AbcdABCD _ EFGH This proves the theorem for parallelograms and also for their halves, that is, for any triangles. As polygons can be divided into triangles the truth of the theorem follows at once for them, and is then by the well-known method of exhaustion extended to areas bounded by curves by inscribing polygons in, and circumscribing polygons abont, the curves. Just as (G. ? 8) a segment of a line… AbcdABCD All . .3 A'B'C"D A'11' N Slini ar Y hi.'L' But AB/KL as the rows AB and. A'B' are similar. The moment of inertia (.1 a plane figure does not change if the tigure undergoes a shear in the direction of the axis with regard to 'which the moment has been taken. If a figure has an axis of skew-symniclry, then this axis ancl the cmyugate direction. are conjugate diameters of the momental ellipse fo… AcidACID. For potash salts not named, see the handbooks of chemistry. Rubidium and C wsium. - When Bunsen and Kirchhoff in 1860 applied their method of spectrum analysis to the alkali salts which they had extracted analytically from Diirkheim mineral water, they obtained a spectrum which, in addition to the lines characteristic for sodium, potassium, and lithitun, exhibited two blue lines which were f… Andreas ProcopiiisANDREAS PROCOPIIIS, surnamed " the Great " or " the Bald," was a native of Bohemia, born about 1380. Black Pig31BLACK PIG31 ENTs form a numerous class of bodies, though those in common use are easily enumerated. They appear in commerce principally under these names : - vegetable black, carbonized vegetable matter ; lamp black, soot of oils and fats ; Indian ink, preparation of lamp black ; ivory black, carbonized ivory and bone ; bone black, carbonized bone ; blue black, washed wood charcoal ; charcoal blac… Blue PigmentsBLUE PIGMENTS. - Tile list of blue colours of real importance is not extensive, comprising, as principal items, ultramarine, Prussian blue, the cobalt blues, and indigo. The following list embraces the names and varieties ordinarily recognized in commerce : - ultramarine (native), powdered lapis lazuli ; ultramarine (artificial), silicates of alumina and soda with sulphide of sodium ; Prussian blu… Brown PigmentsBROWN PIGMENTS. - Many of the painters' browns are simply tints obtained by mixture. In the case of simple pigments the shades pass by fine gradations into yellows and reds, so that the limits of classification are not well defined. The following are generally classed as pure browns : - umber, silicate of iron and manganese ; brown ochres, called Mars brown, iron brown, &c., native and artificial … Centripetal, Or AfferCENTRIPETAL, or AFFER- less acute ach, Cc. or SENSORY, con- sensations. influences in--( veyin, b. Special, conveying to nervewards ' towards a nervecentres in brain influences which cause visual, audit- cry, gustatory, olfactory, or tactile sensations. l, & c. In addition there are nerve-fibres connecting nerve-cells in the great centres, to which no special functions can be attributed. l Althoug… Class MycetozoaCLASS MYCETOZOA, De 13ary. Characters. - Cynmomyxa which, as an exception to all other Protozoa, are not inhabitants of water but occur on dainp surfaces exposed to the air. They are never parasitic, as are some of the Proteomyxa most nearly allied to then, (Plasmodiophora, &c.), but feed on organic debris. They are structurally eharaeterized by the fact that the anneba forms, which develop either… Cortical SubstanceCORTICAL SUBSTANCE.--The superficial protoplasm of an embryonic cell of an Enterozoon in the, course of its development into a muscular cell undergoes a change which is paralleled in many Protozoa. The cortical layer becomes dense and highly refringent as cornpared with the more liquid and granular medullary substance. Probably this is essentially a change in the degree of hydration of the protopl… DefinitionDEFINITION.-- We call two planes projective if to every point in one corresponds a point in the other, to every line a line, and to a point in a line a point in the corresponding line, in such a manner that the eross-ratio of four points in a line, Or of four rays in a pencil, is equal to the eross-ratio of the corresponding points or rays. The last part about the equality of cross-ratios can be p… DesaDESA ltGITE'S TM:ORE:sr.-1f two triangles, whether in the same plane 02' Mt, are co-linear they are co-asal. Or If the lines AA', CC' joining the vertices of two triangles meet in a point, then the interseetion.s of the sides BC and 13'C', CA anxi C'A', AB and All' arc three points in a line. Conversely, If two triangles are co-axal the,y are co-linear. Or I.f the intersee.tion of the sicle,s of t… DesignsDESIGNS coo PLATE.-Giardini, Prompt uariutn Artfs Argentarim, Rome. 1750; Holbein, Original Designs for Plate, in the Print Room, British Museum, and in the Bodleian at Oxford (the South Kensington Museum also has a fine collection of original 16th-century designs in pen and ink); Viane, Models of Silver Vases, Sc,,. DynamicsDYNAMICS, where also will be found discussed such experi-mental details as bear intimately upon the theory. The article ATom contains a concise statement of the modern kinetic theory- of gases ; and in CONSTITUTION OF BODIES MoLEcuLE. The principles embodied in these articles have been msumed laroughout the present article. The cooling of a gas by its own expansion may be observed in one of its ef… Ectoplastic Products Chemically Distinct From ProtoplasmECTOPLASTIC PRODUCTS CHEMICALLY DISTINCT FROM PROTOPLASM. - The protoplasm of all cells may throw down as a molecular precipitate distinct from itself chemical compounds, such as chitin and horny matter and other nitrogenized bodies, or again non-nitrogenous compounds, such as cellulose. Very usually these substances are deposited not external to but in the superficial proto, -vrv In, plasm. They … ElanesiaELANESIA. The present article is intended to give a comprehensive view of all the islands of the Pacific, their physical characteristics, natural productions, and the races of men found upon them. The name Polynesia is therefore here employed in a wide signification and solely as a geographical term. The western boundary of this region runs from the great barrier reef of Australia ea,stward of New… Elliptic AreasELLIPTIC AREAS. - To consider one ellipse a. parallel projec-tion of another we may establish the correspondence as follows. If AC, 131) are any pair of conjugate diameters of the one and A'C', B'Ir any pair of conjugate diameters of the other, then these may be made to correspond to each other and the eorrespondeme will be completely determined if the parallelogram formed by the tangents at A, 13… EntopiENTOPI, AfiTIC PRODUCTS INSTINCT FROM PROTOPLASM.- WithOUt pausing here to discuss the nature of the finest granules which are embedded as a dust-cloud in the hyaline matrix of the purest protoplasm alike of Protozoa and of tbe cells of higher animals and plants, and leaving aside the discussion of the generalization that all protoplasm presents a reticular structure, denser trabeculLe of extreme … EoremEOREM. ny tWO COnieS are similar and similarly situated if they e2tt the line c'te infinity in the Sante tWO pantS-7'Cal, e0ineident, 01' It follows that Any two parabolas are ; awl they are similarly situated as The involution which a circle determines at its centre is circular I (G. ? 79) ; that is, every line is perpendicular to its conjugate line. , This will be cut by the line at infinity in … Flag EnFLAG EN, a busy manufacturing town of Saxony, in the government district of Zwickau, is situated on the Elster, 60 miles to the south of Leipsic. It was formerly the capital of the Voigtland, a territory governed directly by the imperial voigts or bailiffs, and this name still clings in popular speech to the hilly manufacturing district in which it lies. The most prominent buildings are the fine G… FlockFLOCK (PLoTsK), a government of Russian Poland, on the right bank of the Vistula, having the provinces of Western and Eastern Prussia on the north, and the Polish provinces of Lom2a on the east a.nd Warsaw on the south ; its area is 4200 square miles. Its flat surface, 350 to 500 feet above the sea-level, gently rises towards the north, where it merges in the Baltic coast-ridge of the Prussian lak… FlockFLOCK, capital of the above province, is situated on the right bank of the Vistula, 60 miles to the west-north-west of Warsaw. FogyFOGY, a popular name for the fish Clupea 'menhaden, almost universally in use in the States of Maine and Massachusetts (SCC AfENHADEN, V01. General Form Of The Protozoon CellGENERAL FORM OF THE PROTOZOON CELL - Those Proto-zoa which have not a differentiated cortical substance, and are known as Gymnornyxa, present very generally an extreme irregularity of contour. Their protoplasm, being liquid rather than viscous, flows into the most irregular shapes. Their fundamental form when at rest is in many cases that of the sphere ; others are discoidal or may be monaxial, th… GradeGRADE A. 01:1/21"01/1"X..4, Lankester, 1878 (64). Clutraeters. - Protozoa in which the cell-protoplasm is entirely or partially exposed to the surrounding medium, (luring the active vegetative phase of the life-history, as a naked undifferentiated slime or viscous fluid, which throws itself into processes or " pseudopodia" of various form either rapidly changing or relatively constant. Food can be… GraphyGRAPHY, passim. Sulph.ate (K,SO4) used to be extracted from kainite, but the process is now given up because the salt can be produced cheaply enough from the muriate by decomposing it with its exact equi-valent of oil of vitriol and calcining the residue. To purify the crude product it is dissolved in hot water and the solution filtered and allowed to cool, when the bulk of the dissolved salt crys… GreenlandGREENLAND ((kV. ). The countrymen of Barents vied with the countrymen of Hudson in the perilous calling which annually brought fleets of ships to the Spitzbergen seas during the 18th century. The Dutch had their large summer station for boilIng down blubber at Smeerenberg, near the northern extreme of the west coast of Spitzbergen. Captain lamingh, in 1664, advanced as far round the northern end o… Green PigmentsGREEN PIGMENTS form an extensive group embracing two sections : - (l) simple greens, in which green is a primary inherent or natural colour ; and (2) compound greens, made up of intimate mixtures of blue and yellow pigments. The latter class it is obvious are capable of indefinite modification by- simply varying the proportions of the compound ingredients. The following list embraces the principal… Il Provencal LiteratiIL PROVENcAL LITERATI:LI:IE. - Provencal literature is much more easily defined than the language in which it is expressed. Starting in the llth and 12th centuries in several centres., it thence gradually spread out, first over the greater portion, though not the whole, of southern France, and then into the north of Italy and Spain. It nowhere merged in the neighbouring literatures. At the time of… ItoskuroffITOSKUROFF, a district town of the government of Podolia, Russia, situated on the railway from Odessa to Lemberg, 62 miles to the north-west of Sehmerinka junction, and on the highway- front Zhitomir to Kieff. Loh'sLOH'S of Poker. - These vary considerably. The following are based on " the American Hoyle." Determination of Deal.-1. One card is given to each player. Lowest has the deal. Ace is lowest. 'ries of lowest card have one card each oiven again. The deal goes in rotation to the left of the last deafer. Shuffling, Cuttina, and Dealing.-2. Any one may shuffle, the dealer last. 3. The player to the deale… Martin Alonzo PinzonMARTIN ALONZO PINZON, born about the middle of the 15th century, gave material assistance to Columbus in carrying out his project. In the expedition of 1492 Alonzo commanded the " Pinta," on board of which his brother Francesco was pilot ; another brother, Vicente Yaiiez, had command of the " Nina." It was at Alonzo's pursuasion that on October 7th the course of the expedition was changed to the s… North Polar RegionNORTH POLAR REGION - the Arctic Circle is a ring running a little south of the northern shores of America, Asia, and Europe, so that those shores form a fringe within the polar region, and are its boundary to the south, except at three openings, - those of the, North Atlantic, of Davis Strait, and of Behring's (more properly Bering's) Strait. The width of the approach to this region by the Atlanti… NucleusNUCLEUS. - The nucleus is probably universallypresent in the Protozoon cell, although it may have a very simple struc-ture and be of very small size in some cases. The presence of a nucleus has recently been demonstrated by means of appropriate staining reagents in some I'rotozoa (shell-bearing Reticularia or Eoraminifera and many Mycetozoa) where it had been supposed to be wanting, but we are not… ParallelPARALLEL PnoaEurtos. - If, instead of the axis, the centre be moved to infinity; all the projecting rays will be parallel, and we get what is called Parallel Projection.. Physical SciencesPHYSICAL SCIENCES.1 According to the original meaning of the word, physical science would be that knowledge which is conversant with the order of nature - that is, with the regular succession of events whether mechanical or vital - in so far as it has been reduced to a scientific form. The Greek word " physical " would thus be the exact equivalent of the Latin word "natural." In the actual develop… PhysiognomyPHYSIOGNOMY. By the Act of Parliament 17 George II. c. 5 all persons pretending to have skill in physiognomy were deemed rogues and vagabonds, and were liable to be publicly whipped, or sent to the house of correction until next sessions.' The pursuit thus stigmatized as unlawful is one of great antiquity, and one which in ancient and medimval times had an extensive though now almost forgotten lit… PhysiologusPHYSIOLOGUS, the most common title of a collection of some fifty Christian allegories much read in the Middle Ages, and still existing in several forms and in about a dozen Eastern and Western languages. As nearly all its imagery is taken from the animal world, it is also known as the Bestiary. There can be hardly a doubt about the time and general circumstances of its origin. Christian teachers, … Physiology General ViewPHYSIOLOGY GENERAL VIEW - the word "physiology " may be used either in a general or in a more restricted sense. In its more general meaning it was used largely of old, and is still occasionally used in popular writings, to denote all inquiry into the nature of living beings. A very slight acquaintance, however, with the phenomena of living beings shows that these can be studied from two, apparentl… Physiology Nervous SystemPHYSIOLOGY NERVOUS SYSTEM - To supplement the foregoing general sketch some detailed account must be given of the physiology of the several functions. Nun:LITTON (q.v.) has received separate treatment ; a sketch of the " Nervous System" is now appended ; and RESPIRATION and Rumor:I:mos will be dealt with in their places. However complex may be the anatomical arrangements in man and the higher anim… Physiology Of PlantsPHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS - the body of a plant, like that of an animal, consists of one or more structural units which are termed "cells," and in plants, as in animals, the cell consists essentially of an individualized mass of protoplasm. The probable structure and chemical composition of protoplasm have been already considered. It need only be stated here that the protoplasmic cell-contents do not c… PiacenzaPIACENZA (Fr., Plaisance ; Lat., Placentia), a city of Italy, a bishop's see, and the chief town of a province, lies on the Lombard plain, 217 feet above sea-level, not far from the right bank of the Po, just below the confluence of the Trebbia. By rail it is 43 miles south-east of Milan and 35; north-west of Parma. Formerly a place of considerable strength, it is still surrounded by walls with ba… PianofortePIANOFORTE. The group of keyed stringed instruments, among which the pianoforte is latest in order of time, has been invented and step by step developed with the modern art of music, which is based upon the simultaneous employment of different musical sounds. In the 10th century the " organum " arose, an elementary system of accompaniment to the voice, consisting oi fourths and octaves below the m… PiaristsPIARISTS, the popular name of the " clerici regulares scholarum yrkarunt,' the Pauline Congregation of the Mother of God, which was founded by Joseph Calasanza (Josephus a Matre Dei) at Route in the beginning of the 17th century. Calasanza, a native of Calasanz in the province of Huesca in Aragon, was born on September 11, 1556, studied at Lerida and Alcala, and after Ins ordination to the priesth… PiatraPIATRA, a town of _Roumania (Moldavia) at the head of the department of Neamtsu, on the left bank of the Bistritza, an affluent of the Sereth. Piazza ArmPIAZZA ARM E RINA (Sicilian, Chiruza), a city of Italy, in the province of Caltanisetta, Sicily, on a hill 39 miles by road east-south-east of the city of that name, and 30 miles north of Terranova on the coast. It is a flourishing and populous place (17,038 inhabitants in the city and 19,591 in the commune in 1881), has an 18th-century cathedral, an episcopal palace, and a communal library (1859)… PicardyPICARDY (La Picardie), one of the old feudal provinces of France, was bounded N. by Hainanlt, Artois, and the English Channel, E. by Champagne, S. by ile-de France, and W. by Normandy and the Channel, Northern Picardy (subdivided into Upper and Lower Picardy) was formed into one of the great military governorships of the kingdom, while Southern Picardy was included in the governorship of Ile-de-Fr… Piccini, Or PiccinniPICCINI, or PICCINNI, NiccoLa (1728-1800), musical composer, was born at Bari in 1728, and educated, under Leo and Durante, at the Conservatorio di San Onofrio in Naples. His first opera, Le Donne dispettose, produced in 1754, won him a high reputation, which he maintained creditably until 1760, when he composed, at Rome, the chef dteucre of his early life, Let Cecchina, ossia la Buona Figlinola, … Pichegru, CharlesPICHEGRU, CHARLES (1761-1804), the conqueror of Holland, was born at Arbois in the Jura on February 16, 1761. His father was only a labourer, but the friars who managed the college of Arbois gave the boy a good education, and one of his masters, the Pere Patrault, took him to the military school of Brienne. In 1783 he entered the first regiment of artillery, where he rapidly rose to the rank of ad… PicklesPICKLES. The term pickle was originally applied to herrings preserved in salt brine, and by a pickle is still meant any preservative solution for either animal or vegetable food, that for flesh and fish being a brine of common salt, usually with saltpetre, sugar, and certain spices added, while for vegetable substances vinegar is the principal pickling medium. Preparations of the latter descriptio… PicoPICO, GiovANNI, OF INIMANDOLA (1463-1,194), was the youngest son of Giovanni Francesco Pico, prince of Mirandola, a small territory about 30 Italian miles west of Ferrara, afterwards absorbed in the duchy of Modena. The family was illustrious and wealthy, and claimed descent from Constantine. From his childhood Pico was remarkable for his quick and tenacious memory, and gave Fromise of his future … Picton, Sir ThomasPICTON, SIR THOMAS (1758-1815), general under Wellington in the Peninsular War, was the younger son of Thomas Picton, of Poyston, Pembrokeshire, whore he was born in August 1758. In 1771 he obtained antnsign's commission in the 12th regiment of foot, but he did not join until two years afterwards. The regiment was then stationed at Gibraltar, where he remained until he was made captain in the 75th… PiedmontPIEDMONT (Italian, Piemonte; Low Latin, Pedenzons and Pedenzontizon), a region of northern Italy, bounded N. by Switzerland, W. by France, S. by Liguria, and E. by Lombardy. Physically it may be briefly described as the upper gathering-ground and valley of the river Po, enclosed on all sides except towards the Lombard plain by the vast semicircle of the Pennine, Graian, Cottian, Maritime, and Ligu… Pierce, FranklinPIERCE, FRANKLIN (1804-1869), fourteenth president of the United States, was descended from an old yeoman family of New England, and was born at Hillsborough, New Hampshire, 23d November 1804. His father, Benjamin Pierce, served through the revolutionary war, afterwards attaining the rank of major-general, and became governor of his State. The son entered Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine, in 1820… PietismPIETISM. Pietism is the name of an exceedingly influential, instructive, and interesting movement in the Lutheran Church which arose towards the end of the 17th and continued during the first half of the following century. The name of Pietists was given to the adherents of the movement by its enemies, as a term of ridicule, like that of " Methodists " somewhat later in England. The origin and natu… Pigalle, Jean BaptistsPIGALLE, JEAN BAPTISTS (1714-1785), French sculptor, was born at Paris on 26th January 1714. Pigault-lebrun, Charles Antoine Guillau31iPIGAULT-LEBRUN, CHARLES ANTOINE GUILLAu31I:, sometimes called PIGAULT DE L'EPTNOY (1753-1835), the chief fiction writer of the first empire, and the most. popular light novelist of France before Paul de Kock, was born at Calais (11e is said to have traced his pedigree Gu the mother's side to Eustache de St Pierre) on April 8, 1753. His youth was decidedly stormy. lie twice carried off young ladies… PigeonPIGEON,' French Pigeon., Italian Piccione and Pipione, Latin Pipio, literally a nestling-bud that pipes or cries out, a " Piper " - the very name now in use among Pigeon-fanciers. The word Pigeon, doubtless of Norman introduction as a polite term, seems to bear much the same relation to Dove, the word of Anglo-Saxon origin, that