inland sea is commonly designated is first found in the 1 1 th century, in the work of Adam of Bremen, entitled Chorographia Scan di'. navicv. The derivation of the word is uncertain. It seems probable that, whatever may be the etymology of the name Baltic, that of the Great and Little Belts is the same. The Swedes, Danes, and Germans call it the Ostsee or East … BaltimoreBALTIMORE, in Maryland, one of the largest and most flourishing cities in the United States of North America, is situated on the north side of the Patapsco River or Bay, 14 miles above its entrance into the Chesapeake, 37 miles N.E. of Washington, and 100 S.W. of Philadelphia. Lat. it obtained an act of incorporation. By the census of 1870 Baltimore contained 267,854 inhabitants. The city is pleas… BaluchistanBALUCHISTAN, a maritime country of Asia, whose coast is continuous with that of the north-western part of the Indian Peninsida. It is bounded on the N. by Afghanistan, on the E. by Sindh, on the S. by the Arabian Sea, and on the W. by Persia. The frontier between. Persia and Baluchistan has been drawn by an English commission, sent out in 1870 under Sir F. Goldsmid, from Gwadur Bay (about 61? 36' … Baluze, EtienneBALUZE, ETIENNE, a celebrated French scholar, was born at Tulle on the 24th of December 1630, and died iu July 1718. After completing his education at the university of Toulouse, he was invited by M. de Marra, afterwards archbishop of Paris, to undertake the superintendence of his library. De _Marra died in 1662, and Baluze, after acting as librarian to Le Teller and the archbishop of Much, obtain… BalzacBALZAC, HoNonE DE, perhaps the greatest name in the post-Revolutionary literature of France, was born at Tours in 1799, and died in 1858. His date thus corresponds with the whole period of the rise, the acme, and the decline of the Romantic school, to which he can scarcely, however, be said to have belonged. It is true that he was inspired by many of the influences that animated Victor Hugo and hi…
More To Explore
|
