All's Well That Ends WellALL'S WELL THAT ENDS WELL (1st ed. in El, 16M): H. T. Hagen, 1, 'eb. die a/(franz24. Vorstuje des Lustspieles, Halle, 1879, Ivo. ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA (1st ed_ in El) As Von LIKE IT (1st ed. in F.1): W. Whiter, Specimen of a Commentary, 1794, Ivo; A. 0. Kellogg, Jacques, 15, Iwo ; C_ Sheldon, Notes, 1877, Svo; T. Stothard, S.'s Seven Ages Illustrated, 1703, folio ; J. Evans, S.'s Semen Ages, 3d ed.… Babas, Or SabbasBABAS, or SABBAS, ST (Syr. Mar Sabha), one of the early leaders of monasticism in Palestine, was a native of Cappadocia, born about 439. While still a child he accompanied his parents to Alexandria, whence in his eighteenth year, having made choice of the ascetic life, he removed to Palestine, settling at the desolate spot now occupied by the convent called by his name, about two hours from the no… Bastiano Di SangalloBASTIANO DI SANGALLO (1481-1551), Florentine sculptor and painter, was a nephew of Giuliano and Antonio. He is usually known as Aristotile, a nickname he received from his air of sententious gravity. He was at first a pupil of Perugino, but afterwards became a follower of Michelangelo. His life is given at great length by Vasari, in spite of his being an artist of very mediocre powers. ANTONId DI … Charles Emmanuel IiiCHARLES EMMANUEL III. continued his father's intrigues to obtain possession of Milan, and joined the league of France and Spain against Austria in 1732. ClassificationCLASSIFICATION. - The limits of this article prevent our ex- C amining in detail the system of classification proposed by Cohn, c or the modifications of it followed by other authorities. Zopf, in the third edition of his work (1885), proposes a scheme based on the modern views as to the pleomorphism : we must refer to the original for the details, simply remarking that, apart from the extreme vie… Earl OfEARL OF (1621-1683), was the son of Sir John Cooper of Rockbourne in Hampshire, and of Anne, the only child of Sir Anthony Ashley, Bart., and was born at Wimborne St Giles, Dorset, on July 22, 1621. His parents died before he was ten years of age, and he inherited extensive estates in Hampshire, Wiltshire, Dorsetshire, and Somersetshire, much reduced, however, by litigation in Chancery. He lived f… European RussiaEUROPEAN RUSSIA - Russia is on the whole a thinly-peopled country, the average population being but 42 to the square mile. The density of population varies, however, very much in European Russia - from one inhabitant per square mile in the government of Archangel to 102 in that of Moscow (exclusive of the capital) and 138 in Podolia. Two-thirds of the whole population are concentrated upon less th… Francesco Di SangalloFRANCESCO DI SANGALLO (1493-1570), the son of Giuliano di Sangallo, was a pupil of Andrea Sansovino, and worked chiefly as a sculptor. Frledrich Wilhelm SchadowFRLEDRICH WILHELM SCHADOW (1789-1862), painter, born in 1789 in Berlin, was the second son of Johann Gottfried Schadow the sculptor, from whom he received his earliest instruction. In 1806-7 he served as a soldier ; in 1810 he went with his elder brother Rudolph to Rome. He became one of the leaders among the German pre-Raphaelite brethren who eschewed classicism and the Italian Renaissance and so… Georges De ScmaryGEORGES DE SCMARY (1601-1667), the elder of the pair, was born at Havre, whither his father had moved from Provence, in 1601. He served in the array for some time, and, though in the vein of gasconading which was almost peculiar to him he no doubt exaggerated his services, there seems little doubt that he was a, stout soldier. But he con-ceived a fancy for literature before he was thirty, and duri… GermanyGERMANY : S.'s Schauspiele erlitutert von F. Horn, Leipsie, 1823-31, 6 vols. Svo ; E. A. Hagen, S.'. erstes Erecheinen auf den Bahnen Deutschlands, ICSnigs., 1832, Svo ; K. Asaman, S. mind seine deutschen Uebersetzer, Liegnitz, 1843, 4to ; N. Delius, Die Sehlegel-Tiecksche S. Uebersetz., Bonn, 1846, 12mo ; F. K. Elze, Die Englische Sprache in Deutschland, Dresden, 1864, 12rno; F. A. T. Kreyssig, S… Giuliano Di SangalloGIULIANO DI SANGALLO (1443-1517) was a distinguished Florentine architect, sculptor, tarsiatore, and military engineer. His father, Francesco di Paolo Giamberti, was also an able architect, much employed by Cosimo de' Medici. During the early part of his life Giuliano worked chiefly for Lorenzo the Magnificent, for whom he built a fine palace at Poggio-a-Cajano, between Florence and Pistoia, and s… Huge, ArnoldHUGE, ARNOLD (1803-1880), German philosophical and political writer, was born at Bergen, in the island of Riigen, on the 13th September 1803. He studied at Halle, Jena, and Heidelberg, and became an enthusiastic adherent of the party which sought to create a free and united Germany. For his zeal in this cause he had to spend five years in the fortress of Kolberg, where he devoted himself to the st… MarieMARIE . MAGDALENE, gends of private seals or secrete were often chosen in allusion to their use ; common phrases are " clausa secrets tego," or " lecta; lege, tecta tege." Many ingenious devices were practised to enable the same matrix to give two or more different varieties of impression. In some cases the border with the legend was so contrived as to slide up the handle, so that the seal could … MorphologyMORPHOLOGY. - Sizes, Forms, Structure, &c. - The Schizomycetes consist of single cells, or of filamentous or other groups of cells, according as the divisions are completed at once or not. While some unicellular forms are less than 1p. ?01 mm.) in diameter, others have cells measuring 4p, or 5p, or even 71u or 8 in thickness, while the length may vary from that of the diameter to many times that m… MorptiolociyMORPTIOLOCIY, vol. xvi. p. 841). Given, then, the conception of the cellular life rhythm as capable of thus passing into a distinctly anabolic or katabolic habit or diathesis, the explanation of the phenomena of reproduction becomes only a special field within a more general view of structure and function, nay even of variation, normal and pathological. Thus the generality, use, and nature of the … Picture Galleries Of EuropePICTURE GALLERIES OF EUROPE - The following list gives some indication of the manner in which the existing pictures of various schools are distributed among the chief galleries of Europe. LI The National Gallery, London, contains for its size a very large number of highly important pictures of the Italian schools, many . of them signed and dated ; in fact, as a representative collection, embracing… PiiystologyPIIYSTOLOGY. - As in the case of other plants, we are hero concerned with the functions of the Schizomycctcs and their relations to the environment ; for convenience, the subject may be treated under various headings. Limitation of space prevents our doing more than touch lightly upon such matters as the action of the Schizomycetes as ferments, and their relations to disease, though both subjects … ProsodyPROSODY (Chhanclets). - The oldest treatises on prosody have already been referred to in the account of the technical branches of the later Vedic literature. Among more modern treatises the most important are the Mrita-sanfivan, a commentary on Pingala's Sidra, by Halayudha (perhaps identical with the author of the glossary above referred to) ; the Vritta-ratnakara, or "jewel-mine of metres," in s… ReidREID (ThOIIIRS), CAMPBELL (George), FERGUSON (Adaill), HOME (John), BLAIR (Hugh), ROBERTSON (William), and ERSKINE (John). The labours of these men were not mainly in theology ; in religion the age was one not of advance but of rest ; they gained for the church a great and widespread respect and influence. Another salient feature of the Moderate policy was the consolidation of discipline. It is fr… RomanROMAN, a town of France, in the department of Charente Inferieure, is situated on the right bank of the Gironde, where it joins the ocean ; a branch line of 5i miles connects it with Saujon, on the Seudre Railway, which joins the Bordeaux-Nantes line at Pons. Royan, which in 18S1 had a population of only 4573 (5445 as a commune), is one of the most frequented bathing resorts on the Atlantic seaboa… RotherhamROTHERHAM, a market-town and municipal borough in the West Riding of Yorkshire, is situated at the junction of the Rother with the Don navigation, on several railway lines, 5 miles north-east of Sheffield. The parish church of All Saints, occupying the site of a building dating from Anglo-Saxon times, was erected in the reign of Edward IV., and is a good specimen of Perpendicular. Among the other … Rothe, RichardROTHE, RICHARD (1799-1867), theologian, was born at Posen, January 28, 1799, of parents in a good position. After passing through the grammar schools of Stettin and Breslau, he studied theology in the universities of Heidelberg and Berlin (1817-20) under Daub, Schleiermacher, and Neander, the philosophers and historians Hegel, Creuzer, and Schlosser, exercising a considerable influence in shaping … RothesayROTHESAY, a royal burgh, and the principal town of the county of Bute, Scotland, is situated in the island of Bute, at the head of a well-sheltered and spacious bay in the Firth of Clyde, 40 miles W. of Glasgow and 18 S.W. of Greenock, with which there is frequent communication by steamers. The bay affords good anchorage in any wind, and there are also a good harbour and pier. The town is the head… RothschildROTHSCHILD, the name of a Jewish family which has acquired an unexampled position from the magnitude of its financial transactions. The original name was Bauer, the founder of the house being MAYER ANSELM ? (1743-1812), the son of Anselm Moses Bauer, a small Jewish merchant of Frankfort-on-the-Main. His father wished him to become a rabbi, but he preferred business, and ultimately set up as a mone… RothwellROTHWELL, an urban sanitary district in the West Riding of Yorkshire, situated in a pleasant valley four miles south of Leeds. RotiferaROTIFERA. The Rotifera (or Rotatoria) form a small, in many respects well-defined, but somewhat isolated class of the animal kingdom. They are here treated of separately, partly on account of the difficulty of placing them in one of the large phyla, partly on account of their special interest to microscopists. Now familiarly known as " wheel animalcules " from the wheel-like motion produced by the… RotrouROTROU,, JEAN DE (1609-1650), the greatest tragic poet of France before Corneille, was born on August 21, 1609 at Dreux in Normandy, and died of the plague at the same place on the 28th June 1650. His family was of small means but of not inconsiderable station, and seems to have had a kind of hereditary connexion with the magistracy of the town of Dreux. He himself was "lieutenant particulier et c… RotterdamROTTERDAM, a city of the Netherlands in the province of South Holland, situated in 51? 