mutton has to sheep, beef to ox, veal to calf, and pork to bacon; but… PigmentsPIGMENTS are coloured powders which, when mixed with oil, water, or other fluids, in which they are insoluble, form paints. They are distinguished from dyes and washes by their entire insolubility in the media in which they are mixed, whereas dye-stuffs are tinctorial sub-stances applied in solution. Insoluble colours, when used in printing textile fabrics, are distinguished as pigment colours. Th… PikePIKE, freshwater fishes generally distributed over the rivers and lakes of Europe, northern Asia, and North America, and forming a small family (Esocickr) of Soft-rayed Fishes. They are readily recognized by their elongate compressed body covered with small scales, a long head, long and spatulate snout, and very large mouth armed with strong and long teeth in the jaws and broad bands of smaller te… Pike-perchPIKE-PERCH (Lucioperca), freshwater fishes closely allied to the perch, but with strong canine teeth standing between the smaller teeth of the jaws and palate. As indicated by the name, these fishes show some slight resemblance to the pike in their elongate body and head, and like that fish they are most dangerous enemies to other freshwater fishes. Their acclimatization therefore in waters intend… PilatePILATE,1 PONTIUS, the fifth Roman procurator or "governor" (brirpolros, irp/av) of Judma, Samaria, and Idumala, succeeded Valerius Gratus in 26 A.D. By rank he was a Roman eques, possibly of Samnite extraction ; his official appointment he owed to the influence of Sejanus. His ordinary residence as procurator was- at Caesarea, the capital, but from time to time lie visited Jerusalem, especially at… PilchardPILCHARD (Clupea pitchardus), a fish of the herring family (Clapeielze), abundant in the Mediterranean and on the Atlantic coasts of Europe, northwards to the British Channel. Sardine is another name for the same fish, which on the coast of Britanny and Normandy is also called Celan or Celeren. It is readily distinguished from the other European species of Clupea or herrings. The operculum is scul… PilgrimagePILGRIMAGE. The word Pilgrimage (derived from the Latin pereger, i.e., per-ager, "one who traverses a region," through the intermediate forms peregrinus, pellegrino, pelegrin) denotes the act of journeying to some place esteemed sacred, for the purpose of discharging a religious obligation, or to obtain some supernatural assistance or benefit. The practice is common to many religions, and mounts b… PilloryPILLORY. This was a' mode of punishment by public exposure of the offender on a platform or scaffold long used in most countries of Europe, originating probe ably with the Anglo-Saxons, one of whose methods of punishment as described by Strutt is nearly identical with the instrument which eventually became known as the pillory. The etymology is not quite clearly made out. It is most probably conne… PilotPILOT. The English Merchant Shipping Act of 1854 (17 & 18 Vict. c. 104) defines a pilot as being a person duly licensed by any pilotage authority to conduct ships to which he does not belong as one of the crew. Pilots are in fact taken on board to superintend the steering of the vessel, where the navigation is difficult and dangerous, in consequence of their special knowledge of particular waters;… Pilot-fishPILOT-FISH (IYaucrates Actor), a pelagic fish of the family of Horse-Mackerels, well known to sailors from its peculiar habit of keeping company with ships and large fishes, especially sharks. It occurs in all tropical and sub-treThical seas, and is common in the Mediterranean, but becomes scarcer in higher latitudes. In summer pilots will follow ships as far north as the south coast of England in… PilsenPILSEN, the second town of Bohemia, lies at the confluence of the Radbusa and the Mies, 50 miles to the south-west of Prague. It consists of the town proper, which is regularly built and surrounded with promenades on the site of the old ramparts, and of three suburbs. The most prominent buildings are the Gothic church of St Bartholomew, said to date from 1292 ; the Renaissance town-house, containi… PimentoPIMENTO, also called ALLSPICE (from a supposed combination of various flavours) and JAMAICA PEPPER, is the dried immature fruit of Eugenio Pintentet or Pimento ggie!inal is, an evergreen tree about 30 feet high belonging to the natural order Myrtoeeer. It is indigenons.in the West India Islands, growing on limestone hills near the sea. The spice derives its name from pimiento, the Spanish word for… PinePINE (Pinus, Gr. virus), a name given by the ancients to some of the resinous cone-bearing trees to which it is now applied, and, as limited by modern botanists, the designation of a large genus of true conifers (Abietinx), differing from the firs in their hard woody cone-scales being thickened at the apex, and in their slender needle-shaped leaves growing from a membranous sheath, either in pairs… Pine-applePINE-APPLE. The pine-apple so-called consists in reality of the inflorescence of the plant, the originally separate flowers of which, together with the bracts supporting them, become fleshy and consolidated into one mass. The swelling and fusion of the tissues take place after the process of fertilization, and it may be that the richly perfumed succulent mass is an aid in the distribution of seed … Pinel, PhilippePINEL, PHILIPPE (1745-1826), a distinguished French physician, was born at the chateau of Rascas, Saint-Andre, in the department of Tarn, France, on April 20, 1745. He studied at Lavaur and afterwards at the university of Toulouse, where he took his doctor's degree in 1773. From Montpellier, where he taught mathematics and at the same time carried on his medical studies, he removed in 1778 to Pari… PineroloPINEROLO, a city of Italy, in the province of Turin (Piedmont), is built in a straggling manner on a hill-side just above the junction of the valleys of the Chisone and the Lemina, at a height of 1237 feet above the sea, 23k miles by rail south-west of Turin. It is the terminus of the branch railway from Turin by Sangone or Nichellino, and has steam tramways running up to Perosa (12 miles) and sou… PinkPINK. As usually applied this word corresponds to a genus of Caryophyllacere, the Dianthus of botanists. It is characterized by the presence of opposite simple leaves proceeding from thickened nodes, a cymose inflorescence, a tubular calyx surrounded by a number of overlapping bracts, a showy corolla of five free long-stalked petals, ten stamens proceeding, together with the petals, from a short s… Pinkerton, JohnPINKERTON, JOHN (1758-1826), archatologist, numismatist, historian, geographer, and miscellaneous writer in prose and verse, was born at Edinburgh, February 17, 1758. After a brief education at Lanark he was articled as a law clerk in Edinburgh, his earliest work, printed during his clerkship, being an Elegy on Craigmillar Castle (1776). In 1780 he removed to London to devote himself to literary w… PinskPINSK, a district town of the government of Minsk, Russia, is situated in a marshy region at the confluence of the Strumefi and Pina rivers, 172 miles to the south-west of Minsk. It has a lyceum, several primary schools, and a great number of Jewish schools. The town is almost entirely built of wood, and has a poor appearance. The population (13,000 in 1865) was in 1884 22,950, more than four-fift… Pinto, Fernao MendesPINTO, FERNAO MENDES (1509(?)-1583), a noted Portuguese adventurer, was born in 1509 or 1510 at Montemor-o-Velho, near Coimbra, and died near Lisbon, July 18, 1583. After spending some years in Lisbon and Setubal, and experiencing various adventures, he left his native country in 1537, in a fleet of five ships, committing himself to a career of adventure at sea, which lasted twenty-one years, in t… PinturicchioPINTURICCHIO (1454-1513), whose full name was BERNARDINO DI BETTI, the son of a citizen of Perugia, Benedetto or Betto di Biagio, was one of a very important group of painters who inherited the artistic traditions and developed the style of the older Perngian painters such as Bonfigli and Fiorenzo di Lorenzo. According to Vasari lie was a pupil of Perugino ; and so in one sense no doubt he was, bu… PinzonPINZON, a family of wealthy Spanish navigators, of Palos de Moguer, in Andalusia, three members of which - Alonzo, Francesco, and Vicente, brothers - were associated with Columbus in his great discovery. PiotrkowPIOTRKOW, the chief town of a government of the same name in Russian Poland, and formerly the seat of the high court of Poland, is situated on the railway from Warsaw to Vienna, 90 miles by rail to the south-west of the capital, 5 miles to the west of the river Pilica. Piozzi, Hester LynchPIOZZI, HESTER LYNCH (1741-1821), the daughter of John Salisbury of Bodville, Carnarvonshire, was born there, as it would appear from a protracted dispute between Croker and Macaulay, 27th January 1741. After an education which extended considerably beyond that given to most ladies of her period - for she was acquainted with the learned languages as well as with French, Italian, and Spanish - she … PipePIPE (see Music, vol. xvii. p. 77 ; and ORGAN, ib. p. 829). Strutt, in his Sports and Pastimes of the People of England, gives representations of the pipe and tabor as used in England in the 14th century to accompany a dancing-dog, a cock on stilts, a horse rearing, Sc. From the drawings we cannot ascertain the nature of the pipe represented. We may, however, suppose it to have been similar to the… Pipe-fishesPIPE-FISHES, small marine fishes, which with the Sea-horses form a distinct family, Syngnathidtr, of the order of Lophobranchiate Fishes (see IorrnroLoGY, vol. xii. p. 69-1). The name is derived from the peculiar form of their snout, which is produced into a more or less long tube, ending in a narrow- and small mouth which opens upwards and is toothless. The body and tail are long and thin, snak… Pipe, TobaccoPIPE, TOBACCO. The smoking of tobacco in pipes is a custom which prevailed in America for a period of unknown duration previous to the discovery of that continent by Columbus. The most ancient pipes of which remains exist have been found in mounds or tumuli called pipe mounds, principally in the States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa. These mound pipes, which are carved in porphyry and other … PipiiPIPII Grumo (c. 1492-1516), the head of the Roman school of painting in succession to Raphael. This prolific painter, modeller, architect, and engineer is currently named Glum? (or Junto) RomAxo, from the place of his birth - Rome, in the Macao de' Corbi. His name in full was Giulio di Pietro di Filippo de' Giannuzzi,--Giannuzzi being the true family name, and Pippi (which has practically- superse… PipitPIPIT, French Pipit, cognate with the Latin Pipio (see PIGEON, supra p. 84), the name applied by ornithologists to a group of birds having a great resemblance both in habits and appearance to the LAuxs (vol. xiv. p. 317), with which they were formerly confounded by systematists as they are at the present clay in popular speech, but differing from them in several important characters, and, having b… Pippin, Or PensPIPPIN, or PENS, a name borne by several members of the Carlovingian family. (1) Pippin of Landen, or Pippin the Old, mayor of the palace, died 639. (2) His grandson, Pippin of Heristal, the father of Charles Martel, died 714. (3) Martel's son, Pippin the Short, king of the Franks, died 768. PiquaPIQUA, a city of Miami county, Ohio, U.S., is situated in a rich agricultural district on the Miami river, on the Miami and Erie Canal, and on the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and St Louis and the Cincinnati and Michigan railways, about 90 miles N. by E. of Cincinnati. PiquetPIQUET, a game at cards. The name, of uncertain etymology, is probably from pique (the spade suit). The Germans had formerly a Schwerter game, the packs used li being like piquet packs. The pique of French cards corresponds to the spade (sword) of Italian and to the espadas of Spanish cards. Hence piquet may be the sword game. It seems likely that piquet is a development of rmffr, a game mentioned… PiracyPIRACY. Sir Edward Coke (Instit. iii. 113) describes a pirate (Latin pirata, from Greek 7raparljs) as hostis humani generis, and as a rover and robber upon the sea. Piracy may be defined in law as an offence which consists in the commission of those acts of pillage and violence upon the high seas which on land would amount to felony. By the ancient common law of England piracy, if committed by a s… Piranesi, Giovanni BattistaPIRANESI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, an eminent Italian engraver of ancient architectural subjects, was born in the former half of the 18th century, and studied his art at Rome. The great remains of that city kindled his enthusiasm and demanded portrayal. His hand faithfully imitated the actual remains of a fabric ; his invention, catching the design of the original architect, supplied the parts that were… PirmasensPIRMASENS, a small manufacturing town of the Bavarian palatinate, lies in a hilly district, nearly 40 miles west by south of Spires. PirnaPIRNA, an ancient town of Saxony, lies on the left bank of the Elbe, on the margin of the " Saxon Switzerland," 11 miles above Dresden. It is on the whole a regularly built town, with promenades on the site of the former ramparts, but contains no notable edifices except the fine Gothic Hauptkirche (1502-46) and the townhouse. The chief source of its prosperity is formed by the excellent sandstone … Piron, AlexisPIRON, ALEXIS (1689-1773), the foremost epigrammatist of France, was born at Dijon on the 9th July 1689. His father, Aims Piron, was an apothecary, but was also a frequent writer of verse in Burgundian patois. Alexis began life as clerk and secretary to a banker, and then studied law without any success or much seriousness. As a young man he made himself notorious by the composition of a piece of … PisaPISA, which has always been one of the most important cities of central Italy, is situated on the banks of the Arno at a short distance from the sea, in the midst of a fertile plain backed by marble mountains wooded with pines and other forest trees. In the days of Strabo it was only two geographical miles from the sea-shore, but the continual increase of the delta at the mouth of the river has n… PisanelloPISANELLO. See PISANO, VITTORE. PISANO, ANDREA. Andrea da Pontadera (c. 12701348), generally known as Andrea Pisano, the chief pupil of GIOVANNI PISANO (q.v.), was born about 1270, and first learned the trade of a goldsmith, as did many other afterwards celebrated artists. This early training was of the greatest value to him in his works in bronze, to which the manipulation of the precious metals … PisanoPISANO, GlovAxN-1 (c. 1250-1330), son of NieGot.A PisANo (see below), born about 1250, was but little inferior to his father either as an architect or a sculptor. Together with Arnolfo del Cambio and other pupils, he developed and extended into other parts of Italy the renaissance of sculpture which in the main was due to the extraordinary talent of that distinguished artist. After he had spent th… PisanoPISANO, NiccoLA. (c. 1206-1278), one of the chief sculptors and architects of mediaeval Italy, was born about 1206. Though he called himself Pisanus, from Pisa, where most of his life was spent, he was not a Pisan by birth. There are two distinct accounts of his parentage, both derived mainly from existing documents. According to one of these he is said to have been the son of " Petrus, a notary o… Pisanus, LeonardusPISANUS, LEONARDUS (Leonardo of Pisa), an Italian mathematician of the 13th century who has left the stamp of his name on a whole period in the history of the science. Of Leonardo's personal history few particulars are known. His father was called Boncveio, most probably a nickname with the ironical meaning of " a good stupid fellow," while to Leonardo himself another nickname Biqollone (dunce, bl… PisciculturePISCICULTURE. This art as at present pursued is not limited to those animals which are grouped by zoologists in the class of Pisces. " Fishery " is now understood to signify the exploitation of all products of the sea, lake, and river, the capture of whales, turtles, pearls, corals, and sponges, as well as of fish proper. The purpose of fish-culture (or aille?ulture, as it is in France more approp… PisekPISEK, a small town of Bohemia, 55 miles to the south of Prague, lies on the right bank of the Wottawa, which is here crossed by an interesting stone bridge of great antiquity. The town generally has a medimval air, heightened by the preservation of part of the old walls and bastions. The most prominent buildings are the church of the Nativity, the town-house, and the venerable chateau. The name o… PisidiaPISIDIA, in ancient geography, was the name given to a country in the south of Asia Minor, immediately north of Pamphylia, by which it was separated from the Mediterranean, while it was bounded on the north by Phrygia, on the east by Isauria, Lycaonia, and Cilicia, and on the west and south-west by Lycia and a part of Phrygia (see vol. xv. Pl. II.). It was a rugged and mountainous district, compri… PisistratusPISISTRATUS, citizen and afterwards tyrant of Athens, was the son of Hippocrates, through whom he traced his pedigree to Neleus and Nestor, princes of Messene in the Heroic Age. A branch of the family had reigned at Athens in the persons of Codrus and his descendants. Pisistratus was second cousin to Solon, their mothers having been cousins, and the early friendship between the two men was not ent… Pistoia, Or PistojaPISTOIA, or PISTOJA, a well-walled ancient city, 21 miles north-west of Florence, on a slight. eminence near the Ombrone, one of the tributaries of the Arno; it now contains about 12,500 inhabitants. The chief manufacture of the place is iron-working, especially fire-arms.3 It is on the site of the Roman Pistoria, of which little trace remains. During the Middle Ages Pistoia was at times a dangero… Pitcairne, ArchibaldPITCAIRNE, ARCHIBALD (1652-1713), a distinguished Scottish physician, born at Edinburgh in 1652, and descended of an ancient Fifeshire family which barely escaped extinction at the battle of Flodden, - the proprietor of the estate and his seven sons having fallen in the battle, and the succession being only preserved by the birth of a posthumous child. After obtaining some classical education at t… Pitcairn-, Or Pitcairn's IslandPITCAIRN-, or PITCAIRN'S ISLAND, an island of the eastern Pacific, in 25?4' N. lat. and 130? 8' W. long., may be considered as a member or appendage of the Paumotu, Tuamotu, Low, or Dangerous Archipelago, but is nearly 100 miles south of Oeno. It is not more than 3 miles long from east to west and about 2 miles broad. Unlike the other islands of this region it has no coral reef, but rises abruptly… Pithou, PierrePITHOU, PIERRE (1539-1596), lawyer and scholar, was born at Troyes on November 1, 1539. His taste for literature was early seen, and his father, an advocate, cultivated it to the utmost. He first studied at Troyes, and afterwards went to Paris, where he completed his classical studies under Adrien Turnebe and Pierre Galand. He next attended the lectures in law of Cujas at Bourges and Valence, and … PittaPITTA, in Ornithology, from the Telegu Pitta, meaning ornithologists as the general name for a group of -Birds, called by the French Paws, and remarkable for their great beauty.2 For a long while the Pittas were commonly supposed to be allied to the Turclider, and some English writers applied to them the name of " Water-Thrushes and "Ant-Thrushes," though there was no evidence of their having aqua… PittacusPITTACUS of Mytilene in Lesbos, one of the seven sages of Greece-, was born in 651 B.C. His father Hyrradius (or Caicus) was a Thracian, his mother was a Lesbian. About 611 B.C. Pittacus, along with the brothers of the poet Alueus, overthrew Melanchrus, tyrant of Lesbos. In a war between the Mytilenians and Athenians for the possession of the town of Sigeum on the Hellespont, Pittacus, as general … PittsburghPITTSBURGH, the second largest city of Pennsylvania, and the leading iron, steel, and glass manufacturinc, centre of the 17nited States, lies at the confluence of the Allegheny and the Monongahela, which unite here to form the Ohio, 250 miles west by north of Philadelphia. The business quarter of the city is built on a nearly level triangular plain, between the two rivers, measuring about three qu… PittsfieldPITTSFIELD, a borough and township of the United States, the shire town of Berkshire county, Massachusetts, lies at a height of from 1000 to 1200 feet above the sea on a plain between the Hoosacs on the east and the Taconics on the west. It is traversed by the headwaters of the Housatonic and Hoosac rivers, and derives its supply of drinking water from Lake Ashley, a romantic loch on the top of th… PittstonPITTSTON, a borough of the United States, in Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, on the east bank of the Susquehanna, just below the confluence of the Lackawanna, 105 miles north by west of Philadelphia. Pitt, WilliamPITT, WILLIAM (1759-1806), the second son of William Pitt, earl of Chatham, and of Lady Hester Grenville, daughter of Hester, Countess Temple, was born on the 28th of May 1759. The child inherited a name which, at the time of his birth, was the most illustrious in the civilized world, and was pronounced by every Englishman with pride, and by every enemy of England with mingled admiration and terro… PiusPIUS V. (Michele Ghislieri), pope from 1566 to 1572, was born at Bosco in the duchy of Milan, January 17, Before Ghislieri could return to his episcopate, Pius IV. died, and on January 7, 1566, he was elected to the papal chair with duly attendant prodigies, his coronation taking place on his birthday, ten days later. Fully alive to the necessity