55' 19" N. lat. and 4? 29' 7" E. long., on the right bank of the Nieuwe Maas at the point where it is joined by the Rotte, a small stream rising near Moerkapelle. By rail it is 14i- miles south-east of The Hague and 441- south of Amsterdam. As defined by its 17th-century fortifications the town was an isoscele… RoubaixROUBAIX, a manufacturing town of France, the second in population in the department of Nord, lies to the north-east of Lille on the Ghent Railway and on the canal connecting the lower Deule with Scheldt by the Marq and Espierre. Several tramway lines traverse the town and connect it with various manufacturing centres in the neighbourhood. The population of Roubaix, which in 1881 was 79,700 (the co… RoubiliacROUBILIAC, Loris FRANc018 (1695-1762), an able French sculptor. Born at Lyons in 1695, he became a pupil of Balthasar of Dresden and of N. Coustou. About the year 1720 he settled in London, and soon became the most popular sculptor of the time in England, quite superseding the established success of the Flemish Ilysbraeck. He died on January 11, 1762, and was buried in the church of St Martin-in-t… RouenROUEN, a city of France, the ancient capital of Normandy, and now the administrative centre of the department of Seine Inferieure, the seat of an archbishopric and a court of appeal, and the headquarters of the third corps d'armee, stands on a level site on the right bank of the Seine in 49? 26' N. lat. and 1? 6' E. long. at the point where it is joined by the Aubette and the small Riviere de Robe… RougeROUGE. Rouget De LisleROUGET DE LISLE, CLAUDE JOSEPH (1760-1836), one of the most noteworthy of those authors whom a single short piece of work has made famous, was born on 10th May 1760, at Lons-le-Saunier. He entered the army as an engineer and attained the rank of captain. He wrote complimentary verses pretty early, and appears to have been a good musician. The song which has immortalized him, the Alarseillaise, was… Rougher, Jean AntoineROUGHER, JEAN ANTOINE (1745-1794), a French poet, to whom a melancholy fate and some descriptive verse equal to anything written dining at least three-quarters of a century by any of his countrymen except Andre Chenier, gave some reputation, was born on February 17, 1745 at Montpellier, and perished by the guillotine at Paris on July 25, 1794. He wrote an epithalamium on Louis XVI. and Marie Antoi… Roulers, Or RousselaereROULERS, or ROUSSELAERE, a town of Belgium, in the province of West Flanders, on the Mandelbeke, a tributary of the Lys, 22i miles south of Ostend on the railway to Courtrai. RoumROUM (Rt1M) is the name by which the Arabs call the Romans, i.e., all subjects of the Roman power. Billed al-Rant, "the lands of the Romans," accordingly means the Roman empire. The parts of the old empire conquered by the Arabs were regarded as having ceased to be Roman, but the Western Christian lands were still called lands of the Rum, without reference to the fact that they had in great part c… RoumaniaROUMANIA, a kingdom in the south-east of Europe between the Carpathians, the Pruth, the Black Sea, and the Danube. The Pruth and the Kilia mouth of the Danube now form the frontier with Russia. West of Silistria the Danube is the boundary between Roumania and Bulgaria, while to the east of that point the boundary is formed by an irregular line passing east by south to the coast about ten miles to … RoumeliaROUMELIA. The name of Roumili, " the land of the Romans," was applied from the 15th century downwards to all that portion of the Balkan peninsula westwards from the Black Sea which was subject to Turkey. More precisely it was the country bounded N. by Bulgaria, W. by Albania, and S. by the Morea, or in other words the ancient provinces, including Constantinople and Salonica, of Thrace, Thessaly, a… Round TowersROUND TOWERS. A peculiar class of round tower exists scattered throughout Ireland; about one hundred and twenty examples still remain, mostly in a ruined state, but eighteen or twenty are almost perfect, These towers were built either near or adjoining a church ; they are of various dates from perhaps the 8th to the 13th century ; though varying in size and detail, they have many characteristics w… RousseauROUSSEAU, TnEonoin (1812-1867), a distinguished landscape painter, was born at Paris, and studied in. the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, after which he spent some time in travelling and making studies of landscape and sky effects. He first exhibited at the Salon in 1834, obtained gold medals in 1849 and 1854, and in 1852 received the Legion of Honour. His paintings became very popular in France, and Rousse… Rousseau, JacquesROUSSEAU, JACQUES (1630-1693), painter, a member of a Huguenot family, was born at Paris in 1630. He was remarkable as a painter of decorative landscapes and classic ruins, somewhat in the style of Canaletto, but without his delicacy of touch ; he appears also to have been influenced by Nicolas Poussin. While quite young Rousseau went to Rome, where he was fascinated by the noble picturesqueness o… Rousseau, Jean BaptisteROUSSEAU, JEAN BAPTISTE (1670-1741), a poet of some merit and a wit of considerable dexterity, was born at Paris on the 10th April 1670 ; he died at Brussels on the 17th March 1741. The son of a shoemaker, he is said to have been ashamed of his parentage and relations when he acquired a certain popularity, but the abundance of literary quarrels in which he spent his life, and the malicious inventi… Rousseau, Jean JacquesROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES (1712-1778), was born at Geneva on the 28th June .1712. His family had established themselves in. that city at the time of the religious wars, but they were of pure French origin. Rousseau's father Isaac was a watchmaker ; his mother, Suzanne Bernard, was the daughter of a minister; she died in childbirth, and Rousseau, who was the second son, was brought up in a very haphaz… RoussillonROUSSILLON, a province of France, which now forms the greater part of the department of PYR1NIES ORIENTALES (q.v.). It was bounded on the south by the Pyrenees, on the west by the county of Foix, on the north by Languedoc, and on the east by the Mediterranean. The province derived its name from a small Bourg near Perpignan, the capital, called Ruscino (Rosceliona, Castel Rossello), where the Galli… RoveredoROVEREDO (in German sometimes 1?ofreit), one of the chief industrial cities in South Tyrol, and, after Trent, the chief seat of the Tyrolese silk industry, is situated on the left bank of the Adige (Etsch), in the fertile Val Lagarina, 35 miles north of Verona and 100 miles south of Innsbruck. Though there are several open places within the town, the streets, except in the newer quarters, are narr… RovignoROVIGNO, a city of Austria, in the province of Istria, is picturesquely situated on the coast of the Adriatic, about 12 miles south of Parenzo, and 10 miles by rail from Canfanaro, a junction on the railway between Divazza (Trieste) and Pola. It has two harbours, with shipbuilding yards; and it carries on several industries and a good export trade, especially in olive-oil and a cement manufactured… RovigoROVIGO, a city of Italy, the chief town of a province, and the seat of the bishop of Adria, lies between the Po and the Adige, and is traversed by the Adigetto, a navigable branch of the Adige. By rail it is 27 miles south-south-west of Padua. The architecture bears the stamp both of Venetian and Ferrarese influence. The cathedral church of Santo Stefano (1696) is of less interest than La Madonna … Rowe, NicholasROWE, NICHOLAS (1674-1718), the descendant of a family long resident at Lamerton in Devon, was born at Little Barford in Bedfordshire, June 30, 1674. The house in which he was born is close to the Great North Road, and a small stone to his memory has been erected in the centre of the garden. His father, John Rowe, took to the law as his profession, and at his death in 1692 (by which time he had at… RowingROWING is the act of driving forward or propelling a boat along the surface of the water by means of oars. It is remarkable how scanty, until quite recent times, are the records of this art, which at certain epochs has played no insignificant part in the world's history. It was the oar that brought Phoenician letters and civilization to Greece; it was the oar that propelled the Hellenic fleet to T… RowlandsonROWLANDSON, TuccstAs (1756-1827), caricaturist, was born in Old Jewry, London, in July 1756, the'son of a tradesman or city merchant. It is recorded that "he could make sketches before he learned to write," and that he covered his lesson-books with caricatures of his masters and fellow-pupils. On leaving school he became a student in the Royal Academy. At the age of sixteen he resided and studied … Rowley RegisROWLEY REGIS, an urban sanitary district of Staffordshire, is situated on the Birmingham Canal, and on the Stourbridge branch of the Great Western Railway, 6 miles west of Birmingham. Rowley, WilliamROWLEY, WILLIAM, actor and dramatist, collaborated with several of the celebrated dramatists of the Elizabethan period - Dekker, Middleton; Heywood, Fletcher, Webster, Massinger, and Ford. Nothing is known of his life except that he was an actor in various companies, and married in 1637. There was another Rowley, an actor and playright in the same generation, Samuel, and probably a third, Ralph. F… Roxana, Or RoxaneROXANA, or ROXANE, daughter of the Bactrian Oxyartes and wife of Alexander the Great (see ALEXANDER, vol. i. p. 484, and MACEDONIAN EMPIRE, vol. xv. p. 142). RoxburghROXBURGH, a border county of Scotland, occupying the greater part of the border line with England, is bounded E. and S.E. by Northumberland, S.E. by Cumberland, S.W. by Dumfriesshire, W. by Selkirkshire, N.W. by Midlothian, and N.E. by Berwickshire. It lies between 55? 