of restoring discipline and morality at Rome to ens… PiusPIUS I. Pius 1vPIUS 1V. (Giovanni Angelo Medici), pope from 1559 to 1565, was born of humble parentage at Milan, March 31, 1499. His early career connects itself in sonic measure with the romantic rise of his elder brother from the position of bravo to that of Marchese di Marignano. After studying at Bologna and acquiring reputation as a jurist, he went in 1527 to Rome, and as the favourite of Paul III. was rapi… Pius IiPIUS II. (Enea Silvio Piccolonaini, commonly known in literature as iEneas Sylvius), pope from 1458 to 1464, " whose character reflects almost every tendency of the age in which he lived," was born at Corsignano in the Sienese territory, October 18, 1405, of a noble but decayed family. After studying at the universities of Siena and Florence, he settled in the former city as a teacher, but in 1431… Pius IiiPIUS III. (Francesco Todeschini), pope from September 22 to October 18, 1503, was born at Siena, May 9, 1439. As the nephew of Pius II. by his sister Laodamia, he was received into favour by that pontiff, who permitted him to assume the name and arms of the Piceolornini, and raised him, when only twenty-two years of age, to the see of Siena and the cardinalate. He was employed by subsequent popes … Pius IxPIUS IX. (Giovanni Maria Mastai Ferretti), pope from 1S46 to 1878, was born 13th May 1792 at Sinigaglia, near Ancona, the fourth son of Count Jerome and the Countess Catherine Vollazi of the same place. The family of Mastai is of ancient descent, and its representatives have frequently filled the office of mayor in Sinigaglia. The title of count was first given to its head by Prince Farnese, duke … Pius ViiPIUS VII. (Gregorio Luigi Barnaba Chiaramonti), pope from 1800 to 1823, was born at Cesena on August 14, 1742. After studying at Ravenna, he entered the Benedictine monastery of St Mary in his native town, but was almost immediately sent by his superiors to Padua and to Rome for a further course of studies in theology. He then held various teaching appointments in the colleges of his order at Parm… Pius ViiiPIUS VIII. (Francesco Xaviero Castiglioni), pope, was born at Cingoli near Ancona on November 20, 1761. Pizarro, FranciscoPIZARRO, FRANCISCO (C. 1471-1541), discoverer of Peru, and the principal hero of its conquest, born at Truxillo in Estremadura, Spain, about the year 1471, was an illegitimate son of Gonzalo Pizarro, who as colonel of infantry afterwards served in Italy under Gonsalvo de Cordova, and in Navarre, with some distinction. Of Pizarro's early years hardly anything is known ; but he appears to have been … PlaguePLAGUE (Am/16s, Pestis, Pestilentia). This name has been given to any epidemic disease causing a great mortality, and in this sense was used by Galen and the ancient medical writers, but is now confined to a special disease, otherwise called Oriental, Levantine, or Bubonic Plague, which may be shortly defined as a specific febrile disease, transmissible from the sick to healthy persons, accompanie… PlaicePLAICE (Pleuronectes platessa), a species of Flat-fish, common on the coasts of northern Europe from Iceland to the Bay of Biscay. It is readily recognized by the yellow or orange-coloured spots which are placed in a row along the dorsal and anal fins, and scattered over the body. The eyes are on the right side, and the teeth in the jaws compressed and truncate. The scales arc minute and smooth. I… PlainfieldPLAINFIELD, a city of the -United States, in Union county, New Jersey, lies at the foot of Mount Orange, and on the left side of the Green Brook, a tributary of the Raritan. Plain Song, Or Plain ChantPLAIN SONG, or PLAIN CHANT ((lief/0/4(M Music; Lat. Cantos planus ; Ital. Canto Oregon:cow ; Fr. Plain Chant), a style of music, easily recognizable by certain strongly-marked characteristics, sonic very ancient fragments of which are believed to have been in use under the Jewish dispensation from a remote period, and to have been thence transferred to the ritual of the Christian church. The theor… PlanariansPLANARIANS. The name Ramaria was first applied by 0. F. Muller in his Prodromus Zoo/ogix Daniew (1776) to a group of worms, inhabitants of fresh and salt water, characterized, so far as was then known, by a flattened leaf-like form. Ehrenberg in 1831 changed this name to Turbellaria on account of the cilia with which the body is furnished, by means of which the worms create a whirlpool in the surr… Planck, GottliebPLANCK, GOTTLIEB JAKort (1751-1833), theologian and church historian, was born at NUrtingen in Wiirtemberg, where his father was a notary, on November 15, 1751. He was educated for the Protestant ministry at Blaubeuren, Bebenhausen, and Tubingen, and from 1774 to 1784 held successive appointments as repetent, preacher, and professor in Tubingen and Stuttgart. In 1781 he published anonymously the f… PlantagenetPLANTAGENET. This surname, distinctive of a line of kings who ruled in England for more than three hundred years, was first adopted by Geoffrey, count of _Anjou, in reference to a sprig of broom (phoda, yenistx) which he is said to have worn in his bonnet. He is described by early writers as a very handsome man, but there was certainly nothing very striking in his character. He was the son of Fulk… PlantainPLANTAIN (Lat. plantayo), a name given to plants with broad palm-like leaves. This is the case with certain species of 11,tntago, ilis?ut, and Hasa, to all of which the term is popularly applied. Of the Ilantryo little need be said here, the species being for the most part mere weeds, though one species, P. Ignceolata, is eaten by cattle, and the seeds of another, I'. ma or, are collected for the … Plantin, ChristophePLANTIN, CHRISTOPHE (1514-1589), born in a village near Tours (probably Saint-Avertin) in 1514, learned book-binding and book-selling at Caen, and, having mar' ried in that town, settled in 1549 as bookbinder in Antwerp, then the principal commercial town of the Netherlands, where he was soon known as the first in his profession. A bad wound in the arm, which unfitted him for this occupation, seem… PlasenciaPLASENCIA, a city of Spain and an episcopal see, in the north of the province of Caceres (Estremadura), is pleasantly situated on the right bank of the Xerte or Jerte, a sub-tributary of the Tagus, and at the foot of the sierras of Bejar and Vera, continuations of the Guadarrama range. Plata, Rio De LaPLATA, RIO DE LA. Sec PLATE RIVER, p. 187. PLAN/EA, or PLATME, a celebrated city of ancient Greece, lay at the foot of the northern slope of Mount Cithalron in Boeotia, about 61 miles by road south of Thebes, or a little over 5 geographical miles in a direct line. Its territory was separated from that of Thebes by the river Asopus. The Thebans claimed to have founded Platoa, but, however this may … PlatePLATE. The word plate (connected with the Greek ITA.0.1-1s, flat, the late Latin /data = loiniaa, and the Spanish plot's, silver) is usually employed to denote works in silver or gold which belong to any class other than those of personal ornaments or coins.' On account of the ease with which it can be worked and the pure state in which it is generally found, it is probable that gold was the first… PlateauPLATEAU., JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND, was born at Brussels in 1801, and died in 1883 at Ghent, where he had been professor of physics from 1835. He was a pupil and friend of Quctelet, who had much influence on the early part of his career. The more original investigations of Plateau refer chiefly to portions of one or other of two branches of science - physiological optics and molecular forces. His … Plated WarePLATED WARE. The plating or coating of one metal or alloy with another is extensively practised in metal working. In some cases the coating metal is a valuable protector from oxidation, &c., of the underlying metal ; in other cases the properties and advantages of two metals - such as strength and lustre - are combined in one object ; and more frequently a cheap and inferior body by a superficial … Platen-hallermund, August, GrafPLATEN-HALLERMUND, AUGUST, GRAF vox (1796? 1835), German poet, was born at Ansbach on October 24, 1796, and died at Syracuse on December 5, 1835. Plate, The RiverPLATE, THE RIVER, or Rio DE LA PLATA (" River of Silver "), in South America (see vol. ii. Plate xxv., and vol. iv. Plate xvii,), was at first known as Rio de Solis, after Juan Diaz de Solis, who discovered it in 1515, and lost his life on its banks. The present name, a double misnomer, was bestowed by Sebastian Cabot, who, ignorant that he was on the wrong side of the continent, thought he had re… Platinum And The Platinum MetalsPLATINUM AND THE PLATINUM METALS. The metals platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd), rhodium (Rh), iridium (Ir), ruthenium (11u), and osmium (Os) are united into a family by a striking similarity in chemical characters and by their association in natural occurrence. A rather rare ore, called platinum ore or polyxene, is almost the only native material which is available for their extraction ; it contains t… Platon, LevshjnPLATON, LEVSHJN (1737-1812), a celebrated Russian archbishop, was born at the village of Tchashnikovo, near Moscow, in 1737, and was educated in the academy of that city. On completing his studies there in 1758 he was appointed teacher of rhetoric in the school connected with the monastery of St Sergius, and about this time entered the priesthood. In 1763 Catherine invited him to instruct her son … Plattner, Carl FriedrichPLATTNER, CARL FRIEDRICH (1800-1858), a famous scientific metallurgist, was born in Kleinwaltersdorf, near Freiberg in Saxony, on the 2d January 1800, and died in the latter town on the 22d January 1858. Plattner's father, though only a poor working miner, found the means for having his son educated first at the " Bergschule " and then at the " Bergakademie " of Freiberg. After having completed hi… PlattsburghPLATTSBURGH, a village and township of the United States, the shire-town of Clinton county, New York, and the port of entry of Champlain customs district, lies on the west side of Lake Champlain at the mouth of the Saranac. By rail it is 168 miles north of Albany and 73 south-south-east of Montreal (Canada). A branch line runs 20 miles south-west to Au Sable and forms a favourite route to the Adir… PlatypusPLATYPUS. The Duck-billed Platypus (Platypus anatinus) was the name assigned to one of the most remarkable of known animals by Shaw, who had the good fortune to introduce it to the notice of the scientific world in the _Naturalist's Miscellany (vol. x., 1799). In the following year it was independently described by Blumenbach (Voigts Magazin, ii. p. 205) under the name of OrnithorItynclius paradox… PlautusPLAUTUS, T. MAccrus, was the greatest comic and dramatic genius of Rome, and still ranks among the great comic dramatists of the world. While the other creators of Roman literature, Nrevius, Ennius, are known to us only in fragments, we still possess twenty plays of Plautus. A few of them are incomplete, and in some cases they show traces of later interpolations, but they have reached us in the ma… PlayfairPLAYFAIR, Jolts (1748-1819), mathematician and physicist, was born at Benvie, Forfarshire, where his father was parish minister, on March 10, 1748. He was educated at home until the age of fourteen, when he entered the university of St Andrews. Ability for scientific studies must have appeared very early with him, for while yet a student he was selected to teach natural philosophy during the occas… PleadingPLEADING, in law, denotes in civil procedure the statement in legal form of the grounds on which a party to an action claims the decision of the court in his favour, in criminal procedure the accusation of the prosecutor or the answer of the accused. The term " pleadings is used for the collected whole of the statements of both parties, the term " pleading " for each separate part of the pleadings… Pledge, Or PawnPLEDGE, or PAWN, in law, is "a bailment of personal property as a security for some debt on engagement" (Story on Bailments, ? 286). The term is also used to denote the property which constitutes the security. Pledge is the piynus of Roman law, from which most of the modern law on the subject is derived. It differs from hypothec and from the more usual kind of mortgage in that the pledge is in the… Pleurisy, Or PleuilitisPLEURISY, or PLEUILITIS, inflammation of the pleura or serous membrane investing the lungs and lining the interior of the thoracic cavity. It is a common form of chest complaint, and may be either acute or chronic, more frequently the former. The morbid changes which the pleura undergoes when inflamed are similar to those which take place in other serous membranes, such as the peritoneum (see PEra… Plevel, Ignaz JosephPLEVEL, IGNAZ JOSEPH (1757-1831), though now almost forgotten, was once one of the most popular composers in Europe. He was born at Ruppersthal, near Vienna, June 1, 1757, studied the pianoforte under Van Hal (known in England as Vanhall), and learned composition from Haydn, who became his dearest friend. He was appointed maitre de chapelle at Strasburg in 1783; and in 1791 he was invited to Londo… Plevna, Or PlevenPLEVNA, or PLEVEN, the chief town of one of the provinces in the principality of Bulgaria, lies in the midst of a series of hills (whose crests rise above it for 200 to 600 feet) and about 6000 yards to the east of the river Vid (a tributary of the Danube), into which the streamlets by which it is traversed discharge. Its position-at the meeting place of roads from Widdin, Sofia, Shipka, Biela, Zi… Pliny, The NaturalistPLINY, THE NATURALIST (23-79 A.D.). Caius Plinius Secundus, commonly distinguished as the elder Pliny, the author of the .iVatural History, is believed to have been born (23 A.D.) at Novum Comum (Como). In the first sentence of his preface he calls Catullus, born at Verona, " conterraneum meum," meaning, perhaps, a native of Gallia Cisalpina, though it may he that Verona was the actual birthplace … Pliny Tile YoungerPLINY TILE YOUNGER (61?c. 115 A.D.). Caius Ccecilius Secundus, commonly called Pliny the Younger, was the nephew and heir of the elder Pliny, the naturalist. He was born 61 A.D. at Comum (Como) on the southern shore of Lake Larius in northern Italy, near to which, on the east side, stood the spacious and beautiful family villa.' Ile took the name of Ctecilius from his father, who had married Plini… PloverPLOVER, French Hurler., Old French Plorier, which doubtless ha,s its origin in the Latin pluvia, rain (a,s witness the German equivalent Regenpfeifer, Rain-fifer) ; but the connexion of ideas between the words therein involved, so that the former should have become a bird's name, is doubtful. Delon (1555) says that the name Ptuvier is bestowed " pour ce qu'on le prend mieux en temps pluvieux qu' e… PlumPLUM (Prunus). Our cultivated plums are supposed to have originated from one or other of the species P. domestica or P. insititia. The young shoots of P. domestica are glabrous, and the fruit oblong ; in P. insititia the young shoots are pubescent, and the fruit more or less globose. A third species, the common sloe or blackthorn, P. spinosa, lhis stout spines; its flowers expand before the leaves… PlumbagoPLUMBAGO, a name frequently applied to graphite in allusion to its remote resemblance to lead, whence it is popularly called " black lead." 'When Scheele, in 1779, examined this' mineral he regarded it as a compound of carbon and iron, and consequently termed it a "carburet of iron " ; but Vanuxem in 1825 showed that the iron existed in the form of an oxide, and was not essential to the constituti… Plunket, William Conyngtiam PlunketPLUNKET, WILLIAM CONYNGTIAM PLUNKET, BARON (1765-1851), an eminent lawyer, orator, and statesman, was born in the county of Fermanagh in July 1765. He educated in boyhood by his father, a man of considerable ability and reputation ; and in 1779 he became a student of Trinity College, Dublin. Though well versed in regular academic studies, he was most conspicuous in his university career as the ack… PlutoPLUTO, the god of the dead in Greek mythology. IIis oldest name was Hades cAths, 'Aths, " the Unseen"; the name Pluto (11Aoirmov) was given him as the bestower of the riches (72-Adros) of the mine, and in ordinary language it ousted the dread name of Hades, which was, however, retained in poetry-. He was the son of Cronus and Rhea, and brother of Zeus and Poseidon. Having deposed Cronus, the broth… PlutusPLUTUS (7r-XoiTI-os, " wealth "), the Glreek god of riches, whom Demeter bore to Iasion " in the fat land of Crete." lie enriched every one whom he fell in with. Plyaiouth BrethrenPLYAIOUTH BRETHREN (BRETHREN, or CHRISTIAN BRETHREN) are a sect of Christians who received the name in 1830 when the Rev. J. N. Darby induced many of the inhabitants of Plymouth to associate themselves with him for the promulgation of opinions which they held in common. Although small Christian communities existed in Ireland and elsewhere calling themselves Brethren and holding similar views, the … PlymouthPLYMOUTH, a township and village of the United States, the shire-town of Plymouth county, Massachusetts, and a port of entry on Cape Cod Bay, - the village lying at the terminus of a branch of the Old Colony Railroad, 37 miles south-south-east of Boston. The main interest of Plymouth is historical, and centres in the fact that it was the first settlement of the Pilgrim Fathers of New England, who … PlymouthPLYMOUTH, a borough of the United States, in Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, on the Bloomsburg division of the Delaware, Lackasvanna, and Western Railroad, 8 miles from IfYymning, is a flourishing coal-mining town, which increased its population from 2648 in 1870 to 6065 in 1880. PlymouthPLYMOUTH, a municipal and parliamentary borough and seaport town of Devonshire, England, is picturesque-ly sitnated on Plymouth Sound in the south-west corner of the county, at the confluence of the Tamar and Plym, 44 miles south-west of Exeter. With the borough of Devonport and the township of East Stonehouse it forms the a-g-gregate town known as the -"Fliree Towns." There is railway communicat… Pneumatic DespatchPNEUMATIC DESPATCH. The transport of written despatches through long narrow tubes by the agency of air-pressure was introduced in 1853, by Air Latimer Clark, between the Central and Stock Exchange stations of the Electric and International Telegraph Company in London. The stations were connected by a, tube 14- inches in diameter and 220 yards long. Carriers containing batches of telegrams, and fit… PneumaticsPNEUMATICS is that department of hydrodynamicE which treats of the properties of gases as distinct from liquids. Under HYDRO:MECHANIC'S Will be found a general discussion of the subject as a branch of mathematioa: physics ; here we shall limit our attention mainly to tilt ex peri ental asi wet. The gaseous fluid with which WC have chiefly to do b our atmosphere. l'hough practically invisible, it a… Pnom-peniiPNOM-PENII, the capital of CAMBODIA (see vol. iv. p. 725). PO, the largest river of Italy, traverses the w'uole length of the great plain between the Alps and the Apennines, which was in the _Miocene period an arm of the sea con-necting the Adiiatic with the Mediterranean by what is now the Col d'Altare or Col di Cadibora and has gradually been filled by detritus front the surrounding highlands. T… Pochard, PockardPOCHARD, POCKARD, Or POKER,1 names properly belonging to the male of a species of Duck (the female of which is known as the Dunbird), the Anas ferina of Linnmus, and Pub:71(1a or ,Ethyia ferina of later ornitho-logists - but names very often applied by- writers in a general way to most of the group or Subfamily.rn/iffutinx, commonly called Diving or Sea-Ducks (rf. 1)EcK, vii. p. 505). The Pochard … Pocock, EdwardPOCOCK, EDWARD (1604-1694 one of the most eminent of English Oriental and Biblical scholars, was born in 1604, the son of a Berkshire clergyman, and re-ceived his education up to his fourteenth year at the free school of Tame in Oxfordshire and then at Oxford, where he became scholar of Corpus Christi College in 1620 and fellow in 1628. The foundation of his Eastern learning was laid at Oxford und… Pococke, RichardPOCOCKE, RICHARD (1704-1765), distantly related to the preceding, was the son of Richard Pococke, head master of the free school at Southampton, where he was born in the year 1704. Podiebrad, George OfPODIEBRAD, GEORGE OF (1420-1471), king of Bohemia, was the son of Herant of Podiebrml, a Bohemian nobleman, and was born 6th April 1420. After the death of the emperor Sigismund he took up arms against Albert of Austria, who was finally compelled to raise the siege of Tabor and retreat to Prague. On the death of Patzek in 1444 George of Podiebrad became the recognized head of the Calixtines or Utr… PodoliaPODOLIA, a government of south-western Russia, having Volhynia on the N., Kieff and Kherson on the E. and S., Bessarabia on the S.W., and Galicia (Austria) on the W., from which last it is separated by the Zbrutch, or Rodvotcha, a tributary- of the Dniester. It has an area of 16,223 square miles, extending for 200 miles from north-west to south-east on the left bank of the Dniester. In the same di… PodolskPODOLSK, a district-town of Russia, in the govern-ment of iMoscow, is situated 23 miles to the south of the capital, at the junction of the two main roads going from Moscow to the Crimea and to Warsaw, and within ft mile from the Podolsk railway station. lt is picturesquely- built on the hilly banks of the Pakhra, here crossed by an elegant suspension bridge for carriages as well as by the railway… PodophyllinPODOPHYLLIN, a popular remedy- which is much used by those who are averse to the employment of calomel and other mercurial preparations, and hence ha.s been called vegetable mercury. The drug, as used in medicine, is obtained from the rhizome of the American mandrake or _May apple, Podophyllum peltatum, L., an herbaceous perennial belonging to the natural order Ber-beridacex, indigenous in woods i… Poe, Edgar AllanPOE, EDGAR ALLAN (1809-1849), is the most interest-ing figure in American literature, and his life furnishes the most extraordinary instance on. record of systematic misrepresentation on the part of a biographer. The greater part of his short working life was passed in intense and unremitting literary toil, and no poems or romances were ever produced at greater expense of brain and spirit than his… PoeticPOETIC', a town of Italy, 5 miles south of Naples, on the shores of the bay and at the foot of Vesuvius, a little to the north of the site of Herculaneum. PoetryPOETRY - in modern criticism the word poetry is used sometimes to denote any expression (artistic or other) of imaginative feeling, sotnetinies to designate one of the fine arts. As an expression of imaginative feeling, as the move-ment of an energy, as one of those great primal human forces which go to the development of the race, poetry in the wide sense has played as important a part as science… Poggendorff, Johann ChristianPOGGENDORFF, JOHANN CHRISTIAN (1796-1877), physicist, and editor for more than half a century of the well-known scientific journal called after him Poggendorif's iff/futlen, wa,s born in Hamburg on the 29th December 1796. His father, a, wealthy nianufacturer of that town, was all but ruined by the French siege. 