6' 30" and 55? 42' 30" N. lat., and between 2? 10' and 3? 7' W. long. Its greatest length from north to south is 43 miles, and its… RoxburyROXBURY, formerly a city of Norfolk county, Massachusetts, U.S., now incorporated in BOSTON (q.v.). ROY, RA/1111011IIN (1772-1833). Raja Rammohun Roy (or Ray), the founder of the Brahma Samaj or Theistic Church of India, was born at Radhanagar, Bengal, in May 1772, of an ancient and honourable Brahman family. His father gave him a good education; he learnt Persian at home, Arabic at Patna (where h… Royal HouseholdROYAL HOUSEHOLD. In all the medireval monarchies of western Europe the general system of government sprang from, and centred in, the royal household. The sovereign's domestics were his Acers of state, and the leading dignitaries of the palace were the principal administrators of the kingdom. The royal household itself had, in its turn, grown out of an earlier and more primitive institution. It too… Royal Society, TheROYAL SOCIETY, THE, or, more fully, The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, is an association of men interested in the advancement of mathematical and physical science. It is the oldest scientific society in Great Britain, and one of the oldest in Europe. The Royal Society is usually considered to have been founded in the year 1660, but a nucleus had in fact been in existence … Royer-collard, Pierre PaulROYER-COLLARD, PIERRE PAUL (1763-1845), French statesman and philosopher, was born on the 21st June 1763 at Sompuis near Vitry-le-Francais. At an early age he became a member of the bar, and pleaded several times in the old parlement of Paris. On the breaking out of the Revolution he took the popular side, and was elected to a seat in the municipal council of Paris. He was secretary to this body f… RoyleROYLE, JorrY FORBES (1800-1858), a distinguished botanist and teacher of materia medics. His reputation is especially founded upon the results of personal investigations in the Himalaya Mountains and in other parts of Hindustan. He was born in Cawnpore in 1800. His medical education was obtained in London, and on its completion he entered the service of the East India Company, and was sent to Indi… Rubens, Peter PaulRUBENS, PETER PAUL (1577-1640), the most eminent representative of Flemish art, and one of the greatest painters of any school, was born very probably at Siegen, in Westphalia, on the 29th of June 1577. Till some thirty years ago Cologne might still claim the honour of having been the master's birthplace ; the Rhenish city is mentioned by Rubens himself, in one of his letters, as closely connected… RubidiumRUBIDIUM. See POTASSIUM METALS. 111.7BRUQUIS, the name which has most commonly been given to William of Rubruk, a Franciscan friar and the author of a remarkable narrative of Asiatic travel in the 13th century. Nothing is known of him save what can be gathered from his own narrative, with the exception of a word from the pen of Roger Bacon, his contemporary and brother Franciscan, indicating perso… RubyRUBY. This name is applied by lapidaries and jewellers to two distinct minerals, which may be distinguished as the true or Oriental ruby and the spinel ruby. The former is a red variety of corundum or native alumina, of great rarity and value, while the latter is an aluminato of magnesium, inferior to the true ruby in hardness and much less esteemed as a gem stone. With ancient writers the confusi… Ruckert, FriedrichRUCKERT, FRIEDRICH (1788-1866), an eminent German poet, was born at Schweinfurt on the 16th May 1788. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native place and at the universities of Wiirzburg and Heidelberg, where he studied law and philology. Havini taken his degree, he went to the university of Jena as a " privatdocent " ; but this position he soon abandoned. For some time he worked in connexion… RudagiRUDAGI (d. 954). Hakim Mohammed Farid-eddin `Abdallah, the first great genius of modern Persia, was born in Rildag, a village in Transoxiana, about 870-900, - totally blind, as most of his biographers assert, although the fine distinction of colours and the minute description of the various tints and shades of flowers in his poems flatly contradict the customary legend of the "blind minstrel." In … Rudddian, Ti1051asRUDDDIAN, TI1051AS (1674-1758), an eminent Scottish scholar, was born in October 1674, at Raggal, in the parish of Boyndie, Banffshire, where his father was a farmer. He studied Latin eagerly at the school of his native parish, and when sixteen started off to walk to Aberdeen, there to compete for a college bursary. On the way he was attacked by Gipsies, robbed of a guinea, which was all he had, a… Rudd, Or Red-eyeRUDD, or RED-EYE (Leuciscus erythrophthalmus), a fish of the family of Carps, generally spread over Europe, north and south of the Alps, also found in Asia Minor, and extremely common in suitable localities, viz., still and deep waters with muddy. bottom. When adult, it is readily recognized by its deep, short body, golden-coppery tint of the whole surface, red eyes, and scarlet lower fins ; the y… Rude, FliaRUDE, FlIA rs (1784-1855), a French sculptor of great natural talent and force of character, but of an ignorance as to all that did not immediately concern his art which can best be described as out of date. He was born at Dijon, 4th January 1784, and came therefore in his youth under the influence of the democratic and Napoleonic ideals in their full force. Till the age of sixteen he worked at hi… Rude Stone MonumentsRUDE STONE MONUMENTS. The raising of commemorative monuments of such an enduring material as stone is a practice that may be traced in all countries to the remotest times. The highly sculptured statues, obelisks, and other monumental erections of modern civilization are but the lineal representatives of the unhewn monoliths, dolmens, cromlechs, Szc., of prehistoric times. Judging from the large nu… RudolphRUDOLPH I. (1218-1291), German king, eldest son of Albert IV., count of Hapsburg, was born on the 1st May 1218. By marriage and in other ways he greatly extended his hereditary dominions, so that when he became king he was lord not only of Hapsburg but of the counties of Kyburg and Lenzburg and of the landgraviate of Alsace. At different times he carried on war with the bishop of Strasburg, the ab… Rudolph IiRUDOLPH II. (1552-1612), Holy Roman emperor, was the son of the emperor Maximilian II., and was born on the 18th July 1552. In 1572 he obtained the crown of Hungary, in 1575 that of Bohemia, with the title "King of the Romans "; and in 1576, after his father's death, he became emperor. He was of an indolent and melancholy disposition, and preferred the study of astrology and alchemy tb the respons… Rudolph SchadowRUDOLPH SCHADOW (1786-1822), sculptor, son of the preceding, was born in Rome in 1786. RudolstadtRUDOLSTADT, capital of the German principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, and chief residence of the prince, is situated on the left bank of the Saale, 18 miles due south of Weimar, in one of the most beautiful districts of Thuringia. The picturesque little town is a favourite summer watering-place, with pine baths, as well as a frequented tourist resort. Besides containing the Government building… RuffRUFF, a bird so called from the very beautiful and remarkable frill of elongated feathers that, just before the breeding-season, grow thickly round the neck of the male, who is considerably larger than the female, known as the Reeve. In many respects this species, the Tringa pugnax of Linnaeus and the Machetes pugnax of the majority of modern ornithologists, is one of the most singular in existenc… Rufinus, TyraRUFINUS, TYRA.NNIUS (TURRA NIT'S, TORA.N17S), the well-known contemporary of Jerome, was born at or near Acluileia about the year 345. In early life he studied rhetoric, and while still comparatively young he entered the cloister as a catechumen, receiving baptism about 370. About the same time a casual visit of Jerome to Aquileia led to the formation of a close and intimate friendship between the… RugbyRUGBY, a market-town of Warwickshire, is finely situated on a table-land rising from the southern bank of the Avon, at the junction of several railway lines, and near the Grand Junction Canal, 30 miles E.S.E. of Birmingham, and 20 S.S.W. of Leicester. It is a well-built town, with a large number of modern houses erected for private residences. It occupies c gravel site, is well drained, and has a … RugenRUGEN, the largest island belonging to Germany, is situated in the Baltic Sea, immediately opposite the town of Stralsund, 1 miles off the north-west coast of Pomerania in Prussia, from which it is separated by the narrow Strelsasund. Its shape is exceedingly irregular, and its coast-line is broken by very numerous bays and peninsulas, sometimes of considerable size. The general name is applied by… Ruhnken, DavidRUHNKEN, DAVID (1723-1798), one of the most illustrious scholars of the Netherlands, was of German origin, having been born in Pomerania in 1723. His parents had him educated for the church, but after a residence of two years at the university of Wittenberg, he determined to live the life of a scholar. His biographer (Wyttenbach) somewhat quaintly exhorts all studious youths who feel the inner cal… RuhrortRUHRORT, a busy trading town in Prussia, is situated at the junction of the Ruhr and Rhine, in the midst of a productive coal district, 15 miles north of Dusseldorf. Ruhrort has the largest river harbour in Germany, with very extensive quays ; and most of the 1/ million tons of coal which are annually exported from the neighbourhood are despatched in the fleet of steam-tugs and barges which belong… Rumford, CountRUMFORD, COUNT. See THOMPSON, SIR BENJAMIN. ROM/. Mohammed b. Mohammed b. Husain albalkhi, better known as Maulama Jalal-uddin Riimf, the greatest Stifle poet of Persia, was born on the 30th of September 1207 (604 A.H. 6th of Rabi' I.) at Balkh, in Khorasan, where his family had resided from time immemorial, rich in property and public renown. He claimed descent from the caliph Abdbekr, and from t… Rumker, Carl Ludwig ChristianRUMKER, CARL LUDWIG CHRISTIAN (1788-1862), German astronomer, was born in Mecklenburg on May 28, 1788. Runciman, AlexanderRUNCIMAN, ALEXANDER (1736-1785), historical painter, was born in Edinburgh in 1736. He studied at the Foulis's Academy, Glasgow, and at the age of thirty proceeded to Rome where he spent five years. It was at this time that he became acquainted with Fuseli, a kindred spirit, between whose productions and those of Runciman there is a marked similarity. The painter's earliest efforts had been in lan… Runciman, JohnRUNCIMAN, JOHN (1744-1766), historical painter, a younger brother of the above, accompanied him to Rome, and died at Naples in 1766. RuncornRUNCORN, a market-town and seaport of Cheshire, is pleasantly situated on the south side of the Mersey and near the terminus in that river of the Bridgewater, the Mersey and Irwell, and the Trent and Mersey Canals, 15 miles S.E. of Liverpool and 15 N.E. of Chester. The Mersey, which here contracts to 400 yards at high water, is crossed by a wrought-iron railway bridge 1500 feet in length. The mode… Runeberg, JohanRUNEBERG, JOHAN Lunwio (1804-1877), Swedish poet, was born at Jakobstad, in Finland, on the 5th of February 1804. Brought up by an uncle at Uleaborg, he entered the university of Abo in the autumn term of 1822, and in 1826 began to contribute verses to the kcal newspapers. In the spring of 1827 lie received the degree of doctor of philosophy, and shared in the calamity which, in September of the s… RunningRUNNING. In this mode of progression the step is lighter and gait more rapid than in walking, from which it differs in consisting of a succession of springs from too to toe, instead of a series of steps from toe to heel. As an athletic exercise, it has been in vogue from the earliest times, and the simple foot race, SpOp.os, run straight from starting point to goal, was a game of the Greek pentath… RupertRUPERT (1619-1682), prince of Bavaria, the third son of Frederick V., elector palatine and king of Bohemia, and of Elizabeth, sister of Charles I. of England, was born at Prague on December 18, 1619. In 1630 he was placed at the university of Leyden, where he showed particular readiness in languages and in military discipline. In 1633 he was with the prince of Orange at the siege of Rhynberg, and … RupertRUPERT (HRoDBERT), ST, a kinsman of the Merovingian house, and bishop of Worms, was invited (696) to Regensbecause of his services in the promotion and consolidation of its Christianity. RushRUSH. Rush, BenjaminRUSH, BENJAMIN (1745-1813), the Sydenham of America, was born near Bristol (12 miles from Philadelphia), on a homestead founded by his grandfather, who had followed Penn from England in 1683, being of the Quaker persuasion, and a gunsmith by trade. After a careful education at school and college, and an apprenticeship of six years with a doctor in Philadelphia, Rush went for two years to Edinburgh… Rushworth, JohnRUSHWORTH, JOHN (c. 1607-1690), the compiler of the Historical Collections commonly described by his name, was born in Northumberland about the year 1607. After a period of study at Oxford, but not, it appears, as a member of the university, he came to London, was entered at Lincoln's Inn, and was in due course called to the bar. As early as 1630 he seems to have commenced attendance at the courts… RussellRUSSELL, JouN SCOTT (1808-1882), was born in 1808 near Glasgow, a "son of the manse," and was at first destined for the ministry. But this intention on his father's part was changed in consequence of the boy's early leanings towards practical science. He attended in succession the universities of St Andrews, Edinburgh, and Glasgow, - taking his degree in the last-named at the age of sixteen. After… Russell, John RussellRUSSELL, JOHN RUSSELL, EARL (1792-1878), a statesman who for nearly half a century faithfully represented the traditions of Whig politics, was the third son of John, sixth duke of Bedford, and was born in Hertford Street, Mayfair, London, 18th August 1792, one of the most terrible months in the annals of the French Revolution. Whilst still a child be was sent to a private school at Sunbury, and fo… Russell, William RussellRUSSELL, WILLIAM RUSSELL, LORD (1639-1683), the third son of Lord Russell, afterwards fifth earl and still later first duke of Bedford, and Lady Anne Carr, daughter of the infamous countess of Somerset, was born September 29, 1639. Nothing is known of his early youth, except that about 1654 he was sent to Cambridge with his elder brother Francis. On leaving the university, the two brothers travell… RussiaRUSSIA - Russian empire is a very extensive territory in eastern Europe and northern Asia, with an area exceeding 8,500,000 square miles, or one sixth of the land surface of the globe (one twenty-third of its whole superficies). It is, however, but thinly peopled on the average, including only one-fourteenth of the inhabitants of the earth. It is almost entirely confined to the cold and temperate … Russian HistoryRUSSIAN HISTORY - The Russians, properly so called, belong to the Slavonic race, itself a division of the great Aryan family. It cannot be denied that in the northern and eastern parts of Russia large Finnish elements have become mixed with the Slays, and Mongolian in the south, but this is far from justifying the prejudiced attempts of Duchinski and others to challenge the right of the Russians t… Russian LiteratureRUSSIAN LITERATURE - To get a clear idea of Russian literature, it will be most convenient for us to divide it into oral and written. The first of these sections includes the interesting bilint, or " tales of old time," as the word may be translated, which have come down to us in great numbers, as they have been sung by wandering minstrels all over the country. The scholars who during the. last fo… RuthRUTH, BooK or. The story of Ruth, the Moabitess, great-grandmother of David, one of the Old Testament Hagiographa, is usually reckoned as the second of the five Megilloth or Festal Rolls. This position corresponds to the Jewish practice of reading the book at the Feast of Pentecost ; Spanish MSS., however, place Ruth at the head of the Megilloth (see CANTICLES) ; and the Talmud, in a well-known pa… RutheniumRUTHENIUM. See PLATINUM. RUTHERFURD, or RUTHERFORD, SAMUEL (16001661), Scottish divine, was born about 1600 at the village of Nisbet in Roxburghshire. He is supposed to have received his early education at Jedburgh, and he entered the university of Edinburgh in 1617. He graduated M.A. in 1621, and two years afterwards was elected professor of humanity. On account of some alleged indiscretion or ir… RutherglenRUTHERGLEN, an ancient royal burgh of Lanarkshire, Scotland, is situated near the left bank of the Clyde, 2 miles south-east of Glasgow. It consists chiefly of one long wide irregular street, with narrow streets, \um's, and alleys branching from it at intervals. The parish church is situated near the centre of the town, a little distance from the tower of the old church where the treaty was made i… Rutilius Claudius NamatianusRUTILIUS CLAUDIUS NAMATIANUS is known to us as the author of a Latin poem in elegiac metre, describing a coast voyage from Rome to Gaul in 416 A.D. The literary excellence of the work and the flashes of light which it throws across a momentous but dark epoch of history combine to give it exceptional importance among the relics of late Roman literature. The poem was in two books ; the exordium of t… RutlandRUTLAND, a township and village of the United States, capital of Rutland county, Vermont, 117 miles north-northwest of Boston. RutlandRUTLAND, the smallest county in England, is bounded s N. and N.E. by Lincolnshire, S.E. by