1Iis son Christian, after receiving his education at Hamburg and Schiffbeck, had theref… PoggioPOGGIO (1380-1459). Gian -Francesco Poggio 13rac-ciolini, eminent in tbe annals of the revival of learning, was born in 1380 at Terranova, a village in the territory of Florence. He studied Latin under John of Ravenna, and Greek under Manuel Chrysoloras. His distinguished abilities and his dexterity as a copyist of MSS. brought him into early notice with the chief scholars of Florence. Coluccio Sa… PoinsotPOINSOT, Louis (1777-1859), mathematician, was born at Paris January 3, 1777. In 1794 he became a scholar at the Polytechnic School, which he left in 1796 to act as a civil engineer. In 1801 he was appointed pro-fessor of mathematics at the Lyceum, in 1809 professor of applied mathematics and in 1816 examiner at the Poly-technic School. On the death of Lagrange in 1813, Poinsot was elected to his … Poisson, Sini1POISSON, SINI1!:ON DENIS (1781-.1840) a celebrated French mathematician, was born at Pithiviers in the department of Loiret, on the 21st June 1781. His father, Simeon Poisson, served as a common soldier in the Hanoverian wars ; but, disgusted by the ill treatment he received from his patrician officers, be deserted. About the time of the birth of his son Simeon Denis he occupied a small administra… PoitiersPOITIERS, a town of France, formerly the capital of Poitou, and now the chief town of the department of Vienne, lies 206 miles south-west of Paris on the railway to Bordeaux, at the junction of the Boivre with the Clain (a tributary of the Loire by the Vienne), and occupies the slopes and summit of a plateau which rises 130 feet above the level of the streams by which it is surrounded on three sid… PoitoltPOITOLT, one of the old provinces of France, which also formed one of the great military governments of the kingdom, was bounded -1\;-. by Brittany, Anjou, and Touraine; S. by Angoumois ancl Aunis; E. by Touraine, Berri, and Marche; and W. by- the ocean. It was divided into Lower Poitou, which corresponded to the modern department of La Vend6e, and Upper Poitou, now split into the departments of D… PokerPOKER, a game at cards, - probably a development of frusso (played in Italy in the 15th century) A similar but less simple game, called primiera, was also played in Italy in the 16th century, whence under the name of primero it travelled to Spain. La prime is mentioned by- Rabelais (16th century) ; and later the game of prime elaborated was played in France under the name of Pambigu or le mesle. P… Pokrovskaya Sloboda, Or PokrovskPOKROVSKAYA SLOBODA, or POKROVSK, also KASAKSTADT, a village of the district of Novo-uzen, in the government of Samara, Russia, on the left bank of the Volga, almost opposite Saratoff. PolaPOLA, the principal naval harbour and arsenal of the Austrian-Hungarian monarchy, is picturesquely situated at the south extremity of the peninsula of Istria, 55 miles to the south of Trieste. Its safe and commodious harbour is ahnost completely landlocked, and there is also a good roadstead between its mouth and the Brionian Islands. The harbour is divided into two basins by a chain of three smal… Poland, RussianPOLAND, RUSSIAN. After the three dismemberments of the old kingdom, the name of Poland was chiefly re-tained by the part of the divided territory annexed to Russia. Since the insurrection of 1863, however, the name "kingdom of Poland" has disappeared. Thencefor-ward this portion of the Russian empire is referred to in official documents only as the " territory of the Vistula," and later on as the … Polarity And EnantiomorpiiismPOLARITY AND ENANTIOMORPIIISM. Any figure, such as a solid of revolution, which has one line in it in reference to which the figure is symmetrical may be said to have an axis, and the points at which the axis cuts the surface of the figure are poles. But the term polarity when applied to material figures or substances is usually confined to eases where there are not only a definite axis and poles,… Polar RegionsPOLAR REGIONS - extend respectively- from the Arctic 1 and Antarctic Circles, in 66? 32' N. and S., to the north and south poles, the circlei; being 1408 geographical miles from the poles. PolecatPOLECAT. This name is applied to one of the English members of the large Family Mustelidx, which contains be-sides the Martens, Weasels, Otters, and Badgers (see Mmyt-MALTA, V01. XV. p. 439, and the separate articles under these names). In this family the Polecats, while belonging, with the stoats, weasels, and many others, to the nearly cosmo-politan genus Putorius, form by themselves a small gro… Pole, ReginaldPOLE, REGINALD (1500-1 558), generally known as Cardinal Pole, was born at Stourton Castle, Staffordshire, March 3, 1500. lie was the son of Sir Richard Pole and Margaret, countess of Salisbury. Designed from early youth for the church, he was educated in the Carthusian mona,stery at Sheen, and at Magdalen College, Oxford. He was admitted to deacon's orders at the age of sixteen, and at once rece… PoliPOLI."iENUS, a Macedonian, lived at Rome as a, rhetorician and plea-der in the 2d century. When the Parthian War (162-165 A.D.) broke out, Polyamus, t.00 old to share in. the campaign, dedicated to the emperors Marcus Antoninus and Lucius Verus a work, still extant, called Strateyica or Strategentata, an historical collection of stratagems and maxims of strategy written in Greek and strung togethe… PolicePOLICE. The branch of criminal justice which com-prises a methodical system for the prevention and detection of crime is commonly known by the name of "Police." -With the system having those objects is combined the execution of many' duties not strictly' involved in the popular defini-tion of crime, but materially affecting the security and convenience of the public. Bentham, more comprehen-sively… PolignacPOLIGNAC, an ancient French family, which had its seat in the Cevennes near Puy-en-Velay (11aute-Loire). Polish LiteraturePOLISH LITERATURE - the Polish Language, according to the latest statistics, is still spoken by nearly ten millions of people, distributed, according to the Renee Slave (Warsaw, 1878, vol. i. p. 78), as follows : - in Russia, 4,640,000; in Austria, 2,444,200; in Prussia, 2,405,800 ; in Turkey, 10,000. It belongs to the western branch of the Slavonic tongues, and exhibits the closest affinities wit… PolitianPOLITIAN (1454-1194 Angelo Ambrogini, known in literary annals as Ax(nmo POLIZIANO or POLITLANUS from his birth-place, was born at Montepulciano in Tuscany in the year I -151. His father, Benedetto, a jurist of good family and distinguished ability, was murdered by political antagonists for adopting the cause of Piero de' Medici in Montepulciano ; and this circumstance gave his Dldest son, Angelo,… Political EconomyPOLITICAL ECONOMY - present condition of the study of political economy seems to prescribe, as most suitable for these pages, a treatment of the subject different front that adopted in relation to other departments of knowledge. There pre-vails wide-spread dissatisfaction with the existing state of economic science, and much difference of opinion both as to its method and as to its doctrines. Ther… Political Economy Ancient TimesPOLITICAL ECONOMY ANCIENT TIMES - The Oriental Theocracies. - The earliest surviving expres-sions of thought on economic subjects have come down to us front the Oriental theocracies. The general spirit of the corresponding type of social life consisted in taking imitation for the fundamental principle of education, and consolidating nascent civilization by heredity of the differ-ent functions and … Political Economy Historical SchoolPOLITICAL ECONOMY HISTORICAL SCHOOL - The negative movement which filled the 18th century-hall for its watchword on the economic side the liberation of industrial effort from both feudal survivals and Govern-mental fetters. But in all the aspects of that movement, the economic as well as the rest, the process of deinolition was historically only the necessary preliminary condition of a total renov… Political Economy Middle AgesPOLITICAL ECONOMY MIDDLE AGES - The Middle Ages (400-1300 A.D.) form a period of great significance in the economic, as in the general, his-tory of Europe. They represent a vast transition, in which the germs of a new world were deposited, but in which little was fully elaborated. There is scarcely any-thing in the later movement of European society which we do not find there, though as yet, for t… Political Economy Modern TimesPOLITICAL ECONOMY MODERN TIMES - The close of the Middle Ages, as Comte has shown, must be placed at the end, not of the 15th, but of the 13th cen-tury. The modern period, which then began, is filled by a development exhibiting three successive phases, and issuing in the state of things which characterizes our own epoch. During the 14th and 15th centuries the Catholico-feudal system was breaking d… Polk, James KnoxPOLK, JAMES KNOX (1795-1819), eleventh president of the United States of America, was of Scoto-Irish descent, his ancestors, whose name svas Pollok, having emigrated from Ireland in the 18th century. lie was the eldest of ten children, and was born 2d Nos-ember 1795 in Mecklenburg county, North Carolina, from svhich his father, who was a farmer, removed in 1806 to the valley of the Duck river, Ten… PollackPOLLACK (Gadus pollachius), a species of cod-fish, abundant on rocky coasts of northern Europe, and extend-ing as far south as the western parts of the Mediterranean, where, however, it is much scarcer and does not attain to the same size as in its real northern home. In Scotland and some parts of Ireland it is called Lythe. It is dis-tinguished from other species of the genus GaAs by its long poi… PollanPOLLAN (Coregonu,s potion), a species of the Salmonoid genus Coreyonus which has been found in the large and deep loughs of Ireland only. A full account of the fish by its first describer, W. Thompson, may be found in his -Vatural History of Irelaiul, vol. iv. p. 168. l'OLLIO, CADJS ASINIIIS (76 B.C.-4 A.D.), a Roman orator, poet, and historian, who played a conspicuous part in the troubled histor… Pollnitz, Karl LudwigPOLLNITZ, KARL LUDWIG, FREIHERR voN (1692? 1775), known as a writer of memoirs, was born on the 25th February 1692. His father, G. Bernhard von Pollnitz, was a major-general and minister of state in the electorate of Brandenburg. Pollnitz was a man of restless and adventurous disposition, and after squandering his fortune travelled from court to court, his pleasant manners generally securing for h… Pollok, RobertPOLLOK, ROBERT (1798-1827), was the author of The Course of Time, a poem that has passed through many editions, and is still a favourite in serious households in Scotland. The son of a small farmer, he was born in 1798 at Moorhouse, in the parish of Eaglesham in Renfrewshire, was originally destined for the plough, but trained himself for the university, took his degree at Glasgow, and studied for… PollokshawsPOLLOKSHAWS, a burgh of barony in Renfrewshire, Scotland, situated near the White Cart, on the Glasgow and Kilmarnock Railway, 2,1 miles south by west of Glas-gow, of which it is now reckoned a suburb, connected by tramway. PolluxPOLLUX, Junius, of Naucratis in Egypt, a Greek sophist of the 2d century. His education was begun by his father, a man of literary culture, and was continued by one Hadrian, but he is said neither to have attained to the excellencies nor fallen into the defects of his master. He taught at Athens, where, according to Philostratus, he was appointed to the professorship by the emperor Commodus on acc… PoloPOLO. This game, which is a species of " hockey on horseback," is of Eastern origin, and seen-is to have been a favourite pastime in Persia, Tartary, and the frontiers of India from prehistoric times. Every district has a differ-ent name for the game, and the rules under which it is played, although substantially identical, vary considerably on minor points. Thus in Little Tibet, Ladakh, and the a… Polo, MarcoPOLO, MARCO (C. 1254-132 t), the Venetian, the most famous perhaps of all travellers. His history needs to be introduced by some account of the preceding generation of his family, and of the state of the world which rendered their and his extensive travels possible. Under CHINA, in the introductory portion (vol. v. 627 sq.) we have briefly- indicated the circumstances which in the last half of the… PolotskPOLOTSK, a district town of the government of Vitebsk, at the confluence of the Polota with the Dwina (Duna), 5 miles from the Smolensk and Riga Railway, is one of the oldest towns of Russia. The continuous wars, however, of which, owing to its position on the line of communica-tion between central Russia and the west, it was for many centuries the scene, have allowed almost nothing of its remarka… PoltavaPOLTAVA, capital of the above government, stands on the right bank of the Vorskla, 88 miles by rail to the west-south-west of Kharkoff. The town is built on a plateau which descends by steep slopes nearly on all sides ; the buildings are separated by large yards and gardens. Several suburbs, inhabited by Cossacks, whose houses are buried amid gardens, and a German colony, surround the town. Water … PoltavaPOLTAVA, a government of south-western Russia, bounded by Tchernigoff on the N., Kharkoff on the E., Ekaterinoslaff and Kherson on the S., and Kieff on the 'W., and having an area of 19,265 square miles. Its surface is an undulating plain from 500 to 600 feet above sea-level, with a few elevations reaching 670 feet in the north, and gently sloping to the south-west, where its range is between 300 … PolycarpPOLYCARP. The importance of Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, for the earliest period of church history arises from his historical position. IIe was on the one ha.nd a disciple of John and other apostles and disciples of Jesus; on the other hand he was the teacher of Tremens, the first of the catholic fathers.' In his letter to Florinus, Irenams (ap. Euseb., ILE ., v. 20) says : - " I saw you when I was… PolycletusPOLYCLETUS. PolycratesPOLYCRATES, a celebrated Greek tyrant of Samos, was the son of YEaces. After distinguishing himself by his liberality towards his poorer fellow-citizens he took advantage of a festival to Hera in order to make himself master of Samos (537 or 536 n.c.).2 Allied NN ith Amasis, king of Egy-pt, he prospered greatly, so that his fame went forth through a,11 Greece and Ionia. He had 100 ships and 1000 b… PolyglottPOLYGLOTT. A polvglott is a book which contains side by side versions of the same text in several different languages ; and the most important polyglotts are editions of the Bible, or its parts, in which the Hebrew and Greek originals are exhibited along with the great historical versions, w-hich are of value for the history of the text and its interpretation. The first enterprise of this kind is … PolygnotusPOLYGNOTUS, a Greek painter. For a description of his work see vol. ii. p. 358. It may here be added that an approximate date for his paintings at Delphi is obtained from the fact that one of them was inscribed with an epig-ram written by the poet Simonides, Nyho died 467 B.C. As Simonides appears to have resided in Sicily during the last ten years of his life, the epigram was pro-bably composed p… Polyhistor, Cornelius AlexanderPOLYHISTOR, CORNELIUS ALEXANDER, a MileSian and disciple of Crates,' who through the fortune of war beottme the slave and afterwards the freedman of Cornelius Lentillus (Suitlas). He received the Roman citizenship from Salta (Servius on PolypePOLYPE. In its Greek and Latin forms the word potypus was first used as descriptive of the CUTTLE-FISI1 (q.v.). In speaking of the Acalephce Aristotle says, "They hold their prey as the polypus does with its feelers," and there is no doubt that in this and other passages he referred to the octopus. The word was also, though less generally, applied to the woodlouse (Oniscus) - the reason for both u… PolypterusPOLYPTERUS, a genus of Ganoid fishes common in many rivers of tropical Africa, and known on the Nile by the name of aba bislar. Their body- is cylindrical in shape, elongate, and covered with hard, polished, ganoid scales, which are arranged in oblique series. The head, with flattened snout and wide mouth, is protected by bony plates with ganoid external surface, of which. a series of " supra-temp… PolyriusPOLYRIUS, the historian, was a native of -Megalo-polis in ..Nrcadia, the youngest of Greek cities (Paus. viii. 9), bat one which played an honourable part in the last days of Greek freedom as a staunch member of the Achiean league. Poly-bius's father Ly-cortas was the intimate friend of Philopcemen, himself also a citizen of Megalopolis, and on the death of the latter, in 182 B.C., succeeded him a… Polyzoa EupolyzoaPOLYZOA EUPOLYZOA - whilst it is necessary to include in the group Polyzoa, the forms we have already noticed as Vermiformia and Pterobranchia, there can be no doubt that those organisms to which we assign the name Eupolyzoa are primarily those upon which naturalists have framed their concep-tion of the group, and that they- constitute a very con-sistent assemblage, held together by- well-defined … Polyzoa PterobranchiaPOLYZOA PTEROBRANCHIA - this section of the Polyzoa also comprises forms which differ very widely from Paludicella. Inasmuch as their development from the egg is at present quite unknown, it may possibly prove, that they have other affinities. Only two genera, are known, Rhabdopleura (Allman) and Cephalodiscus (M`Intosh), the former dredged by Dr Norman in deep water off the Shetlands (and subse-q… Polyzoa VermiformiaPOLYZOA VERMIFORMIA - The first section of the Polyzoa comprises but. a single genus, Phoronis. It differs from all other Polyzoa first in its greater size (species 2 inches long are known) and elaboration of organization, and correlatively with that in the fact that it does not produce buds. Further, it does not produce a closely adherent cuticular zoweium as do Paludicella and the Eupolyzoa gene… Pombal, Sebastian Joseph De CartalhoPOMBAL, SEBASTIAN JOSEPH DE CARTALHO E MELLO, MARQUIS DE (1699-1782), the greatest statesman Portugal has produced in modern times, was the son of a fairly wealthy country- gentleman, Emmanuel de Carvalho, and was born at Some, near Pombal, on -13th May 1699. He was educated at the university of Coimbra, and was then for a short time in the army, but it was not until lie was nearly forty and had b… PomegranatePOMEGRANATE. The pomegranate (P.rtnieet Gram-e-t/on) is of exceptional interest by, reason of its structure, its history, and its utility. It forms a tree of small stature, or a bush with opposite, shining, lance-shaped leaves, from the axils of some of which proceed the brilliant scarlet flowers. These are raised on a short stalk, and consist of a thick fleshy cylindrical or bell-shaped calyx tub… PomeraniaPOMERANIA (Germ. Pononern) is a maritime pro-vince of. Prussia, bounded on the N. by the Baltic, on the 'W. by Mecklenburg, on the S. by Brandenburg, and on the 11 by West Prussia. Its area is 11,620 square miles. The province is officially divided into the three districts of Stralsund, Stettin, and Coslin ; but more historical interest attaches to the names of Vorpommern and Hinter-pommern, or 't… Pomfret, JohnPOMFRET, JOHN (166T-1703), holds a certain place in English letters as the author of a short poem, l'he Choice, which embodies in easy- and happy Drydenic diction the refilled Epicureanism of the 18th century, and was consequently wide:y popular throughout that century. Pomfret was an English clergyman, rector of Maulden in Bedfordshire, son of the vicar of Luton in the same county. The story is p… PomonaPOMONA, the old Roman goddess of tree-fruits (ponza). Pompadour, Jeanne Antoinette Poisson Le Nor-mant D'etiolesPOMPADOUR, JEANNE ANTOINETTE POISSON LE NOR-MANT D'ETIOLES, MARQUISE DE (1721-1764), the most famous of all the mistresses of Louis XV., was born in Paris on 29th December 1721, and was baptized as the legitimate daughter of Francois Poisson, an officer in the household of the duke of Orleans, and his wife Madeleine de la Motte, in the church of St Eustache, but she was suspected, as well as her b… PompeyPOMPEY is the common English form of the Roman name Poinpeius: I. CNE1US POMPE1US I1IAGNUS (10G-48 p.c.), the great triumvir, whose name we always associate with Casar and Cmssus, may be said to have led a soldier's life fr,orn his boyhood to his death. Born in 106 B.C., he fought by bis father's side when a stripling of seventeen in the Social or Italian War on the side of SuIla against tbe party… Poncelet, Jean VictorPONCELET, JEAN VICTOR (1788-1867), mathemati-cian, was born at Metz, July 1, 1788. From 1808 to 1810 he attended the Polytechnic School, and afterwards, till 1812, the Practical School at Metz. He then became lieutenant of engineers, and took part in the Russian campaign, during which be was taken prisoner and was confined at Saratoff on the Volga. It was during his imprisonment here that, " prive… PondicherriPONDICHERRI, chief settlement of the French posses-sions in the East Indies, situated on the Coromandel coast, in 11? 