Northamptonshire, v and W. by Leicestershire. Its shape is extremely irregular. I' The greatest length from north-east to south-west is about The Welland, which is navigable to Stamford, flows north-east, forming the greater part of the boundary of the county with Northamptonshire. The Gwash or Wash, which r… Ruysbroeck, Or RuysbroekRUYSBROECK, or RUYSBROEK, JoHN, mystic, was born at Ruysbroek, near Brussels, about 1293, and died as first prior of the convent of Groenendael, near Waterloo, in 1381. Ruysdael, Or RuisdaalRUYSDAEL, or RUISDAAL, JACOB (c. 1625-1682), the most celebrated of the Dutch landscapists, was born at Haarlem about 1625. The accounts of his life are very conflicting, and recent criticism and research have discredited much that was previously received as fact regarding his career. He appears to have studied under his father Izaac Ruysdael, a landscape-painter, though other authorities make him… RuysseledeRUYSSELEDE, or ItuissEUDE, a market-town of Belgium, in the province of West Flanders, 15 miles southeast of Bruges. Ruyter, Michael Adrian DeRUYTER, MICHAEL ADRIAN DE (1607-1676), a distinguished Dutch naval officer, was born at Flushing, 24th March 1607. RyazanRYAZAN, capital of the above government, lies 119 miles to the south-east of Moscow, on the elevated right bank of the Trubej, a mile above its junction with the Oka. A wide prairie dotted with large villages, being the immense lake when it is inundated in the spring. Except remains of former days. The large church of Uspensk repairs, as also the archiepiscopal palace, formerly the Oka also has so… RyazarRYAZAR, a government of Central Russia, is bounded by Moscow and Tula on the W., by Vladimir on the N., and by Tamboff on the E. and S., with an area of 16,255 square miles, and a population of 1,713,581 in 1882. Ryazan is an intermediate link between the central Great Russian governments and the Steppe governments of the south-east, - the wide and deep valley of the Oka, by which it is traversed … RybinskRYBINSK, or Rulnirrsic, though but a district town of the government of Yaroslavl, with a permanent population (1883) of only 18,900, is, as being virtually the port of St Petersburg on the Volga, one of the most important towns of the northern part of Central Russia. It lies 54 miles to the north-west of Yaroslavl, and is connected by rail (186 miles) with Bologoye, on the line between St Petersb… Rycaut, Or RicautRYCAUT, or RICAUT, Sin PAUL (d. 1700), traveller and diplomatist, was the tenth son of Sir Peter Ricaut, Royalist who on account of his support of King Charles had to pay a composition of ?1500. The son was admitted a scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1647, and took his B.A. degree in 1650. After travelling in Europe and in various parts of Asia and Africa, he in 1661 accompanied as secret… RydeRYDE, a municipal borough and watering place of the Isle of Wight, is finely situated on a sloping eminence above the Solent, 5 miles south by west of Portsmouth, and 7 (12 by rail) from West Cowes. It occupies the site of a village called La Rye or La Riche, which was destroyed by the French in the reign of Edward H. About the close of the 18th century it was a small fishing hamlet; but when the … RyezhitzaRYEZHITZA, a town of European Russia at the head of a district in the Vitebsk government, in 56? 30' N. lat. and 27? 21' E. long., 198 miles north-west from Vitebsk on the railway between St Petersburg and Warsaw, near the Ryezhitza, which falls into Lake Luban. Its population increased from 7306 (2902 Jews) in 1867 to about 9000 in 1881; but its importance is mainly historical. The cathedral is a… Ryland, Willia31 WynneRYLAND, WILLIA31 WYNNE (1738-1783), engraver, was born in London in July 1738, the son of an engraver and copper-plate printer. He studied under Ravenet, and in Paris under Boucher and J. P. le Bas. After spending five years on the Continent he returned to England, and having engraved portraits of George III. and Lord Bute after Ramsay (a commission declined by Strange), and a portrait of Queen Ch… RymerRYMER, Thomas (1641-1713), historiographer royal, was the younger son of Ralph Rymer, lord of the manor of Brafferton in Yorkshire, described by Clarendon as "possessed of a good estate" and executed for his share in the " Presbyterian rising" of 1663. Thomas was probably born at Yafforth Hall early in 1641, and was educated at a private school kept by Thomas Smelt, a noted Royalist, with whom Rym… Rzheff, Rsheff, RjevRZHEFF, RSHEFF, RJEV, or RZHOFF, a town of European between the provinces of the lower Volga, Orel, Kaluga, and Smolensk, and the ports of St Petersburg and Riga. SaadiSAADI, generally called MusLnj-unnix, but more correctly MUSHARRIF-UDDiN B. MUSLIH-UDDf N, the greatest didactic poet and the most popular writer of Persia, was born about 1184 (580 A.H.) in Shiraz, where his father, `Abdallah, a man of practical religion and good common sense, who impressed upon his son from early childhood the great maxims of doing good and fearing nobody, was in the service of … Saadia, Or SaadiasSAADIA, or SAADIAS (Heb. Se`adyali, Arab. Seidl), was the most accomplished, learned, and noble gaon (head of the academy) of Sara (see RAE). Mar Rab Se`adyah b. Yoseph2 was born in the Fayytlm, Upper Egypt, in 892 and died at Sara in 942. Of his teachers only the Jew Abu Kethir is positively known by name,3 but he must have had at least three more , teachers of considerable learning, one a Kamite… SaalfeldSAALFELD, a busylittle town of Germany,in the eastern horn of the crescent-shaped duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, is picturesquely situated on the left bank of the Saale (here spanned by a bridge), 24 miles south of Weimar and 77 miles south-west of Leipsic. One of the most ancient towns in Thuringia, Saalfeld was the capital of the now extinct duchy of Saxe-Saalfeld, and contains some interesting old bu… SaarbruckenSAARBRUCKEN, an important industrial and commercial town in Prussia, on the left bank of the Saar, a navigable tributary of the Moselle, is situated 49 miles east of Metz, at the south end of one of the most extensive coalfields in Europe, to which it has given its name. With the town of St Johann, immediately opposite on the right bank of the river, here spanned by two bridges, Saarbriicken forms… SaargemundSAARGEMUND (Fr. Saavedra, Angel DeSAAVEDRA, ANGEL DE, DUKE OF RIVAS (1791-1865), Spanish poet and politician, was born at Cordova in 1791, and fought with bravery in the Spanish War of Independence. From 1813 to 1820 he lived in retirement in Andalucia, but in the latter year he sided actively with the revolutionary party, and in consequence had to go into exile in 1823. He lived successively in England, Malta, and France until 18… Saavedra Faxardo, Diego DeSAAVEDRA FAXARDO, DIEGO DE (1584-1648), diplomatist and man of letters, was born of a noble family at Algezares in the Spanish province of Murcia in 1584. Having been educated for the church at Salamanca, and admitted to the priesthood, he accompanied Cardinal Borgia, the Spanish ambassador, to Rome in the capacity of secretary. Ultimately he rose to high rank in the diplomatic service, and was Sp… SaazSAAZ (Bohemian 2atec), a manufacturing and commercial town in the north of Bohemia, is situated on the right bank of the Eger, 42 miles north-west of Prague. The suspension bridge, 210 feet long, which hero spans the river was constructed in 1826 and is one of the oldest of the kind in Bohemia. Saaz, which claims to have existed as early as the 8th century, contains a number of ancient churches, o… Sabah, Or British North BorneoSABAH, or BRITISH NORTH BORNEO, is all that portion of the island of BORNEO (q.v.) which was formally recognized by the charter of incorporation granted in November 1881 as the territory of the British North Borneo Company. It has a coast-line of over 600 miles, and its area, still to a great extent unexplored,' is estimated at 30,000 square miles. Leaving out of account the deep indentations of t… SabbathSABBATH (rizt?:), the day of sacred rest which among the Hebrews followed six days of labour and closed the week. from everything that could be called work ; and even the exercise of those offices of humanity which the strictest Christian Sabbatarians regard as a service to God, and therefore as specially appropriate to His day, was looked on as work. To save life was allowed, but only because dan… SabelliusSABELLIUS. Even after the elimination of Gnosticism the church remained without any uniform Christology; the Trinitarians and the Unitarians continued to confront each other, the latter at the beginning of the 3d century still forming the large majority. These in turn split into two principal groups - the Adoptianists and the Modalists - the former holding to be the man chosen of God, on whom the … SabiansSABIANS. In three passages of the Koran Mohammed mentions between the Jews and the Christians a sect whom he calls Sabians (tceibi'zina). He distinguishes them from the Magians and polytheists (xxii. 17), and appears to say that they believed in God and in the day of resurrection and judgment. It has commonly been supposed that the sect referred to is the 3IAND,EANS (q.v.) ; but it is more probabl… Sabicu WoodSABICU WOOD is the produce of a large leguminous tree, Lysilonta Sabicu, a native of Cuba, where alone it appears to be found. SabineSABINE, Sin EDWARD (1788-1883), astronomer, was born in Dublin on 14th October 1788, a scion of a family said to be of Italian origin. He was educated at Woolwich and obtained a commission in the Royal Artillery at the age of fifteen. He attained the rank of major-general in 1859. His only experience of actual warfare seems to have been at the siege of Fort Erie in 1814 ; but few men have seen mor… SabinesSABINES. The Sabines (Sabini) were a people of Central Italy, who played an important part in the early history of Rome. According to all old writers they were one of the most ancient nations of Italy, and the parent stock from which many of the other tribes that occupied the central and southern regions of the peninsula derived their origin. Of their own origin and affinities we know -very little… Sables D'olonneSABLES D'OLONNE, a seaport town of France, the chef-lieu of an arrondissement of the department of La Vendee, is situated on the Atlantic seaboard in 46? 30' N. lat., 300 miles south-west of Paris by the railway for Tours and La-Roche-sur-Yon. The town stands between the sea on the south and the port on the north, while on the west it is separated by a channel from the suburb of La Chaume, built a… Sacchett1, FrancoSACCHETT1, FRANCO (c. 1335-c. 1400), Italian novelist, was the son of Benci di Uguccione, surnamed "Buono," of the noble and ancient Florentine family of the Sacchetti (comp. Dante, Par., c. xvi.), and was born at Florence about the year 1335. While still a young man he achieved repute as a poet, and he appears to have travelled on affairs of more or less importance as far as to Genoa, Milan, and … Sacchi, AndreaSACCHI, ANDREA (c. 1600-1661), a leading painter of the later Roman school, was born in Rome in 1600, or perhaps as early as 1598. His father, Benedetto, a painter of undistinguished position, gave him his earliest instruction in the art ; Andrea then passed into the studio of Albani, of whom he was the last and the most eminent pupil, and under Albani he made his reputation early. The painter of … Sacchini, Antonio Maria GaspareSACCHINI, ANTONIO MARIA GASPARE (1734-1786), musical composer, of the Italian school, was born at Pozzuoli, 23d July 1734, and educated under Durante at the Conservatorio di San Onofrio at Naples. His first serious opera was produced at Rome in 1762, and was followed by many others, nearly all of which were successful. In 1769 he removed to Venice ; and in 1772 he visited London, where, notwithsta… Sacheverell, HenrySACHEVERELL, HENRY (1674-1724), an English church and state politician of extreme views, was born in 1674, the son of Joshua Sacheverell, rector of St Peter's, Marlborough, who at his death left a large family in poverty. Henry Sacheverell matriculated at Magdalen College, Oxford, 28th August 1689, and was demy of his college from 1689 to 1701 and fellow from 1701 to 1713. Addison, another Wiltshi… Sachs, Ft AnsSACHS, FT ANS (1494-1576), the most eminent German poet of the 16th century, was born at Nuremberg on 5th November 1494. His father was a shoemaker, and Hans was trained to the same calling. Before beginning his apprenticeship, however, he was educated at the Latin school of Nuremberg. Having finished his " Lehrjahre" as a shoemaker, he began his "Wanderjahre" in 1511, and worked at his craft in m… Sacking And Sack ManufactureSACKING AND SACK MANUFACTURE. SacramentSACRAMENT. The Latin word eacramentum, meaning "an oath," is most commonly used by classical writers to denote the military oath of allegiance ; for its technical application in legal phraseology see ROMAN LAW, vol. xx. p. 682. In the earliest ecclesiastical Latin traces of the old military meaning are still present ; thus Tertullian (Ad Mart., 3) writes, "We were called to the warfare of the livi… SacramentoSACRAMENTO, a city of the United States, the capital of California and the county seat of Sacramento county, 135 miles by rail north-east of San Francisco on the east bank of the Sacramento river, which at this point receives the American river and becomes navigable for large steamboats. The site is only 15 feet above low water of the river, or 30 above sea-level, and as the river sometimes rises … SacrificeSACRIFICE. The Latin word sacrificium, from which we have the English "sacrifice," properly means an action within the sphere of things sacred to the gods, so that "sacrificial" and "hierurgic" are synonymous, and, strictly speaking, cover the whole field of sacred ritual. By the Romans, as by all ,ancient or primitive nations, the gods were habitually approached with gifts, and the presentation o… SacrilegeSACRILEGE. The robbery of churches was in Roman law punishable with death. There are early instances of persons having suffered death for this offence in Scotland. In England at common law benefit of clergy was denied to robbers of churches. The tendency of the later law has been to put the offence of sacrilege in the same position as if the offence had not been committed in a sacred build ing. Th… Sacro Bosco, Johannes DeSACRO BOSCO, JOHANNES DE, or JOHN HOLYWOOD, astronomical author, died 1244 (or 1256) as professor of mathematics at the university of Paris. Nothing else is known about his life. He wrote a treatise on spherical astronomy, Tractatus de Sphera Ulundi, first printed at Ferrara in 1472, and reprinted, generally with copious notes and commentaries, about sixty times until the end of the 17th century. … Sacy, Isaac Louis Le Maitre DeSACY, ISAAC LOUIS LE MAITRE DE (1613-1684), a figure of some prominence in the literary annals of PORT ROYAL (q.v.), and after the death of St Cyran (1643) and Singlin (1664) the leading confessor and " director " of the Jansenists in France, was born in Paris on 29th March 1613. He was closely connected with the Arnauld family, his true surname being Le Maitre and that of Saci or Sacy which he af… SaddlerySADDLERY embraces the industries connected with the harnessing and controlling of all beasts of draught and burden. The materials used in harnessing the various creatures so employed and the modifications of harness necessary to suit their structure, temperament, and duties are, of course, exceedingly varied. In a restricted sense saddlery is principally a leather trade, and has to do with the har… Sa De MirandaSA DE MIRANDA, FRANCISCO DE (1495-1558), Portuguese poet, was born of noble family on 27th October 1495, at Coimbra, where also he received his education. Sadler, Sir RalphSADLER, SIR RALPH (1507-1587), English statesman, was the son of Henry Sadler, steward to the proprietor of the manor of Gainey, near Great Hadham, Hertfordshire, and was born at Hackney in Middlesex in 1507. While a mere child he obtained a situation in the family of Thomas Cromwell, earl of Essex. Through him he was introduced to Henry VIII., who conferred on him various appointments and employe… Sadoleto, JacopoSADOLETO, JACOPO (1477-1547), Italian humanist and churchman, was born at Modena in 1477, and, being the son of a noted jurist, was designed for the same profession. He gave himself, therefore, to humanistic studies and acquired reputation as a Latin poet, his best-known piece being one on the group of Laocoon. Passing to Rome, he obtained the patronage of Cardinal Carafa and adopted the ecclesias… SafesSAFES. A safe is any repository in which valuable property is guarded against risk of loss by fire or from the attacks of thieves. The protection of valuable documents and possessions was only imperfectly effected in the charter-rooms of old mansions and in the iron-bound oaken chests and iron coffers of the Middle Ages; but these in their day represented the strong rooms and safes of modern times… SaffiSAFFI (Asafi), a seaport of Morocco, with 6000 inhabitants, some commerce, and a famous shrine, the House of the Seven Sleepers, frequented by Moslem and Jewish pilgrims. Safflower, Or Bastard SaffronSAFFLOWER, or BASTARD SAFFRON (Carthamus tinetorius), belongs to the natural order Composite; its flowers form the basis of the safflower dye of commerce. The plant is a native of the East Indies, but is cultivated in Egypt and to some extent in southern Europe. To obtain the dyeing principle - carthamine - the flowers are first washed to free them from a soluble yellow colouring matter they conta… SaffronSAFFRON (Arab. zafarcin) is manufactured from the dried stigmas and part of the style of the saffron crocus, a cultivated form of Crocus sativus, L., the precise origin of which is unknown ; for, though some of the wild forms (var. Thomasii, Cartwrightianus) are also employed for the manufacture of saffron, they differ in character from the cultivated type and are somewhat restrictel in geographic… Saffron WaldenSAFFRON WALDEN, a market-town and municipal borough of Essex, England, is finely situated near the Cam in a valley surrounded by bills, on a branch of the Great Eastern Railway, 44 miles north-north-east of London and 14 south of Cambridge. It has a somewhat ancient appearance and possesses good streets and a spacious marketplace. Of the old castle, dating probably from before the Conquest, the ke… SaganSAGAN, a manufacturing town in Prussian Silesia, situated on the Bober, a tributary of the Oder, lies 60 miles south-south-east of Frankfort-on-the-Oder and 102 miles south-east of Berlin. It contains the handsome palace of the dukes of Sagan, several interesting churches, a Roman Catholic gymnasium, and a large Gothic hospital, named after its founder, the duchess Dorothea (1793-1862). The leadin… Saghalin, Or SakhalinSAGHALIN, or SAKHALIN, is the name improperly given to a large elongated island in the North Pacific, lying between 45? 57' and 54? 24' N. lat. and 141? 30' and 144? 