56' N. lat. and 79? 53' E. long. ; it is 86 miles south of Madras, and is connected with the South Indian Railway system. Pond, JohnPOND, JOHN (C. 1767-1836), astronotner-royal, was born about 1767 in London, where his father made a fortune in trade. He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, at the age of sixteen, but took no degree, his course being interrupted by severe pulmonary attacks which compelled a prolonged residence abroad. His travels extended from Lisbon to Constantinople and the Nile, and were turned to account for … PonevyezhPONEVYEZH, a district town of Russia, in the govern-ment of Kovno, situated on the upper course of the Nevyeja river, and connected by rail with Libau on the north-west and with Diinaburg (80 miles distant) on the east. Poniato1vskiPONIATO1VSKI, a family of Poland, the e,arliest member of which to acquire high distinction was STANIS-LAUS CIOLEK (1677-1762), regarding whose descent there are conflicting aceounts, - some tracing it to the Lombard Counts Torelli, one of whom in the seventeenth century married a daughter of Albert of Poniatow, and added the name of Poniatowski to his own, which he changed to its equivalent in Po… PonsardPONSARD, FnANcois (1814-1867), French dramatist, was born at Vienne in Dauphine on the 1st June 1814. He was bred a lawyer, and his first performance in litera-ture was a translation of Manfred (1837). But the first important, and indeed the most important, event of his life was the representation of his play Lucrece at the Theatre Francais on the 1st April 1843. This date is a kind of epoch in li… Pons, Jean LouisPONS, JEAN LOUIS (1761-1831), French astronomer, born at Peyre (Haut-Dauphine), 24th December 1761, received a place at the 11farseilles observatory in 1789, and in 1819 became the director of the new observatory at Marlia near Lucca, which he left in 1825 for the obser-vatory of the musemn at Florence. PontanusPONTANUS, jOVIANUS (1426-1503), a famous Italian humanist and poet, was born in 1426 a.t Cerreto in the ' duchy of Spoleto, where his father was murdered in one of the frequent civil brawls which then disturbed the peace of Italian towns. His mother escaped with the boy to Perugia, and it was here that Pontano received his first instruction in languages and literature. Failing to recover his pa,tr… PontecorvoPONTECORVO, a city of Italy .in the province of Caserta, on the left bank of the Garigliano, with a popu-' la.tion of 5172 in 1881 (commune 10,191), answers to the ancient Fregellw, a Volscian city, colonized in 323 )Le. by the Romans, who thus occasioned the Second Samnite War. Pontefract, Or PomfretPONTEFRACT, or POMFRET, a market town and municipal and parliamentary,borough in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, finely situated on an eminence near the junction of the Calder and Aire, and on three railway lines, 13 miles south-east of Leeds, and 14 north-west of Doncaster. The streets are wide and rek,rular, and there are many good houses and shops. A park over 300 acres in extent is used… PontevedraPONTEVEDRA, capital of the above province, and an episcopal see, is a picturesque old granite-built town, pleasantly situated at the head of the Ria de Ponteredra, where the Lerez is spanned by the old Roman bridge (whence the name - pons vetus). PontevedraPONTEVEDRA, a maritime province of Spain, is bounded on the N. by Coruna, on the E. by Lugo and Orense, on the S. by Portugal (Entre Douro e Minho), and on the IV. by the Atlantic, and has an area of 1739 square miles. PontifexPONTIFEX. The principal college of priests in ancient Rome consisted of the pontifices, the rex sacroruna, and the flamines, under the headship of the pontifex maximus. The rex sacrorunt was the functionary who under the republic succeeded to the sacrificial duties which in old time had been performed by the king ; the flamines were sacrificial priests of particular gods, the most important being … PontoisePONTOISE, a commercial town of France, at the head of an arrondissement of the depa,rtinent Seine-et-Oise, 18 miles by rail north-west of Paris, picturesquely situated on the right bank of the Oise where it is joined by the Viosne, and at the intersection of the railway from Paris to Dieppe by Gisors with that of the valley of the Oise. The traffic on the niain river is large, and the tributary dr… PontoonPONTOON. Pontoons are vessels employed to sup-port the roadway of floating bridges. They may be either open or closed, heavy and only movable when floated, or light enough to be taken out of the water and transported overland, as when required to form part of the equipment of an army in the field. From time immemorial floating bridges of vessels bearing a roadway of beams and planks have been empl… Pontoppidan, ErikPONTOPPIDAN, ERIK (1698-1764), a learned Da.nish author, was born at Aarhuus on August 24, 1698, and studied divinity at the university of Copenhagen. On finishing his education he was appointed travelling tutor to several young noblemen in succession, and in 1735 he became one of the chaplains of the king. In 1738 he was made professor extraordinarius of theology at Copenhagen, and in 1747 bishop… PontormoPONTORMO, JAcoro DI (1494-1557), whose family name was CARUCCI, a painter of the Florentine school, was born at Pontormo in 1494, son of a painter of ordinary ability, was apprenticed to Leonardo da Vinci, and after-wards took lessons from Pier di Cosimo. At the age of eighteen. be became a journeyman to Andrea del Sarto, and was remarked a.s a young man of exceptional accomplish-ment and promise.… PontusPONTUS was the name given in ancient times to an extensive tract of country in the north-east of Asia Minor, bordering on Armenia and Colcbis (see vol. xv. Plate II.). It was not, like most of the divisions of Asia, a national appellation, but a purely territorial one, derived from its proximity to the Euxine, often called simply Pontus by the Greeks. Originally it formed part of the extensive reg… PontypooPONTYPOO.L, a town and urban sanitary district of Montnouthshire, England, situated on an acclivity above the river Avon Lwyd, on the Monmouthshire Canal, and on the Great-Western and Monmouthshire Railways, 8 miles north of Newport. The town-hall, in the Doric style, dates from 1856, the market-house from 1846, and the Baptist theological college from 1856. At one period Pontypool was famed for i… PontypriddPONTYPRIDD, sometimes also called NEWBRIDGE, a, market town of Glamorganshire, -Wales, situated on the Taff at its junction with the Rhondda, and on the Glamorganshire Canal, 12 miles north-north-west from Cardiff and 12 south from Merthyr-Tydfil. It receives its name from a remarkable bridge of one arch spanning the Taff, erected by -William Edwards, a self-taught mason. The bridge is a perfect s… PoolePOOLE, a market town, municipal borough, county in itself, and seaport of Dorsetshire, on the south coast of England, is picturesquely situated on a peninsula between IIoles Bay and Poole Harbour, 30 nines east from Dorchester and 120 south-west of London. The churches are modern, and possess no features of special interest. Among the principal public buildings are the town-house, 1721 ; the guild… PoolePOOLE, Rim, FALCONER (1806-1879), an eminent English painter, was born at Bristol in 1806. He was self-taught in the strictest sense, and to this deficiency in art training must be ascribed the imperfect drawing of the human figure which is to be observed in most of his work. But, in spite of this drawback, his fine feeling for colour, his poetic sympathy, and his dramatic power have gained for hi… Poole, MatthewPOOLE, MATTHEW (1624-1679), author of a learned though now almost wholly antiquated Synopsis Criticorum Riblicorum, was born at York in 1624, was educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and from 1648 till the passing of the Act of Uniformity held the rectory of St Mary le Querne, London. PoonaPOONA, a district in the Deccan, Bombay, situated between 17? 54' and 19? 23' N. lat., and 73? 24' and 75? 13' E. long. It has an area of 5317 square miles, and is bounded on the N. by the districts of Nasik and Ahmednagar, on the E. by those of Ahmednagar and Sholapur, on the S. by the Nfra river, separating it from Satara and Phaltan, and on the W. by the Bhor state and Sahyadri -Hills. Towards … PoonaPOONA, the chief town of the above district, is situated in 18? 31' N. lat. and 73? 55' E. long., in a treeless plain about 2000 feet above the sea and overlooked by the Ghats, which rise 1000 feet above the .plain. Poor LawsPOOR LAWS. Without embarking on an inquiry as to the causes of pauperism or the primary right of any persons to have their wants, however pressing, met by the state, it is sufficient to say that in Great Britain " there is no man so indigent or wretched but he may demand a supply sufficient for all the necessaries of life from the more opulent part of the community, by means of the several statute… PopayanPOPAYAN, a city of the republic of Colombia, capital of the state of Cauca, is situated in 2? 26' N. lat. and 76' 49' W. long., at a, height of 5948 feet (E. Andre, 1876), on the banks of one of the head streams of the Cauca in the great plain in the heart of the cordilleras. It was founded by Belalcazar in 1538 on the site of an Indian settlement, and in 1,558 it received a coat of arms from the … PopePOPE is the name given in England to a small fresh-water perch (Acerina cernua), also called RUFFE, which is generally distributed in the rivers of central Europe and common in most fresh waters of England. Pope, AlexanderPOPE, ALEXANDER (1688-1744), was the most famous English poet of his century. His own century dwelt most upon his merits ; the 19th century is disposed rather to dwell upon his defects, both as a poet and as a man, with a persistency, and minuteness that more than counter-balance any exaggeration in the estimate formed when it was the fashion to admire his verse and treat his moral obliquity as a … PopedomPOPEDOM.2 Both the ecclesiastical and the temporal authority formerly exercised and still claimed by the popes of Rome profess to be of divine appointment, appealing in the first place to the language of the New Testament, and in the next to the tradition of the church, handed down, as it is asserted, in unbroken continuity from apostolic times to the present age. According to the theory thus put … PoplarPOPLAR (Pop2dus), the name of a small group of arborescent amentneeous plants, belonging to the order ,S'alicaceze. The catkins of the poplars differ from those of the nearly allied willows in the presence of a rudimentary perianth, of obliquely cup-shaped form, within the toothed bracteal scales ; the male flowers contain from eight to thirty stamens ; the fertile bear a one-celled (nearly divide… Poplin, Or TabinetPOPLIN, or TABINET, is a mixed textile fabric consist-ing of a silk warp with a weft of worsted yarn. PopocatepetlPOPOCATEPETL (Aztec popocani, "smoking," tepetl, "mountain"), a burning mountain in _Mexico, in 18' 59' 47" N. lat. and 98? 33' 1" 'VV. long., which along with the neighbouring and somewhat lower summit of Ixtaccihuatl (Aztec "White Woman") forms the south-eastern limit of the great valley in which the capital is built. As it lies in the province of Puebla, and is the great feature in the view fro… Poppy OilPOPPY OIL is obtained by pressure from the minute seeds of the garden or opium poppy', Papaver somniferum (see OPIUM, xvii. p. 787). The white-seeded and bla,ck-seeded varieties are both used for oil-pressing; but, when the production of oil is the principal object of the culture, the black seed is usually preferred. The qualities of the oil yielded by both varieties and the proportion they contai… PopulationPOPULATION. The phenomena of population are the product of physical forces the nature of which it will be necessary to investigate. It will, however, be con-venient to consider population, in the first place, as a statical phenomenon, that is, to observe and classify, the principal features it presents, without attempting to in-vestigate the system of causes of whicli they are the effects. Thereaf… PorbeaglePORBEAGLE, the name of a shark (Lainna cornubica), mentioned in the works of older British authors as " Beaumaris Shark." The short and stout form of its body contrasts strikingly with its much attenuated tail, which, however, is strengthened by a keel on each side and terminates in a, large and powerful caudal fin. The snout is pointed, and the jaws are armed with strong lan-ceolate teeth, each o… PorcupinePORCUPINE. This word, derived from the French porc-epic, or " spiny pig," is applied to the members of the Ifystricida,, a family of rodents whose most prominent peculiarity is their covering of long stout spines, which form a highly efficient protection against enemies, and which are better developed in this family than in any other mammal. Zoologically the porcupines are allied to the ca,vies, … Pordenone, IlPORDENONE, IL (1483-1539), whose correct name was GIOVANNI ANTONIO LICINIO, or LICINO, was an eminent painter of the Venetian school. He was commonly named 11 Pordenone from having been born in 1483 at Corticelli, a village near Pordenone, - a city of Italy, in the province of Udine (Friuli). He himself ultimately dropped the name of Licinio, having quarrelled with his brothers, one of whom had wo… PorismPORISM. The subject of porisms is perplexed by the multitude of different views which have been held by famous geometers as to what a porism really was and is. 'This article must therefore be limited to a short historical account (1) of the principal works of the Greek mathe-maticians which we know to have been called Forams, and (2) of some of the principal contributions to the elucidation of the… PorphyryPORPHYRY, a name originally applied to a reddish or purple rock (ropqSipEos, purple) found in Upper Egypt, principally at Jebel Dokhan, and much used by the ancients as a decorative stone. This porphyry, the por-fido rOSSO antico of Italian antiquaries, consists of a dark crimson or chocolate-coloured felsitic base, with dissemi-nated crystals of white felspar, probably oligoclase. It was a favour… PorpoisePORPOISE (sometimes spelled PORPUS and PORPESSE). The word is apparently derived from the French porc and poisson, or the Italian porco and pesce, and thus corresponds with some of the English vernacular appellations, " hog-fish," " sea-hog," " herring-hog," and the German Meer-schwein, whence the usual modern French name of the animal, marsouin. "Porpoise" is commonly used by sailors to designate… PorporaPORPORA, NiccoLA (or Ntecor.o) ANTONIO (1686- '767), operatic composer and teacher of singing, was born in Naples on 19th August 1686, and educated at the Con-servatorio di Santa Maria Loreto hy Gaetano Greco and Francesco Mancini. His first opera, Basilio, was pro-duced at Naples, his second, Berenice, at Rome. Both were very- successful, and he followed them up by in-numerable compositions of li… Porson, RichardPORSON, RICHARD (1759-1808), in some respects the greatest of modern Greek scholars, was born on Christmas Day 1759 at East Ruston, near North Walsharn, in Nor-folk, the eldest son of Mr Huggin Porson, parish clerk of the place. His mother was the daughter of a shoemaker named Palmer, of the neighbouring village of Baeton. He was sent first to the village school at Bacton, kept by Mr John Woodrow,… Portado1ritnPORTADO1rITN, a market-town of Armagh, Ireland, is situated on the river Bann, and on the Great Northern Railway, 25 miles \vest-south-west of Belfast and 10 north-north-east of Armagh. The Bann, which is connected with the Newry Canal and falls into Lough Nea,gh about 5 miles north of the town, is navigable for vessels of 90 tons burden. It is crossed at Portadown by a stone bridge of seven arche… Porta, Giambattista DellaPORTA, GIAMBATTISTA DELLA (C. 1543-1615), natural philosopher, was born of a noble and ancient family at Naples about HIP. year 1543. In early youth he travelled extensively not only in Italy but also in France and Spain, and he had scarcely emerged from boyhood when he published illagim naturalis, sive de nziracutis rerum natur-alium lib. IV. (1558), the first draft of his Magia naturalis, in twe… Portalis, JeanPORTALIS, JEAN. ETIENNE MARIE (1745-1807), French jurist and the principal author of the Code Civil, which as the Code Napoleon has been declared the greatest monu-ment of the reign of the emperor, came of a bourgeois family, and was born at Bausset in Provence on 1st April 1745. He was educated by the Oratorians at their schools in Toulon and Marseilles, and then went to the university of Aix; wh… Port Au PrincePORT AU PRINCE (originally L'HOPITAL, and for brief periods PORT HENRI and PORT REPUBLICAIN), the capital of the republic of Hayti (western portion of the island of IlAYTI, q.v.), lies in 18? 34' N. lat. and 72? 20' W. long. at apex of the vast triangular bay which strikes inland for about 100 miles between the two great peninsulas of the west coast, and has its upper recesses protected by the bea… Port ElizabethPORT ELIZABETH, a seaport town of Cape Colony, at the head of an electoral division of the south-eastern pro-vince, lies in 33? 55' S. lat. on Algoa Bay, about 7 miles south of the mouth of the Zwartkop river. Built along the base and up the rocky slopes of the hills that rise for a height of 200 feet above the bay, it has rather a bare appearance as seen from the water, but on landing the, strang… PorterPORTER., JANE (1776-1850), a novelist whose life and reputation are closely linked with those of her sister ANNA MARIA PORTER (1780-1832) and her brother Sir ROBERT KER PORTER (1775-1842). Their father, an officer in the English army, having died shortly after the birth in 1776 of the younger sister, the mother removed from Durham, their birthplace, to Edinburgh, where the inherited passion for th… Port GlasgowPORT GLASGOW, a seaport, market-town, burgh of barony, and parliamentary burgh of Renfrewshire, Scot? land, is situated on the south side of the Clyde, 2.4- miles east of Greenock and 20 west of Glasgow. The elevated ridges to the back of the town are clothed with trees, their lower slopes being occupied with villas. The streets are wide, regular, and well-paved. The principal buildings are the co… Port HopePORT HOPE, a town and port of entry of Canada, in Durham county-, Ont,ario, on the north shore of Lake Ontario, lies 63 miles north-east of Toronto by the Grand Trunk Railway (which is there met by the midland branch of the Grand Trunk Railway), and is connected with Charlotte, the port of Rochester, New York, by a daily steamboat service. Port HuronPORT HURON', a city and port of entry of the United States, county seat of St Clair county, Michigan, lies 58 miles by rail north-east of Detroit, at the southern extremity of Lake Huron and on the west bank of the St Clair river, which is there joined by the Black river. Port JervisPORT JERVIS, a large village of the United States, in Deerpark township, Orange county, New York, situated at the intersection of the boundaries of New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania, at the junction of the Neversink with the Delaware. PortlandPORTLAND, the largest city- of Oregon, in the United States, the capital of Multnomah county- and the seat of the United States courts for Oregon, is situated at the head of ship navigation (river craft ascend 126 miles farther) on the west bank of the Willamette, 12 miles above its junction with the Columbia river and about 120 from the ocean. It is a well-built aud rapidly-growing city, laid out… PortlandPORTLAND, a city and port of entry of the United States, capital of Cumberland county, Maine, lies on Casco Bay, in 43? 39' N. lat. and 70? 13' AV. long. By rail it is 108 miles north-north-east of Boston and 297 south east of Montreal. The pen-insula on which it is mainly built runs out for about 3 miles, lia,s a breadth of about mile, and rises in the west to 175 feet in Bramhall's Hill and in t… Portland, Av Illiam BentinckPORTLAND, AV ILLIAM BENTINCK, FIRST EARL OF (d. , 1709), wa.s descended from an ancient and noble family of Guelderland, and became page of honour to William, prince of Orange, from which he was advanced to be gentleman of the bedchamber. In this capacity he accompanied the prince to England in 1670, and along with him was created doctor of civil law by the university of Oxford. Afterwards he beca… Portland, Isle OfPORTLAND, ISLE OF, a small island or peninsula of England, in the English Channel, 4),s; miles south of Weymouth, Dorsetshire, connected with the mainland by a long narrow ridge of shingle called the Chesil Bank. There is communication with Weymouth both by rail and steamer. The island is 4i miles long by 1 broad, the area being 2890 acres. The coast-line is wild and precipitous, and Portland is i… Portland, William Heicry Cavendish BentinckPORTLAND, WILLIAM HEIcRY CAVENDISH BENTINCK, THIRD DUKE OF (1738-1809), prime minister of England, was the grandson of Henry, second earl and first duke of Portland, who was son of William, first earl. He was born 14th April 1738, and was educated at Oxford university, where he graduated M.A. in 1757. In 1761 he was elected to represent the borough of Weobly (Hereford) in parliament, but in May of… Port LitteltonPORT LITTELTON, a municipal borough of NOW Zealand, formerly called Port Cooper and Port Victoria, lies on the north-west side of Banks Peninsula, on the east coast of South Island. The town, situated in 43? 36' S. lat. and 172? 44' E. long., stands on the north shore of I a small bay 4 miles south-west from the beads. A fixed white light, visible 30 miles in clear weather, is placed on Godley Hea… Port MahonPORT MAHON, or MAlloN, a city and seaport in the Mediterranean, on the east coast of the Spanish island of Minorca (see BALEARIC ISLANDS), lies on a height near the head of an inlet of the sea miles long by from 400 to 1200 yards wide, which, though of less importance than formerly, is still an admirable harbour of refuge. The city presents a fine appearance from the sea, and is solidly built of e… Porto AlegrePORTO ALEGRE, a city and seaport of Brazil, the capital of the province of Rio Grande do Sul, lies in 30? 2' S. lat. and. 51? 12' W. long, at the northern extremity of the Lagoa dos Patos (Duck Lagoon), where it receives the waters of the Jacuhi, Sino, Cahi, and Gravatahi, whose confluence opposite the city is sometimes distinguished by the name of Lageia Viamao. Like the other towns on this lagoo… PortobelloPORTOBELLO, a municipal burgh of Scotland, in the county of Midlothian, lies on slightly sloping ground on the south shore of the Firth of Forth, 3 miles by rail east of Edinburgh. At the west end are extensive brickfields, two potteries (working English clay), two bottle-works, and a paper-mill. Southwards and eastwards the houses are those of a, residential suburb of Edinburgh and a summer water… Porto BelloPORTO BELLO (Span., Puerto Bello), a town in the republic of Colombia and state of Panama, situated on the coast of the Caribbean Sea, about 23 miles east of Colon in 9? 32' N. lat. and 78? 38' W. long. As the name (bestowed by Columbus in 1502) implies, it possesses a fine natural harbour, the bay between Drake's Point in the north and Buenaventura Island in the south being easy of entrance and h… Porto MaurizioPORTO MAURIZIO, a city of Italy, chief town of a province and centre of a maritime district, lies on the coast of the Ligurian Sea, 46 miles by rail east of Niee and 70 miles west of Genoa, and consists of a picturesque old town situated on the heights and a modern town of villas on the lower slopes. The principal church, designed by Gaetano Cantone, is perhaps the most notable building of its cla… Porto RicoPORTO RICO (Span., Puerto Rico), one of the Spanish West India Islands, lies 70 miles east of Hayti between 17? 50' and 18? 30' N. lat. and 65? 35' and 67? 10' W. long. It forms an irregular parallelogram, 108 miles long and 37 broad, and has an area of 3530 square miles, or rather less than that of Jamaica. From east to west it is traversed by a range of hills so situated that the streams flowing… Port RoyalPORT ROYAL, a town and naval station of Jamaica, forms the natural breakwater of the noble bay on which Kingston, the present capital of the island, is built. As a town Port Royal (though in the 17th century it was re-puted the finest in the West Indies) is now a wretched place of 1205 inhabitants (1881), with narrow and ex-tremely dirty streets, and contains no buildings of note except a hospital… Port RoyalPORT ROYAL, a celebrated Cistercian abbey, occupied a low and marshy site in the thickly-wooded valley of the Yvette, at what is now known as Les Hameaux near Marly, about 8 miles to the south-west of Versailles. It was founded in 1204 by Mathilde de Garlande, wife of Matthieu de Montmorenci-Marli, during his absence on the fourth lay persons who desired to withdraw from die world for a the histor… Port SaidPORT SAID, a town and seaport of Lower Egy-pt, which owes its existence to the Suez Canal (1859-69), and was named after Sa`fd I'asha, patron of the enterprise. It lies on the west side of the canal, on the low narrow, treeless, and aesolate strip of land which separates the Mediter-ranean from Lake Menzaleh (see plate XXXVI., vol. iv.); the supply of fresh water brought froin the sweet-water cana… PortsmouthPORTSMOUTH, a city and port of entry of the United States, one of the two shire-towns of Rockingham county, New Hampshire, and alternately with Concord the seat of the sessions of the United States courts for the district of New Hampshire, lies on a peninsula on the right bank of the Piscataqua, 3 miles from its mouth, in 43? 4' N. lat. and 70? 45' W. long. By rail it is 57 miles north-north-east … PortsmouthPORTSMOUTH, a municipal and parliamentary bor ough, seaport, and naval station of Hamp-shire, England, consists of an aggregate of towns situated in the south-western corner of Portsea Island, opposite the Isle of Wight, 18 miles south by east of South-ampton and 74 south-west of London by the London and South-Western Railway. For the general position of Portsmouth, see plate VII. vol. xi. The ori… PortsmouthPORTSMOUTH, a city of the United States, capital of Scioto county, Ohio, lies at the confluence of the Scioto with the Ohio, and is the southern terminus of the Ohio and Erie Canal, and of a branch line of the Cincinnati, Washington, and Baltimore Railroad (Hamden to Ports-mouth, 56 miles), as well as an important station on the Scioto Valley hailway. As the entrepot for the rich mineral regions o… PortsmouthPORTSMOUTH, a city of the United States, capital of Norfolk county, Virginia, lies on the west bank of Elizabeth river, opposite Norfolk. Portugal GeographyPORTUGAL GEOGRAPHY - kingdom of Portugal, which is geographically a province of the Iberian Peninsula on its west coast, is bounded on the N. by the Spanish province of Galicia, on the E. by the Spanish provinces of Leon, Estrernadura, and Andalusia, and on the S. and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. It lies between 36? 56' and 42? 10' N. lat. and 6? 15' and 9? 30' W. long. It is 362 miles in length by 1… Portugal HistoryPORTUGAL HISTORY - It has been stated that geographically the kingdom of Portugal is an integral part of the Iberian Peninsula ; the only reason why it has retained its independence, while the other mediaeval states of that peninsula have merged into the kingdom of Spain, is to be found in its history. When Philip II. of Spain annexed Portugal it was a century too late for it to coalesce with Spai… Portugal LiteraturePORTUGAL LITERATURE - Portugal has a distinct literature as well as a distinct history, and one which is intimately bound up with the growth of the nation. The biographies, histories, and travels of the 16th cen-tury, are unrivalled of' their age in brilliancy and vigour, while the poetry of a land where all men are singers is not only admirable in itself brit illustrates a continuous and undecide… PorusPORUS, the name of the Indian king who withstood Alexander the Great on the banks of the Hydaspes (Jhelum). PoseidonPOSEIDON, the ancient Greek god of the sea and of water generally, was fabled to be the son of Cronus and Rhea, and brother of Zeus and Pluto. When the three brothers deposed their father Cronus the kingdom of the sea fell by lot to Poseidon. With his wife, Amphitrite, he dwelt in the depths of the sea ; at yEgoe he had a golden house beneath the waves. In his hand he bore a trident (a three-prong… PosenPOSEN (Polish, Pozndn), capital of the above province, the seat of a Roman Catholic archbishop, and the headwell-built modern quarter that has sprung up under the Prussian regiine. On the other bank is the Wallischei, poor district inhabited by Poles. Among the older build-ings none calls for remark except the town-house, a quaint specimen of the Slavonic adaptation of Romanesque forms. The chief … PosenPOSEN, a province in the east of Prussia, with an area (11,180 square miles) nearly equal to that of Belgium, is bounded on the N. by the province of Prussia, on the E. by- Russian Poland, on the S. by- Silesia, and on the W. by Brandenburg. It belongs physically to the great north German plain, and consists of a low plateau intersected by the beds of the Netze, the Warthe, and the Obra. The three… PosidoniltsPOSIDONILTS, a distinguished Stoic philosopher, the inost learned man of his time (e. 130-50 n.c.) and per-haps of all the school ; by birth a Syrian from Apamea, a pupil of Parnetius, he spent after his tea,cher's death many years in travel and scientific researches in Spain (particu-larly at Gades), Africa, Italy, Gaul, Liguria, Sicily, and on the eastern shores of the Adriatic. When be settled … PossessionPOSSESSION is a legal term derived from Roman law. The Roman conception of possession has been generally adopted, but the Roman deductions from the conception have not been universally' followed. The subject of pos-session, in itself a difficult one, has become more difficult owing to the various senses in which the term has been interpreted. Thus it has been said to be either a right or a fact co… Post-officePOST-OFFICE, the germ of the modern postal systems of the world is to be looked for, obviously, in the earliest organized establishment of a staff' of Government couriers. 'When, or under what precise circumstances, such an establishment was first made available by a, state for the carriage of the letters of private persons there is no satisfactory evidence to show. That there must have been, even… Potassium MetalsPOTASSIUM METALS. Under this heading we treat of potassium, rubidium, and cwsium ; SODIUM and LITHIUM, being less closely allied to potassium, have special articles devoted to them. Potassium. - The three metals under consideration are all very widely diffused throughout nature ; but only- potassium is at all abundant, and therefore We begin with it. The richest natural store is in the ocean, whic… PotatoPOTATO. The potato (Solanum tuberosvm) is too well is not known ; the object evidently is to secure a method of propagation independently of the seed. Starch and other matters are stored up in the tubers, as in the perisperm of a seed, and in due season are rendered avail-able for the nutrition of the young shoots when they begin to grow. The young shoots, in fact, derive their nourishment from th… Potato DiseasePOTATO DISEASE - there are few agricultural subjects of greater importance than the culture of the potato and the losses entailed by potato disease. The number of acres in Great Britain alone under cultivation for potatoes is generally more than half a million (543,455 in 1883, 562,344 in 1884); the average weight of the produce per acre may be taken at five tons, the average price about X5 per to… Potato, SweetPOTATO, SWEET. This plant (the Convolvulus batatas, or Iponvea batatas of some authors) is generally culti-vated in the West Indies and most tropical countries for the sake of its tuberous root, which is an article of diet greatly in request. It is a climbing perennial with cordate, entire, or palmately-lobed leaves borne on slender twining stems. The flowers are borne on long stalks in loose clus… Potemkin, Gregory AlexandrovichPOTEMKIN, GREGORY ALEXANDROVICH (1739-1791), Russian soldier and statesman, was born in 1739 in the village of Domnovo, in the government of Smolensk. His father was a poor nobleman of Polish extraction, but the family had been settled for some time in Russia. Owing to the slender ine,ans of his parents, Potemkin's first plan seems to have been to devote himself to the church ; but he did not show… PotenzaPOTENZA, a city of Italy, the chief town of Potenza (Basilicata), lies in the heart of the country, on an isolated hill in the valley of the Basento or Busento (Casuentus or Masuentum), 69 miles by rail ea,st of Salerno and 51 west-north-west of Metapontum, where the Basento reaches the Gulf of Taranto and the railway joins the line between Taranto and Reggio. It is inuch exposed to stormy winds, … PotiPOTI, a seaport town of Trans-Caucasia in the govern-ment of Kutais- (Mingrelia), lies at the mouth of the Rhion (Phasis) on the coast of the Black Sea, 193 miles west-north-west of Tiflis, with which it is connected by a railway - opened (except the tunnel of Suram) in 1872. The white walls of the fortress may be seen at a great distance con-trasting with the green trees which surround them, and … PotomacPOTOMAC, a river of the United States, which joins Chesapeake Bay by a considerable estuary after a course of about 400 miles. PotosiPOTOSI (not to be confounded with San Luis Potosi, the state and state capital in Mexico) is a town of Bolivia, at the head of the department of Potosi, in 19? 36' S. lat. and 65? 46' W. long. It stands in a bleak and barren country not far front the sources of the Pilcomaya, and thus belongs to the great basin of the La Plata system. Situated at the height of about 13,280 feet above the sea, it i… PotsdamPOTSDAM, the seat of government for the Prussian province of Brandenburg, and the summer residence of the emperor of Germany, lies 16 miles to the south-west of Berlin, on the river Havel, which here expands into a series of small lakes. The town is handsomely built, though with a monotonous regularity that betrays its artificial origin, and is situated amid the prettiest scenery of the Mark of Br… Potter, JohnPOTTER, JOHN (C. 1674-1747), archbishop of Canter-bury, was the son of a linen-draper at Wakefield, York-shire, and was born about 1674. Pottery And PorcelainPOTTERY AND PORCELAIN - the word " pottery " (Fr. poterie) in its widest sense includes all objects made of clay, moulded into form while in a moist plastic state, and then hardened by fire. Clay, the most widely spread and abundant of all mineral substances, consists essentially of a hydrated sili-cate of alumina, (see vol. x. p. 237), admixed, however, in almost all cases with various impurities… PottstownPOTTSTOWN, a borough of Montgomery county, Pennsylvania, United States, is picturesquely situated on the Schuylkill river, in a plain surrounded by hills. PottsvillePOTTSVILLE, a city of the United States, capital of Schuylkill county, Pennsylvania, lies 35 miles north-west of Reading, on the north side of the Schuylkill river, in the gap by which it breAks through Sharp Mountain. PoughkeepsiePOUGHKEEPSIE, a city of the United States, capital of Duchess county, New York, lies on the east bank of the IIudson river, 73 miles north of New York. It is on the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad, and communicates with the .New York, West Shore, and Buffalo Railway by- ferry from Highland, and with the Hartford and Connecticut 'Western Railroa,d by the Poughkeepsie, Hartford, and Bosto… PoultryPOULTRY. The term "poultry " (Fr. oiseaux de Inmse rour) is usually regarded as including the whole of the _ _ I name, the Turkey-, and the Guinea-fowl, all members of the family of birds known as Phasianithr. The Pheasants them-selves, belonging to the restricted genus l'Itosi anus, are not capable of being domesticated, and the Peacock is to be regarded rather as an ornamental than as a poultry-… PounPOUN D, an enclosure in which ca.ttle or other animals found straying are retained until they are redeemed by the owners, or when taken in distraint until replevined, such retention being in the nature of a pledge or security to compel the performance of satisfaction for debt or damage done. A pound belongs to the township or village and should be kept in repair by the parish. The pound-keeper is … Poushkin, AlexanderPOUSHKIN, ALEXANDER (1799-1837), the most cele-brated of Russian poets, wa.s born at ;Moscow, 7th June 1799. He belonged to an ancient family of boy-ars, and in a clever poem, many of the sallies of which were too trenchant to pass the censorship, he has sketched some of the more important of his progenitors. A strange ancestor was his maternal great-grandfather, a favourite Negro ennobled by Pete… Poussin, NicolasPOUSSIN, NICOLAS (1594-1665), French painter, was born at Les Andelys (Eure) in June 1591. Early sketches, made when he should have been learning Latin, attracted the notice of Quentin Varin, a local painter, whose pupil Poussin became, till he went to Paris, where he entered the studio of Ferdinand Elle, a Fleming, and then of the Lorrainer L'..Allemand. He found French art in a stage of transiti… PoutPOUT, also WHITING-P017T or BIB (Catt218 /USCUs), a small species of cod-fish locally abundant on the coasts of northern and western Europe, but less so in the Mediterranean. Powan, Or BowenPOWAN, or BOWEN (Coregonus clupeoides), a species of the Salmonoid genus Coreyonus, which seems to be peculiar to Loch Lomond in Scotland, the great lakes of Cumber-land, where it is called "schelly," and Lake Bala in Wales, the Welsh name of the fish being " gwyniad." It is not found in other European waters ; but of the numerous Continental species of this genus the lavaret of the Swiss lakes re… Powers, HiramPOWERS, HIRAM (1807-1873), American sculptor, was the son of a farmer, and was born at -Woodstock, Vermont, on 29th June 1807. In 1819 his father removed to a farm in Ohio, about six miles from Cincinnati, where the son attended school for about a year, staying meanwhile with his brother, a lawyer in Cincinnati. After leaving school lie found employment in superintending a reading-room in connexio… Pozzo Di BorgoPOZZO DI BORGO, CARLo ANDREA (1764-1842), Russian diplomatist, was descended from an old Corsican family, and was born at Alata near Ajaceio on 8th March 1764. After convicting his legal studies at Pisa he became advocate at Ajaccio, where in 1790 he joined the party, of Paoli, to whom the Buonapa,rte family was strongly' opposed. In his early years he had been on terms of the closest intimacy wit… PozzuoliPOZZUOLI, the ancient PIITEOLI, a city of Italy, on the northern shore of the Bay of Pozzuoli (Sinus Puteo-lanus or Cumanus), - the western portion of the Gulf of Naples, separated from the larger eastern portion by the promontory of Posillipo and from the open sea on the west by the peninsula which terminates in Cape Miseno. It is a place of 11,967 inhabitants (1881) and the centre of a commune, … Pradier, JamesPRADIER, JAMES, French sculptor, was born at Geneva in 1790 and died in Paris on 5th June 1852. Praed, Winthrop MackworthPRAED, WINTHROP MACKWORTH (1802-1839), one of the most illustrious English writers of vers (le societe, was the third and youngest son of William. Mackworth Praed, scrjeant at law. The name of his father's family had been originally Mackworth, and the circumstances under which the additional title of Praed w-as adopted are set out in the Parochial History of Cornwall (iii. 101). Winthrop, a cognom… Pragmatic SanctionPRAGMATIC SANCTION, the technical name given to some decrees which have been issued as fundatnental laws. The term is of Byzantine origin, the edicts of the Eastern emperors having been called "pragmatics." There is a famous document known as the Pragmatic Sanction of St Louis, which contains six articles directed against the assumptions of the papacy; but there are reasons for doubt-ing its genui… PraguePRAGUE (German, Prag ; Bohemian, Praha), the capi-tal of Bohemia, the seat of an archbishop, and the third largest town of the Austrian-Hungarian Inonarchy, lies on both. banks of the Moldau in 50? 5' N. lat. and 14? 