50' E. long., off the coast of Russian Manchuria. Its proper name is Karaftu, or Karafuto. It is separated from the mainland by the narrow and shallow Strait of This island (670 miles long, 20 to 150 broad, with an area of 24,560 squa… SaginawSAGINAW, a city of tho United States, capital of Saginaw county, Michigan, lies on an elevated plateau about 30 feet above the water on the left bank of the Saginaw river, which falls into Saginaw Bay on Lake Huron, about 18 miles lower down. SagittaSAGITTA. The name " Sagitta " was given by Martin Slabber in 1775 to a small marine worm which is now known as the type of a distinct group, the Cliztognatha (Leuckart). The group comprises two genera (Sagitta and Spadella) and a considerable number of species ; they are small transparent pelagic animals, varying in length from a few lines up to two inches, and are universally distributed. The bod… SagoSAGO is a food-starch prepared from a deposit in the trunk of several palms, the principal source being the sago palm, illetroxylon Rumphii (Mart.), and .3.11 )a=re (Mart.). These palms are natives of the East Indian Archipelago, the sago forests being especially extensive in the island of Ceram. The trees flourish only in low marshy situations, seldom attaining a height of thirty feet, with a thi… SaguntumSAGUNTUM, an ancient city of Hispania Tarraconensis, was situated near the mouth of the river Pallantias (Palancia). SaharaSAHARA is the great desert region which stretches across the continent of Africa eastwards from the Atlantic for a considerable distance on both sides of the Tropic of Cancer, and is generally distinguished by aridity of soil, absence of running water, dryness of atmosphere, and comparative scarcity of vegetable and animal life. The physical limits of this region are in some directions marked with… Saharanpur, Or SeharunpoorSAHARANPUR, or SEHARUNPOOR, a British district of India, in the Meerut division of the lieutenant-governorship of the North-Western Provinces. It lies between 29? 35' and 30? 21' N. lat., and between 77? 9' and 78? 15' E. long., and is bounded on the N. by the Siwalik Hills, separating it from the district of Dehra Dan, on the S. by the district of Muzaffarnagar, on the E. by the Ganges, and on th… SaigonSAIGON, the capital of French Cochin China, occupies an area of 1000 acres, on the right bank of the Saigon the China Sea. In 1884 it was connected by rail with Mytho, 37 miles south-west on one of the branches of the Me-kong, with which it had obtained direct water-communication in 1877 by the opening of the Canal de Cho-gon. The present city has been practically created since 1861, and its fine… SaiiaSAIIA.RANPUR, principal town and administrative headquarters of the above district, is situated in 29? 58' 15" N. lat. and 77? 35' 15" E. long., on a small stream (the Damaula Nadi) in an open level country. Sail, Sailcloth, Sail-makingSAIL, SAILCLOTH, SAIL-MAKING. A sail is a sheet of canvas (or other material of the requisite flexibility and strength) by the action of the wind on which, when spread out or extended, a vessel is moved through the water. Sails are supported and extended by means of masts, yards, gaffs, booms, bowsprit - all technically termed "spars " - and stays or slanting ropes. In the first experiments for im… SainfoinSAINFOIN (Onobrychis saliva) is a low-growing perennial plant with a woody root-stock, whence proceed the stems, which are covered with fine hairs and bear numerous long pinnate leaves, the segments of which are elliptic. SaintSAINT. The New Testament writers have much to say about the relations of the " saints " (as members of the the Eastern and of the Western Church. (1) Commemoration. - Under FUNERAL RITES, MANES, &c., allusion has offering various gifts. With certain modifications, this practice was retained by the early Christians ; they celebrated the Eucharist at or near the grave, laid oblations on the altar in… Saint-amaSAINT-AMA T, MARC ANTOINE GERARD, SIEUR DE (1594-1661), the most eminent of a curious bacchanalian school of poets in France during the 17th century, was born at Rouen in the year 1594. Very little is known of his family except that it was of some position at Rouen, and the mysterious description which all his French biographers give of his father - that he was a sailor " qui commands pendant 22 a… SainteSAINTE - BEUVE, CHARLES AUGUSTIN (1804-1869), the most notable critic of our time, was born at Boulognesur-Mer on 23d December 1804. He was a posthumous child, - his father, a native of Picardy, and controller of town-dues at Boulogne, having married in this same year, at the age of fifty-two, and died before the birth of his son. The father was a man of literary tastes, and used to read, like his… SaintesSAINTES, a town of France, the chef-lieu of an arrondissement in the department of Charente-Inferieure, on the left bank of the Charente, 88 feet above the sea and 45 miles south-east of La Rochelle by the railway from Nantes to Bordeaux. It occupies a delightful position and is of interest for its Roman remains. Of these the best preserved is the triumphal arch of Germanicus, although it has been… Saint-evremond, Charles De Marguetel DeSAINT-EVREMOND, CHARLES DE MARGUETEL DE SArYr-DF.Nis, SEIGNEUR DE (1613-1703), was born at SaintDenis-le-Guast near Coutances, the seat of his family in Normandy, on let April 1613. Ho was a younger son, but took his designation from one of the smaller estates of the family and appears to have had a sufficient portion. He was a pupil of the Jesuits at the College de Clermont, Paris, then a student… Saint-germain, Comte DeSAINT-GERMAIN, COMTE DE (d. 1780), a celebrated adventurer of the 18th century who by the assertion of his discovery of some extraordinary secrets of nature exercised considerable influence at several European courts. Of his parentage and place of birth nothing is definitely known ; the common version is that he was a Portuguese Jew. It was also commonly stated that he obtained his money from disc… Saint-hilaire, Auguste DeSAINT-HILAIRE, AUGUSTE DE (1799-1853), French botanist and traveller, was born at Orleans on 4th October 1799. He began to publish memoirs on botanical subjects at an early age. In 1816-22 and in 1830 he travelled in South America, especially in south and central Brazil, and the results of his personal study of the rich flora of the regions through which he passed appeared in several books and num… Saint John Of JerusalemSAINT JOHN OF JERUSALEM, KNIGHTS OF THE ORDER OF (see KNIGHTHOOD). In the year 1023 certain merchants of Amalfi obtained permission from the caliph of Egypt to establish a hospital in Jerusalem for the use of " poor and sick Latin pilgrims." The hospice prospered far beyond the hopes of its founders, and grateful travellers spread its fame throughout Europe and sent offerings to its funds, while o… Saint-just, AntoineSAINT-JUST, ANTOINE (1767-1794), French revolutionary leader, was born at Decize in the Nivernais on 25th August 1767. He was educated at Soissons, and showed his character at school as ringleader of a plot to set the school buildings on fire. Saint-Just was caught red-handed in the act of incendiarism, and, refusing to exhibit any tokens of submission, was ignominiously expelled. His education, h… Saint-lambert, Jean Francois DeSAINT-LAMBERT, JEAN FRANcOIS DE (1716 - 1803), French poet, was born at Nancy in 1716, and died at Paris in 1803. During great part of his long life he held various employments at the court of Stanislaus of Poland, when that prince was established in Lorraine. He also served in the French army, and then betook himself to literature, producing among other things a volume of descriptive verse, Les S… Saint-martinSAINT-MARTIN, Louis CLAUDE DE (1743-1803), known as "le philosophe inconnu " from the fact that all his works were published under that name, was born at Amboise of a poor but noble family, on the 18th January 1743. By his father's desire he tried first law and then the army as a profession. While in garrison at Bordeaux, he came under the influence of Martinez Pasqualis, a Portuguese Jew, who tau… SaintongeSAINTONGE (Santonia, Santonensit tractus), an old province of France, of which SAECTES (q.v.) was the capital, was bounded on the N.W. by Aunis, on the N.E. by Poitou, on the E. by Angoumois, on the S. by Guienne, and on the W. by Guicnne and the Atlantic. Saint-pierre, Jacques Henri Bernardin DeSAINT-PIERRE, JACQUES HENRI BERNARDIN DE (17371814), French man-of-letters, was born at Havre on 19th January 1737 and was educated at Caen. After a fashion commoner with English than with French boys, he took an early fancy to the sea, and his uncle, a ship captain, gave him the opportunity of gratifying it. But a single voyage to Martinique was enough for him and he went back to school. He next … Saint-simonSAINT-SIMON, Louis DE ROI:WRAY (or RouvRov), Duo DE (1675-1755), was born at Versailles on 16th January 1675. He was the son of Claude de Saint-Simon, who represented a family which had been established for many centuries at La Ferto Vidame, between Mortagne and Dreux, and which claimed descent from Charlemagne. Claude de Saint-Simon had been a page of Louis XIII., and, gaining the king's favour a… Saint-victor, Paul DeSAINT-VICTOR, PAUL DE (1827-1883), one of the chief masters of a very ornate style in recent French literature, was born at Paris in 1827 and died there in 1883. He was of noble birth and inherited the title of count, but rarely used it, his political principles being democratic. Saint-Victor began as a dramatic critic on the Pays in 1851 and subsequently wrote in many journals. In 1870, during th… Saivantwa Ri, Or SawuntwarrieSAIVANTWA RI, or SAWUNTWARRIE, a native state forming the southern part of the Concan division of the Bombay presidency, India, and lying between 13? 37' and 16? 16' N. lat. and between 73? 36' and 74? 