25' E. long., 150 miles to the north-west of Vienna and 75 miles to the south-south-east of Dresden. Its position, near the centre of the country and at the only point where the valle… PrahranPRAHRAN, a, city of Victoria, .Australia, is situated about 3,1- miles south-east of Melbourne, with which it is connected by the -Melbourne and Brighton Railway, and by road over a fine iron girder bridge which crosses the Yarra. PrakritPRAKRIT (prakrta, " common," as contrasted with sarpskria, "perfect") is the term applied to the vernacular languages of India derived from Sanskrit. Pram, Christen HenriksenPRAM, CHRISTEN HENRIKSEN (1756 -1821), Scandi-navian poet, was born in Gudbrandsdal, Norway, in 1756, and educated in Copenhagen, where in 1781 he received an appointnient in the chamber of commerce, which gave him considerable leisure for literature. PramonstratensiansPRAMONSTRATENSIANS. See ABBEY, V01. p. 20, and MONACITTSY, VOI. xvi. p. 709. PRAniUNIRE, the name given to a writ originating in the llth century in the attempt to put restraint on the action of the papal authority in regard to the disposal of ecclesiastical benefices in England before the same became vacant, and subsequently, to the prejudice of the rightful patron, and also in the encouragement … PratincolePRATINCOLE, a word apparently invented by Latham (Synopsis, v. p. 222), being the English rendering of Pratincola, applied in 1756 by Kramer (Elenchus, p. 381) to a bird which had hitherto received no definite name, though it had long before been described and even re-cognizably figured by Aldrovandus (Ornithologia, xvii. 9) under the vague designation of "hirundo ma-rina." It is the Glareola prat… PratoPRATO, a, city and bishop's see of Italy, in the province of Florence, on the north edge of the alluvial plain which extends between Florence and Pistoia. By rail it is dis-tant from the former city 111 miles and from the latter fn. The cathedral of St Stephen, which stands in a square surrounded by houses of the 16th century, is partly of the 12th and partly of the 14th and 15th centuries. The fa… PraxitelesPRAXITELES, a, Greek sculptor, son and apparently also pupil of the Athenian Cephisodotus. An account of his works is given in vol. ii. p. 361 ; but since that was written there has been found at Olympia, where it still remains, a marble statue from his band, Hermes carrying the infant Dionysus. Though a work of coinparatively youthful years, as may bc inferred from his obvious in-debtedness to hi… PrecedencePRECEDENCE. This word in the sense in which it is here employed means priority of place, or superiority of rank, in the conventional system of arrangement under which the more eminent and dignified orders of the com-munity are classified on occasions of public ceremony and in the intercourse of private life. In the United Kingdom there is no complete and comprehensive code whereby the scheme of so… PredestinationPREDESTINATION is a theological term, sometimes used with greater latitude to denote the decree or purpose of God by which He has from eternity immutably deter-mined whatever comes to pass ; sometimes more strictly to denote the decree by which men are destined to everlasting happiness or misery ; and sometimes with excessive strict-ness to denote only predestination to life or election.' The ques… Preller, FriedrichPRELLER, FRIEDRICH (1804-1878), German landscape-painter, was born at Eisenach on 25th April 1804. After studying drawing at Weimar, he went in 1821, on Goethe's advice, to Dresden, where he made such progress that in 1824 he was invited to accompany the grand-duke of Weimar to Belgium, where he became a pupil in the a,calemy at Antwerp. From 1827 to 1831 Ile studied in Italy, and in the last-name… Preller, LudvPRELLER, LUDV,'IG (1809-1861), author of well-known works on Greek and Roman mythology, was born at Ham-burg on 15th September 1809. He studied philology- at Leipsic under Gottfried Hermann, at Berlin under Bockh, and at Gottingen under O. Midler, graduating at the last-named university in 1832. After " habilitating " as privat-docent in Kiel, he wa,s called in 1838 to an ordinary pro-fessorship a… PrerauPRERAU (Slay. PrerogativePREROGATIVE, in law, is an exclusive privilege of the crown. The word, originally an adjective, is derived from the centuria prLurogett-iva, or century which voted first on a proposed law (rogatia) in the Roman comitia centuriata. In English law, Blackstone says, " by the word prerogative we'are to understand the character and power which the sovereign hath over and above all other persons, in rig… PresbyterPRESBYTER. Towards the end of the 2d century the organization of the Christian congregations throughout the Roman empire, at least of all the greater ones, was identical. At the head of each was the bishop, whose function it was to conduct public worship, control the church funds, and keep watch over the manners of his flock. The free prophets and teachers having almost everywhere died out, the du… PresbyterianismPRESBYTERIANISM - form of church government began at the Reformation and attained development only in the churches commonly called "Reformed." The Saxon Reformers were not indeed fundamentally averse to Pres-byterian principles. Melanchthon, for instance, expressly-declared that no minister, without a college of elders and the consent of worthy members of the congregation, might excommunicate ; an… PresbyterianismPRESBYTERIANISM - were eighty ministers under five presbyteries. With the close of the war came the close of their troubles, as under William they enjoyed complete toleration. So hopeful were they of regaining supremacy that they sent up a petition to the crown that, since the noi.th of Ireland was alinost entirely peopled by Scottish Presbyterians, Epis-copacy might be done away with in that part… Presbyterianism United StatesPRESBYTERIANISM UNITED STATES - Presbyterianism in the United States is a reproduction and further development of Presbyterianism in Europe. It differs from the latter in that the various types produced in Great Britain and on the continent of Europe combined to produce a new _American type. The Charleston church alone maintains its independence at present. Eimlish Puritanism emigrated under the a… PrescotPRESCOT, a market-town of Lancashire, is situated on rising ground on the Liverpool and Wigan branch of the London and North-Western Railway, 8 miles east of Liverpool and 28 west of Manchester. Prescott, William HicklingPRESCOTT, WILLIAM HICKLING (1796-1859), his-torian, was born in Salem, Massachusetts, on 4th May 1796, his ancestors, of the old Puritan stock, having migrated from Lancashire about 1640 and established themselves in Middlesex county, Massachusetts. He re-ceived his earlier education in his native city until the removal of his family- in 1808 to Boston, where he was placed under the tuition of Dr … PrescriptionPRESCRIPTION in the broadest sense of the word denotes the acquisition or extinction of rights by lapse of time. The term is derived from the preescriptio of Roman law, originally- a matter of procedure, a clause inserted before the formula on behalf of either the plaintiff or, in early times, the defendant, limiting the question at issue. (See PLEADING.) It was so called from its preceding the fo… Preserved FoodPRESERVED FOOD. The perfect preservation of any substance for use as food implies the retention of its full nutritive power, sapidity, and digestibility, with its natural odour and colour unimpaired, for such length of time as may- be required. The process employed must be sufficiently cheap to allow of the preserved food being placed in the market at a price which will insure a, demand for it. Th… PressburgPRESSBURG (Hung. Pozsony, Lat. Posoniunt), capital of the county of the same name and in former times also of the country, is a royal free town in Hungary, situated on the left bank of the Danube, in 48? 8' N. lat. and 17? 6' E. long. Pressburg is the see of an evangelical bishop, and the headquarters of one of the fifteen army-corps of the Austrian-Hungarian army and of a honved district ; its ci… Press LawsPRESS LAWS. The liberty of the press has always been regarded by modern political writers as a matter of supreme importance. " Give me liberty to know, to utter, and to argue freely according to conscience, above all other liberties," says Milton in the A reopagitica. At the present dar the liberty of the press in English-speaking countries is (with perhaps the single exception of Ireland) a matte… Pr Ester JohnPR ESTER JOHN. The history of Prester John is that of a phantom, taking many forms. It no doubt originally was based on some nucleus of fact, or connected itself with some such nucleus, though wha,t that nucleus was has been inuch controverted and is extremely difficult to deter-mine. But the name and the figure which it suggested occupied 80 prominent a place in the mind of Europe for two or thre… PrestonPRESTON, a market-town and municipal and parlia-mentary borough of Lancashire, is situated on the north bank of the Ribble, on the Lancaster Canal, and at the junction of several railway lines, 28 miles north-east of Liverpool and 31 north-west of :Manchester. It consists chiefly of one long street, running from east to west along a steep ridge above the Ribble, which is crossed by six bridges, th… PrestwichPRESTWICH, a township of Lancashire, is situated on a branch of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway, 4 miles north-west of Manchester and 5 south of Bury. PrevesaPREVESA, the chief town of a sandjak in the Turkish vilayct of Janina, commanding the entrance to the Gulf of Arta. Prevost D'exilles, Antoine FranoisPREVOST D'EXILLES, ANTOINE FRANOIS (1697- '763), more commonly called the abbe Prevost, one of the most important French novelists of the 18th century, was born at Hesdin in Artois on 1st April 1697. His father was of good family, and held legal employments of some importance. Prevost was educated by the Jesuits, first at Hesdin and then at Paris. At the age of sixteen he left the College d'Harcou… Prevost-paradol, Lucien AnatolePREVOST-PARADOL, LUCIEN ANATOLE (1829-1870), a writer whose career, except in its unhappy end, was typical of the iinportance of journalism in France, was born at Paris on the 8th of August 1829. His mother was an actress; little is said of his father. He was educated at the CollOge Bourbon, showed great brilliancy and precocity, and entered the Ecolo Normale. In 1855 he was appointed profe.ssor o… Prevost, PierrePREVOST, PIERRE (1751-1839), son of a Protestant clergyman in Geneva, -was born in that city on 3d March 1751, and was educated for a clerical career. But he for-sook it for law, and this too he quickly deserted to devote himself to education and to travelling. He became inti-mate with J. J. Rousseau, and, a little later, with Dugald Stewart, having previously distinguished himself as a trans-lato… PriapusPRIAPUS, the Greek god of teeming flock and fruit-ful field. He was unknown to the earliest Greek poets Homer and Hesiod, but in later times his worship pre-vailed on the fertile coasts of Asia Minor. Lampsacus on the Hellespont, nestling in its vineyards, claimed to be his birthplace. According to the people of Limpsacus he was the son of Dionysus and Aphrodite. Having the misfortune, as a child,… Price, RichardPRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791), philosopher, son of a Dissenting minister, was born on 23d February 1723, at Tynton, in the parish of Llangeinor, Glamorganshire. His education was conducted partly by private tutors, partly at private, schools. His father was a bigoted Calvinist and seems to have been a person of morose temper, facts which may account, on the principle of reaction, for the liberal opin… Prichard, James CowlesPRICHARD, JAMES COWLES (1786-1848), the founder of ethnology or anthropology in England, was born on llth February 1786 at Itoss in Herefordshire. His parents were of the Society of Friends, and his career in after life partly turned on his not receiving the then narrow course of school education, but a wider home training in modern languages and general literature. Living at Bristol, he occupied … Prideaux, HumphreyPRIDEAUX, HUMPHREY (1648-1724), dean of Nor-wicb, was the third son of Edward Prideaux of Place in Padstow, Cornwall, by his wife Bridget, daughter of John Moyle of Bake in the same county. Both families were of good repute in the west of England, and that of Prideaux was especially influential, as is shown by the elaborate pedigrees in Sir John Maclean's Deanery of Trigg Minor (ii. 194-242). He w… Pride, ThomasPRIDE, THOMAS (d. 1658), Parliamentary officer, was of humble origin, and is stated to have been brought up by the parish of St Bride's, London. Subsequently he was a drayman and a brewer. At the beginning of the Civil War he served as ensign under the earl of Essex, and gradually obtained promotion to the rank of colonel. He distinguished himself at the battle of Preston, 17th August 1648, and in… PriestPRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre) is a contracted form of " presbyter " (rpco-Pirrepos, " elder "; see PRESBYTER), a name of office in the early Christian church, already men-tioned in the New Testament. But in the English Bible the presbyters of the New Testanient are called " elders," not "priests"; the latter name is reserved for ministers of pre-Christian religions, the Semitic n,.;71.3 (kohe… Priestley, JosephPRIESTLEY, JOSEPH (1733-1804), was born on 130 March 1733 at Fieldhead near Birstal, in the West Riding of Yorkshire. His father, Jonas Priestley, was a woollen-cloth dresser and apparently of very moderate ineans. His mother was the only child of Joseph Swift, a farmer at Shafton near Wakefield. The paternal grandfather, also named Joseph, was a churchman whose high moral char-acter became a sacr… PrietoriansPRiETORIANS (prxtoriani) was the name borne by the body-guards of the Roman emperors. The name was derived from the prtetorian cohort, a picked body of troops who in the time of the republic formed the guard of a general in command of an army, the old Latin name for a general being przetor and his quarters in the camp being known as the pr&torium. As the emperor was commander-in-chief the headquar… PrimatePRIMATE (primas, i.e., primus), a title inore than once bestowed in the Codex Theodosianus on various civil func-tionaries, came about the beginning of the 4th century to be used also, especially in Africa, as a designation of the " primm sedis episcopus." In the canon law the word " primate " is regarded as essentially the Western equiva-lent of the Eastern " patriarch." See ARCHBISHOP and PATRIARCH. Prim, Juan, 'Marquis De Los CastiilejosPRIM, JUAN, 'MARQUIS DE LOS CASTIILEJOS, COUNT DE REUSS (1814-1870), Spanish soldier and statesman, was the son of Lieutenant-Colonel Pablo Prim, and was born at Reuss in Catalonia on 12th December 1814. He entered the free corps known as the volunteers of Isabella II. in 1834 and greatly distinguished. himself throughout the Carlist War, in the course of which he rose to the rank of lieutenant-co… PrimogeniturePRIMOGENITURE. The term " primogeniture " is used to signify the preference in inheritance which is given by law, custom, or usage to the eldest son and his issue, or in exceptional cases to the line of the eldest daughter. The practice prevailed under the feudal codes throughout all the Western countries. It is now almost entirely con-fined to the United Kingdom, having been abolished (ex-cept in… PrimrosePRIMROSE.' The genus Primula contains numerous species distributed throughout the cooler parts of Europe and Asia, and found also on the mountains of Abyssinia and Java. They are all herbaceous perennials, possessing a permanent stock, from which are emitted tufts of leaves and flower-stems which die down in winter ; the new gyowths formed in autumn remain in a bud-like condition ready to develop … PrincePRINCE. " Prince" and " princess " are names or de-scriptions implying either political authority- or social rank in the persons to whom they relate or are accorded. We have in " prince " the English and French form of the Latin prin,ceps, which with more or less modification has been adopted into nearly every langua.ge of modern Europe, and of which the original and common use was to indicate pri… Prince Edward IslandPRINCE EDWARD ISLAND, formerly called Isle St Jean, a province of Canada, in British North Anterica, lies between 45? 58' and 47? 7' N. lat. and 62? and 64? 27' W. long., on the south side of the Gulf of St Lawrence. It is separated from Nova Scotia on the south and from New Brunswick on the south and west by Northumberland Strait, which varies from 0 to 30 miles in width. Its greatest length is n… Prince Of Wales IslandPRINCE OF WALES ISLAND,' the official name of the island popularly known 0.s PENANG or PuLo-PENANG it was ceded to the English by the rajah of Kedah in re-turn for an annual pension of 10,000 dollars, it was almost uninhabited; at the census of 1881 its population amounted to 90,951 (comprising 612 Europeans, 21,772 Malays, 45,135 Chinese, 15,730 natives of India), and it has since been increased … Princes IslandsPRINCES ISLANDS, the Demonesi or Demonnesi of the ancients, a beautiful cluster in the Sea of Marmora opposite that part of the Asiatic coast which trends south-east from Scutari to the entrance of the Gulf of Ismid (Nicomedia). They are nine in number - Prote (Turkish, Tinaki), Antigone, Klialki or Karki (Chaleitis or " copper-mine island " of the ancients), Plate, Oxeia, Pitys, Antiro-bitio (Ter… PrincetonPRINCETON, a borough and township of the United States, in Mercer county, New Jersey, on the Delaware and. Rariton Canal, 3 miles north by rail from Princeton Junction, which is 48 miles south-west of New York and 42 north-east of Philadelphia on the Pennsylvania Rail-way. Standing on high ground, it commands a fine prospect towards the east and south. The town is the seat of Princeton or New Jers… Pringle, Sir JohnPRINGLE, SIR JOHN (1707-1782), a distinguished physician, was the younger son of Sir John Pringle of Stitchel, Roxburghshire, and was born on the 10th of April 1707. He was educated at home under a private tutor, and subsequently at St Andrews, at Edinburgh, and at Leyden, where he took the degree of doctor of physic. At the last-named university he was an intimate friend of Van Swieten and Haller… PrintingPRINTING, TvroartArnm. See TYPOGRAPIIY. PRIOR, MATTHEW (1664-17211, the most distinguished of English society poets, was the nephew, as Chaucer was the son, of a, London vintner, and the lives of the two poets were parallel in a good many other respects. Their art earned for both of them social advancement and political employment ; both had a turn for business and diplomacy; both were employed on… PriscianPRISCIAN (PDiscrANus CYSARIESSIS), the MOSt cele-brated Latin grammarian, lived about 500 A.D., i.e., some-what before Justinian. This is shown by the facts that he addressed to Anastasius, emperor of the East 491-518, a laudatory poem, and that the MSS. of his Institutiones Grammatictu contain a subscription to the effect that the work was copied (526, 527) by Flav. Theodorus, a clerk in the impe… PriscillianistsPRISCILLIANISTS, an heretical sect which rose to some prominence in Spain towards the end of the 4th century and continued to subsist, in varying' numbers, there and in Gaul, until after the middle of the Gth. Its founder was Priscillian, a wealthy and influential layman of considerable reading and ability who had devoted his life to a self-dcnying study of the occult sciences and the deeper probl… Prisiitina, Or PristinaPRISIITINA, or PRISTINA, a town of European Turkey, since 1877 at the head of a liwa in the vilayet of Kossovo, lies on an affluent of the Sitnitza, a subtribut-ary of the Morava, and gives its name to one of the stations on the Salonica-Uskub-Mitrowica Railway, which runs at a distance of 6 or 7 miles to the west of the town. It stands at a height of 1700 feet above the sea on undulating ground, … Prison DisciplinePRISON DISCIPLINE. Authority in every age and in every country has claimed to hnpose penalties on all who offend against it. Either coercion or protection has been the moving principle : the master extorted submis-sion, or society, through its rulers, defended itself against evil doers. The most common punishments in early times were naturally those most easily inflicted. Offenders paid in their p… Prisrend, Prisdren, PrisdraPRISREND, PRISDREN, PRISDRA, PISDRA, PISREN, or Pisti.t, in Roumelia, the chief town of a sandjak and the seat of a Greek and a Roman Catholic archbishop, in the Turkish vilayet of Kossovo (formerly Monastir), stretches for 2 or 3 miles along the north-western base of the Scarclus or Shar-dagh, and is traversed by the rapid waters of the Resna ..)litritza, which, issuing from a deep gorge a little… PrivateerPRIVATEER is an armed vessel belonging to a, private owner, the subject. of a belligerent power, commissioned by the sovereign of that power. The commission is either a commission of war or of marque and reprisals in time of peace. It was marque in this sense which was granted to aggrieved subjects of the realm of England as early as the statute 4 Hen. V. e. 7. The term "letters of marque," howeve… PrivilegePRIVILEGE, in law, is an immunity or exemption conferred by special grant in derogation of common right. The term is derived from privilegium, a law specially passed in favour of or against a particular person. In Roman law the latter sense was the more common ; in modern law the word bears only the former sense. Privi-lege in English law is either personal or real, - that is to say, it is granted… Prize, Or Prize Of WarPRIZE, or PRIZE OF WAR, denotes the ship or goods of an enemy-, or in transitu to an eneniy, captured at sea. Goods captured on land are not prize, but booty of war. To be good prize the capture must be on the high seas or in the territorial waters of one of the belligerents, and must be by an armed vessel duly commissioned by the sovereign of the captor. A capture made in neutral waters is a viol… PrjefectPRJEFECT (pralectus) was the title of various Roman officials, both civil and military. A priefect was not one of the magistrates proper ; he was, strictly speaking, only the deputy or lieutenant of a superior magistrate or coin-mander. The following were the most important classes of proafects. Under the empire there wa,s introduced a city prefecture which differed essentially from the above. Aug… PrjenestePRJENESTE (now PALESTRINA), a very ancient city of Latium, lies 22 iniles east of Rome on a spur of the Apen-nines facino. the Alban Hills. To the natural strength of the place aiDul its commanding situation Prieneste owed in laro.e measure its historical importance. The local tradition (ad:Opted by Virgil) named Cwculus, son of Vulcan, as founder. From the remains of Cyclopean ma,sonry- and other… Prlnce Of Wales LandPRLNCE OF WALES LAND, a large insular tmct in the northern Arctic region opposite Boothia Felix, from which it is separated by Franklin Strait. ProbabilityPROBABILITY - the mathematical theory of probability is a science which aims at reducing t-o calculation, where possible, the amount of credence due to propositions or statements, or to the occurrence of events, future Or past, more especi-ally as contingent or dependent upon other propositions or events the probability of which is known, Any statement or (supposed) fact commands a certain amount … Probus, 3PROBUS, 3-IA1z:ens AURELIUS, Roman emperor from 276 to 28'2 A.D., was a native of Sirmium on the Save, and son of a military officer of moderate fortune. He early entered the army, where he recommended himself to the emperor Valerian, and against all rule became tribune while still a mere lad. In these times there were abundant oppor-tunities for a capable officer, and Probus served with great dis… ProcessPROCESS, in law, denotes in the widest sense of the word any means by which a court of justice gives effect to its authority. In the old practice of the English com-m.m law courts process was either original or judicial. Original process was a means of compelling a defendant to compliance with an original writ (see -WRIT). Judicial pricess was any compulsory proceeding rendered necessary after the… ProcidaPROCIDA, an island less than 2 miles off the west coast of southern Italy between Capo Miseno (or rather Monte Procida) on the mainland and the island of Ischia, forming part of the circondario of Pozzuoli and the pro-vince of Naples. Its total area is not much more than 1:4 square miles, but it is fertile, well-cultivated, and thickly peopled (10,788 inhabitants in 1871, 10,891 in 1881). Like the… ProcopiusPROCOPIUS, the most eminent historian of the Eastern Roman empire, was born at aesarea in Palestine, then one of the chief cities of the Roman East, towards the end of the 5th century, probably between 485 and 495 A.D. Of his family and earlier life nothing is known, but it has been plausibly' conjectured from the aristocratic sympathies lie nianifests that he belonged to one of the better familie… Procter, Bryan WallerPROCTER, BRYAN WALLER (1787-1874), poet and miscellaneous writer, was born on the 21st November 1787. At an early- age he was sent to a small boarding school near London, and thence in his thirteenth year to Harrow, where he had for contemporaries Lord Byron and Sir Robert Peel. On leaving school he was placed in the office of a solicitor at Caine, Wiltshire, remaining there until about 1807, when… ProctorPROCTOR, the English form of the Latin procurator, denotes a person who acts for another, and so approaches very nearly in meaning to AGENT (q.v.). The word is used in three senses. (1) A particular kind of university official. (2) A representative of the clergy in convocation. A proctor represents either the chapter of a cathedral or the beneficed clergy of a diocese. In the province of Canter-bu… ProdicusPRODICUS of Coos, whose birth is conjecturally assigned to 465-460 B.C., was a humanist of the first period of the Sophistical movement. He was still living in 399 B.C. Visiting Athens, in the first instance (it is said) as the accredited a-gent of his native island, he be-came known in the intellectual capital as a good speaker and a successful teacher. Like Protagoras, he professed to train his … ProhibitionPROHIBITION is defined by Blackstone as " a writ directed to the judge and parties of a suit in any inferior court, commanding them to cease from the prosecution thereof, upon a surmise either that the cause originally or 6orne collateral matter arising therein does not belong to that jurisdiction, but to the cognizance of some other court." A writ of prohibition is a prerogative writ - that is to… ProjectionPROJECTION. If from a fixed point S in space lines or rays be drawn to different points A,B,C, . . . in space, and if these rays are cut by a plane in points A',B',C', . . . the latter are called the projections of the given points on the plane. Instead of the plane another surface may be taken, and then the points are projected to that surface instead of to a plane. In this manner any figure, pla… Projection Descriptive GeometryPROJECTION DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY - For many, especially technical, purposes it is of the utmost importance to represent solids and other figures in three dimensions by a drawing in one plane. A variety of methods have been introduced for this purpose. The most important is that which towards the end of the last century was invented by iNionge under the name of "descriptive geometry." We give the el… Projective Planes -Which Are Not In Perspective PositionPROJECTIVE PLANES -WHICH ARE NOT IN PERSPECTIVE POSITION. - We return to the case that two planes 7r and 7r' are pro-jective but not in perspective position, and state in some of the more important cases the conditions whieli determine the correspondence between them. Projective PropertiesPROJECTIVE PROPERTIES. - The properties of the iwojection of a figure depend partly on the relative position of the planes of the figure and the centre of projection, but principally on the pro-perties of the given figure. Paints in a line are projected into points in a line, harmonic points into harmonic points, a conic into a conic ; but parallel lines are not projected into parallel lines nor r… PromePROME, a district in Pegu division, British Burma!), India, between 18? 30' and 19? 15' N. lat., and 94? 40' and 96? E. long., containing an area of 2887 square miles. It occupies the whole breadth of the valley of the Irawadi, between Thayet district on the north and Hen-zada and Tharawadi districts on the south, and originally extended as far as the frontier of the province of 13urrnali, but in … PromePROME, chief town of the above district, on the left bank of the Irawadi, had a population in 1881 of 28,813 (males 14,982, females 13,831). PrometheusPROMETHEUS, son of the Titan Iapetus by the sea. nymph Clymene, is the chief " culture hero," and, in some accounts, the Demiurge of Greek mythical legend. As a culture-hero or inventor and tea,cher of the arts of life, he belongs to a wide and well-known category of imaginary beings. Thus Qat, Quahteaht, Pundjel, Maui, Ioskeha, Cagn, Wainamoinen, and an endless array of others repre-sent the idea… Prony, Gaspard Clair Francois Marie Riciie DePRONY, GASPARD CLAIR FRANcOIS MARIE RICIIE DE (1755-1839), a celebrated French engineer, was born at Chamelet, in the department of the Rhone, 22d July 1755, and was educated at the Ecole des Ponts et Chaus-sees. His 211ilmoire 8U1' la poussee des voides published in 1783, in defence of the principles of bridge construction introduced by his master Peronnet, attracted special atten-tion. Under Per… PropagandaPROPAGANDA, or Sacred Congregation de Propaganda Fide, is the name given to a commission of cardinals appointed for the direction of the missions of the Roman Church. The idea of forming such an institution was conceived by Pope Gregory XIII. and other pontiffs, but it was Gregory XV. (1621-1623) who, after having sought counsel from cardinals and information con-cerning the state of religion in v… Propertius, SextersPROPERTIUS, SEXTErS, the greatest elegiac poet of Rome, was born of a good Umbrian family, who were con-siderable landed proprietors in the fair and fertile region between Perusia and the river Clitumnus. The seat of the Propertii was at Asisium or Assisi, the birthplace of the famous St Francis ; and here also was Propertius born. The year of his birth is uncertain, and it has been vari-ously- pl… ProphetPROPHET (rpoOrjrtiO is a word taken from the voca-bulary of ancient Greek religion, which passed into the language of Christianity, and so into the modern tongues of Europe, because it was adopted by the Hellenistic Jews as the rendering of the Hebrew t?t+= Otkibi, pl. nellilm). Tbe word therefore as we use it is meant to convey an idea which belongs to Hebrew and not to Hellenic belief ; but when… ProselytePROSELYTE (irparr')Xuros) is the term most frequently adopted by/ the Septuagint, especially in legal passages, to represent the Hebrew -1;. The ger, or more fully ger vitosliab, is not any " stranger " but a stranger dwelling in a Hebrew community and enjoying a certain measure of protection. In old time at least the position of such a stranger was no doubt very insecure, for he had no strong kin… ProserpinePROSERPINE (Proserpina) is the Latin form of PER-SEPHONE,' a Greek goddess, daughter of Zeus and the earth-goddess Demeter. In Greek mythology Demeter and Proserpine were closely associated, being known to-gether as the two goddesses, the venerable or august god-desses, sometimes as the great goddesses. Proscrpine herself was commonly known as the daughter (Core), sometimes as the first-born. As s… Prosper Of AquitainePROSPER OF AQUITAINE (AQUITANUS, Or AQUITANICUS), a Christian prose and verse writer of the first half of the 5th century. Of his personal history almost nothing is known; his surname seems to imply- that lie was a native of Aqui-tania, and there are various indications that he was edu-cated as a " rhetorician." While still comparatively young he gave himself to a religious and ascetic life, and a… ProssnitzPROSSNITZ (Slavonic, Prostejou), the chief place in the fertile district of the Hanna, in Moravia, Austria, is situated on the small river Rumza, 11 miles south-west of Ohniitz. ProtagorasPROTAGORAS of Abdera, the first of the so-called Soplaists, - who, about the middle of the 5th century B.c., asserted throughout Greece the claims of education or culture in opposition on the one hand to technical instruc-tion and on the other to physical research, - was an older contemporary of Socrates. At the age of seventy, having been accused and. convicted of atheism, Protagoras fled from At… ProtestantenvereinPROTESTANTENVEREIN is the name of a society in Germany the general object of which is to promote the union and the progress of the various established Pro-testant churches of the country in harmony with the advance of culture and on the basis of Christianity. It was founded at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1863 by a nutnber of distinguished clergymen and laymen of liberal tendencies, representing the f… ProtestantsPROTESTANTS is the generic term for members of the churches which owe their origin directly or indirectly to the REFonmAnoN (9.v.). ProteusPROTEUS, a Greek sea-god, spoken of by Homer as the Old Man of the Sea. In the Odysse,y he dwells in the sea near Pha.ros, an island said to be a day's sail from the mouth of the Nile ; in Virgil his home is the Carpathian Sea between Crete and Rhodes. He knew all things past, present, and future, but was very loth to tell what lie knew. Those who would consult him had first to surprise and bind h… Proteus AnguinusPROTEUS ANGUINUS, a blind, newt-like perenni-branchiate Amphibian, about a foot long, found in the Adelsberg, I'daddalena, and other limestone caverns of Carinthia and Carniola. The creature is white or flesh-coloured, and the transparent gills appear blood red ; the skin passes uninterruptedly over the rudimentary eyes. The animal's body is cylindrical; the snout is long and blunt ; the fore-feet… ProtogesesPROTOGESES, a Greek painter, born in Caunus on the coast of Caria, but resident in Rhodes during the latter half of the 4th century B.C., was celebrated for the minute and laborious finish which he bestowed on his pictures, both in drawing and in colour. Apelles, his great rival, standing astonished in presence of one of these works, cpuld only- console himself that he knew \Olen to stop whereas P… ProtoplasmPROTOPLASM. In most of the biological articles already before the reader, whether concerned with general questions, a-5 BIOLOGY, ANATOMY, BOTANY, EM.BRY-OLOGY, EVOLUTION, HISTOLOGY, MORPHOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, &c., or even with special groups of living beings, as ANIMAL KINGDOM, FORAMINIFERA, FUNGUS, PROTOZOA, &c., special reference has been made to protoplasm as the living matter from which all kinds… Proudhon, Pierre JosephPROUDHON, PIERRE JOSEPH (1809-1865), a well-known revolutionary writer, was born in 1809 at Besancon, France, the native place also of the socialist Fourier. His origin was of the humblest, his father beirig a brewer's cooper ; and the boy herded cows and followed other simple pursuits of a like nature. But he was not entirely self-educated ; at sixteen lie entered the college of his native place,… Prout, SamuelPROUT, SAMUEL (1783-1852), water-colour painter, was born at Plymouth on September 17, 1783. His education in art was obtained by a patient a,nd enthusi-astic study of nature. He spent whole summer days, in company with the ill-fated Haydon, in drawing the quiet cottages, rustic bridges, and romantic water-mills of the beautiful valleys of Devon. He even made a journey through Cornwall, to try his… Provencal Language And LiteraturePROVENcAL LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. I. LANGUAGE. - Provencal is a name used to comprehend all the varieties of Romanic speech formerly spoken and written, and still generally used by country people, in the south of France. The geographical limits of this infinitely varied idiom cannot be defined with precision, because it is conterminous on the north, south, and east with idioms of the same family,… ProvencePROVENCE (Provincia), a province of France lying to the extreme south-east on the shores of the Mediterranea,n, bounded on the W. by Languedoc, on the N. by, Ven-aissin and Dauphine, and on the E. by Italy. It now forms the departments of Bouches-du-Rhone, Var, and Basses-Alpes, with portions of Vaucluse and Alpes Maritimes. Tt was divided into Upper Provence, containing the four seneschalates of … Proverbs, Book OfPROVERBS, BOOK OF. The title of the book of Pro-verbs is "The Proverbs of Solomon " (nnin, sc,tm, mishle shelomoh, or more shortly mishle, for which Origen gives the feminine form misloth, Euseb., H. E., vi. 25). The title in the LXX. is a, literal rendering of the Hebrew, Hapeq.dat aXf.oittiwros. In early times the book was frequently referred to both among Jews and Christians under the name of "… ProvidencePROVIDENCE, a city of the United States, one of the capitals of the State of Rhode Island (the other being Newport), and the seat of justice of Providence county, is situated in 41? 49' 22" N. lat. and 71? 24' 48" W. long., at the head of Narragansett Bay, on both banks of Pro-vidence River, and with Seekonk River on its eastern boundary. A nearly circular sheet of water known as the Cove lies in… ProvincePROVINCE (pro-vincia, etymology uncertain), in the Roman sense, may be defined as the department or sphere of duty- assigned to one of the higher magistrates (the con-suls and pri-etors).2 But when, with the spread of the Roman arms, the government of conquered countries grew to be one of the most important ditties of the higher magistrates, the term province, from designating the govern-ment of a… PrzetoriijsPRzETORIIJS,4MionAEL (1571-1621), German musical historian, theorist, and composer, was born at Kreuzberg in Thuringia on 15th February 1571. He acted as kapell-meister at Liineburg early in life, was enga,ged first as organist and later as kapellmeister and secretary to the duke of Brunswick, and was eventually rewarded for his long services with the priory of Ringelheim, near Goslar. He died at … Red PigmentsRED PIGMENTS embrace two distinct series of substances - the reds of inorganic origin, and red lakes obtained from animal and vegetable colours. The principal commercial varieties are as follows : - rouge, Turkey red, and Indian red, red ferric oxide ; Venetian red, ochreous ferric oxide ; ochres, earths coloured by ferric oxide ; vermilion and cinnabar, sulphide of mercury ; antimony vermilion, r… Renaissance PlatrRENAISSANCE PLATR.-F:111'hOlt, Lord Londesborough's Collect ton of Plate, 1860; Frampton, Gold Plate al Windsor Castle, n.d. ; Catalogue of Plate, &c., ex I; ted in 1861 at Ironmongers' Hall, London, 1863-69; Richardson, Old English Mansions and their Plate (1841-48), Drawings and Sketches of Elizabethan Plate. bold, n, n.d.; Shaw, Ancient Plate from Oxford, 1837; Smith, " Specimens of College Pla… Representation OfREPRESENTATION OF A LINE. - A line is determined either by two points in it or by two planes through it. We get accord-ingly two representations of it either by projections or by traces. First. line a is represented by its projections al and on the two planes 7r, and v2. These may be any two lines, for, bringing the planes 7ri, v2 into their original position, the planes through these lines perpen… Representation Of PointsREPREsENTATION OF POINTS. - We have thus the following method of representing in a single plane the position of points in space : - qee take in the plane a line x as the axis, and then any pair of points Al, A, in the p/ane on a line perpendicular to the axis represent a point A in space. If the line A,A, cuts the axis at Ao, and if at A, a perpendicular be erected to the plane, then the point A w… Sba'sSBA'S themselves are called the anterior (fig. 27, IK') and posterior segments of the internal capsule " (Ross). On emerging from the basal ganglia the fibres of the internal capsule radiate in all directions to reach the cortex of the brain, giving rise to the appearance called the "corona radiata." The following sets of fibres have been traced into connexion with the cerebrum. (a) Sensory pedunc… Scandinavian AndSCANDINAVIAN AND Illtatt PLATE.-Anderson, Mindelhlade fee de danske Kongers Samling, 1867; Danmark,, Norges. og Scerigs Historic, 1867 ; Atlas de l'Archeologie du Nord, 1857; Madsen, Afbildninger of Danske Oldsager, 1868-76; Worsaae,Thildni?ger fru del Kongelige Museum (1854), Primeval Antiquities of Denmark 0849), ?? Industrial Arts of Denmark." S.K.M. handbook (1882); Hildebrand, '' Industrial A… SiiearSIIEAR. - If the centre of projection be taken at infinity on the axis, then the projecting rays ale parallel to the axis ; hence cor-responding points will be equidistant from the axis. In this ease therefore areas of corresponcli?g fig nres will be equal. If A, A' and ll, 13' (lig. 7) are two pairs of corresponding points on the same line, parallel to the axis, then, as correspond-ing segments … Similar FigitileSIMILAR FIGITILE";. - If the axis is at infinity every line is parallel to its corresponding line. Corresponding angles are there-fore equal. The figures are similar, and (? 10) the ratio of simili-tude of any two corresponding rows is constant. If similar figures are in perspective position they are said to be similarly situated, and the centre of projection is called the centre of shnilitude. To… SogsoiisSOGSOIIS of the year. The distribution and habits of the conimon polecat have been well described by Blasius in his AS7ivethiere Deutsch-lands, and the following is an abstract of his account. The polecat ranges over the greater part of Europe, reach-ing northwards into southern Sweden, and in Russia to the region of the White Sea. It does not occur in the extreme south, but is common everywhere t… South Polar RegionSOUTH POLAR REGION - the south polar region, unlike the northern region, is almost covered by- the ocean, the only- extensive land being far to the south. It was of course entirely unknown to the ancients and to the early- navigators of modern Europe, although a theory- prevailed among geographers that a (Treat continent existed round the south pole, the " Terra 17, Australis Incognita." Lope Garc… TheoremTHEOREM. - If two perspective figures are 121 tga0 cor,41171 eOrrap021Cliaa lt21CS are harmonic conjugates with regard to the axis and the line from their point qf intersection to the centre. TheoremTHEOREM. - Tti..o projective planes will be in perspective position if one pencil coincides with its corresponding one. l'he centre of these pencils 2rill be the centre o f pe,rspective. In this ease the two planes must of course coincide, whilst in the first ease this is not necessary. IVe shall now show that two planes which are projective according to definition ? 12 can be brought into perspec… TheoremTHEOREM. - If two projective planes coincide, and if it happems that to one point in their COM,MOtt plane the same point corresponds, whether we consider the point as belonging to the first or to the second plane, then the same will happen for every other point - that is to say, to every point will correspond the same point in the first as in the second plane. In this ease the figures arc said to … TheoremTHEOREM. - ThrOUgh three points we ean always draw 011C conic, and only one, which determines an a given line a given involution, all the SaMe whether the involution lu-ts real, coincident, or invisible foci. TheoremTHEOREM. - If the centre, the axis, and either one pair of corre-sponding points 021 a line through the centre or one pair of corre-sponding lines Meeting Oh the aXiS are given, then the whole projection deterMined. Proof-1f A and A' (fig. 1) are given corresponding points, it has to be shown that we can find to every other point B the cor-responding point W. Join AB to mit the axis in R. Join RA'… TheoremTHEOREM. - If two planes are perspective, then, ?f the one plane be turned about the axis through, any angle, especially if the one plane be turned till it coincides with the other, the t?ro planes will remain, perspective ; corresponding lines w-ill still meet 021 a line called the axis., and the lines joining corresponding points will still pass throu.gh a common centre S situated in the plane. … TheoremTHEOREM. - Any conic can bc projected into any other conic. This may be done in such a 171(110tCr that three points on one come and the tangents at two of them are projected to three arbitrarily selected points and th,e tangents at two of thenz on the other. Prool - lf mid are any two collies, then we have to prove that we can project in such a manner that five points on it will be projected to po… TittoreTITTORE (C. 1380-1456), commonly called PISANELLO, the greatest of Italian medallists, was a native of San Vigilio sul Lago in the territory of Verona. Vicente YaVICENTE YA:â– 'EZ P1NZON, who commanded the "Nina," also gave Columbus material help, and remained loyal to his leader throughout. In after years he made important discoveries on his own account. In 1499 he sailed with four caravels across the Atlantic to the south-west, and on January 20, 1500, he struck the South-American continent at Cape S. Agostinho, its most easterly projection, three months… White PigmentsWHITE PIGMENTS. - The whites are the most important pigments used by painters, forming as they do the basis or body of nearly all paints, excepting only certain dark hues. Good available whites are limited in number, and all of real importance are included in the following list : - white lead, a carbonate of lead (chiefly); zinc white, oxide of zinc, called also Chinese white; antimony white, oxid… Works On Plate Of Various PeridipsWORKS ON PLATE OF VARIOUS PERIDIPS.-TeXia, Dictionnaire sfOrferrerie, 1857; De Lasteyric, 'Astaire de l'Orfevrerie; Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire du elfobilier, 1858-75 ; Jr:et-plenum. Yellow PigmentsYELLOW PIGMENTS. - The following list includes the ordinary yellow colours of commerce : - ochres and sienna earth, native earths tinted with iron ; Mars yellow, hydrated ferric oxide ; chromes, chromates of lead and other metals ; massicot, protoxide of lead ; Naples yellow, antimoniate of lead ; mineral yellow, basic chloride of lead ; aureolin, nitrate of potassium and cobalt ; cadmium yellow, …
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