21' E. long. It has a total area of about 900 square miles, and is bounded on the north and west by Ratnagiri district, on the east by the Sahyadri Mountains, and on the south by the Portuguese terr… SalamancaSALAMANCA (Salmantica, Elmantica), the capital of the above province, lies on the banks of the Torines, 172 miles north-west of Madrid by rail. The river is here crossed by a bridge 500 feet in length built on twenty-six arches, fifteen of which are of Roman origin, while the remainder date from the 16th century. The town was of importance in times as remote as 222 B.C., when it was captured by Ha… SalamancaSALAMANCA, a province of Spain, which until 1833 formed part of that of Leon, is bounded on the N. by Zamora and Valladolid, on the E. by Avila, on the S. by Caceres, and on the W. by Portugal. It has an area of 4940 square miles. The population in 1877 was 285,500; but by the year 1886 it was estimated that it had decreased to about 270,000. Salamanca belongs almost entirely to the basin of the D… SalamandraSALAMANDRA. In the nomenclature of zoology this name designates a genus of animals belonging to the vertebrate class Ampltibia. The genus was first defined under this name by Laurenti.1 It will be seen on referring to the taxonomic synopsis of the class given at the end of the article AMPIIIBIA that the genus Salamandra belongs to the first tribe .ilfecodonta of the fifth division Salamandrida. Th… SalamisSALAMIS, in modern times called by the people KeXolipi. (a ring-shaped cake), and by purists 2ckap,i,s, is an island in the Saronic Gulf, off the coast of Attica, Greece. It is said to have been called in ancient times by other names, - Sciras, which associates it with the worship of Athena Sciras ; Cychreia, which connects it with the Eleusinian cultus and the sacred serpent (Kvxpaiis odes) of De… SaleSALE, an urban sanitary district of Cheshire, England, on the Bridgewater Canal and the Mersey, about 5 miles south of Manchester. SaleSALE is one of the forms of CONTRACT (q.v.). The law of contract is accordingly applicable as a whole to the law of sale. But the importance of the contract of sale demands a fuller treatment. The law of the United Kingdom and of the United States is based upon the Roman law in its later stage, as modified by the prxtors and by legislation. But there are some considerable differences. In Roman law… SaleiyerSALEIYER (in Mancassarese Sildyara, in Buginese Silaja), also called Tana-dowang ("Land of Shrimps "), is a Dutch island separated from the south coast of Celebes (East Indies) by a strait 8 miles wide, which in the west monsoon is used by vessels bound for the Moluccas, the Philippines, and China. With a length of 46 miles and general breadth of 9, the area is estimated at 315 square miles. Along… SalemSALEM, a British district of India, in Madras presidency, lying between 11? 1' and 12? 57' N. lat. and 77? 32' and 79? 5' E. long. It embraces an area of 7653 square miles, and is bounded on the N. by Mysore and North Arcot, on the S. by Coimbatore and Trichinopoly, on the E. by Trichinopoly and South and North Arcot, and on the W. by Coimbatore and Mysore. Except towards the south, the district i… SalemSALEM, a city of the United States, capital of Essex county, Massachusetts, is built on a peninsula between North and South rivers, in 42? 31' 18" N. lat. and 70? 53' 53" W. long., 16 miles north by east of Boston, on the eastern division of the Boston and Maine Railroad. In the latter part of the 18th and the early part of the 19th century Salem was the seat of a flourishing foreign commerce, esp… SalemSALEM, a city of the United States, the capital of Oregon, in Marion county, on the east bank of Willamette river, 53 miles south of Portland by the Oregon and California Railroad. SalemSALEM, a city of the United States, the county seat of Salem county, New Jersey, on a small stream of the same name, by which it has steam communication with Philadelphia (on the Delaware), 44 miles distant to the north-north-east by rail. SalemSALEM, chief town of the above district, situated in 11? 39' 10" N. lat. and 78? 11' 47" E. long., is a busy trading place, with a considerable weaving industry. SalepSALEP (Arab. sahleb, Gr. Opxts), a drug extensively used in the East as a nervine restorative and fattener, and also much prescribed in paralytic affections, probably owed its original popularity to the belief in the so-called "doctrine of signatures." In Europe it is chiefly used as a demulcent drink, but is also supposed to possess nutrient properties ; it may be employed with advantage in infla… SalernoSALERNO, a city of Italy and the chief town of a province of its own name (formerly Principato Citeriore), is beautifully situated on the west coast 34 miles south-east of i Naples, and presents a fine appearance with the ruins of its old Norman castle on an eminence 905 feet above the sea and its background of graceful limestone hills. The town walls were destroyed in the beginning of the 19th ce… SalicinSALICIN, the bitter principle of willow bark, was discovered by Leroux in 1831. It exists in most species of Salix and Populus, and has been obtained to the extent of 3 or 4 per cent. from the bark of S. helix and S. pentandra. According to Herberger, the bark of the young branches affords salicin in larger proportion than that of the trunk and contains less of the other ingredients which interfer… Salic Law, And Other Barbarian LawsSALIC LAW, AND OTHER BARBARIAN LAWS. The (1) Lex Salim is one of those Teutonic laws of the early Middle Ages which are known as leges barbarorum, among which we also reckon the (2) Lex Ripuariorum or Ribuctriorum, (3) Ewa (Lex) Francorum Chamavorum, (4) Lex Alamannorum, (5) Lex Beduvariorum, (6) Lex Frisionum, (7) Lex Angliorum et Werinorum, h.e., Thuringorum, (8) Lex Saxonum, (9) Leges Anglo-Sax… Salicylic AcidSALICYLIC ACID, an organic acid found in nature, in the free state, in the flowers of the meadow-sweet (Spirma Ulmaria, L.) and, combined with methylic ether, in the leaves of the wintergreen (Gaultheria procum,bens, L.) and Andromeda Jeschenaultii, in the bark of the sweet birch (Betula lenta, L.), and in several species of Viola. It was discovered in 1838 by Piria, who prepared it artificially b… Salieri, AntonioSALIERI, ANTONIO (1750-1825), dramatic composer, was born at Legnano, Italy, August 19, 1750. In 1766 he was taken to Vienna by a former " Kapellmeister " named Gassmann, who introduced him to the emperor Joseph, and fairly prepared the way for his subsequent success. His first opera, Le Donne Letterate, was produced at the Burg-Theater in 1770. On Gassmann's death in 1774, he received the appoint… Salisbury, Or Neiv SarumSALISBURY, or NEIV SARUM, a city and municipal and parliamentary borough, the county town of Wiltshire, England, is situated in a valley at the confluence of the Upper Avon, the Wily, the Bourne, and the Nadder, on the Great Western and South Western Railways, 80 miles west-southwest of London. The city at the beginning was regularly laid out by Bishop Poore and still retains substantially its ori… SallustSALLUST (86-34 B.c.). Sallust is the generally accepted modern form of the name of the Roman historian Caius Sallustius Crispus. 86 B.C. was the year of his birth, and the old Sabine town of Amiterntim at the foot of the Apennines was his birthplace. He came of a good plebeian family, and entered public life at a comparatively early age, obtaining first the qumstorship, and then being elected trib… Salmasius, ClaudiusSALMASIUS, CLAUDIUS (1588-1653), in the vernacular SAUMAISE, the most distinguished classical scholar of his day, was born at Semur-en-Auxois in Burgundy, April 15, 1588. His father, a counsellor of the paHement of Dijon, gave him an excellent education, and sent him at the age of sixteen to Paris, where his promise excited the especial interest of Casaubon. After hardly overcoming his father's op… SalmonidSALMONID.LE. The distinguishing features of this family of fishes are described in technical language in the article ICHTHYOLOGY (vol. xii. p. 693), and it is unnecessary to repeat the definition. The most conspicuous of the external characteristics is the presence of two dorsal fins, of which the anterior is well developed and supported by the usual jointed bones known as fin-rays, while the post… SalmonideSALMONIDE - gallivensis, Gunther. An anadromous species from Galway, distinguished by the acutely pointed but not elongate snout, broad convex head, small eye, feeble teeth, feeble maxillary and mandible, and by extremely thin and short pyloric appendages, which are not longer than one inch nor thicker than a pigeon's quill. According to Day a variety of S. fario. S. fcrox, Jard. and Selby (Edinb.… SalomeSALOME, widow of Alexander Jannxus, and queen of Judma from 79 to 69 B.C. (see ISRAEL, vol xiii. p. 424). Salonica, Or SalonikiSALONICA, or SALONIKI (Ital. Salonicco, Turkish Selanik, Slay. Solun, the ancient Thessalonica), during the Roman empire the capital of the province of Macedonia, and still one of the most important cities of European Turkey, the chief town of an extensive vilayet which includes the sanjaks of Salonica, Serres, Drama, and Monastir, and has an aggregate population of 1,500,000. Salonica lies on the… SalsetteSALSETTE, a large island to the north of Bombay, with an area of 241 square miles. SaltSALT. Common salt, or simply salt, is the name given to the native and industrial forms of sodium chloride (NaC1). The consideration of this important substance naturally falls under two heads, relating respectively to sea. salt or " bay " salt and " rock " salt or mineral salt. As actually found, however, the one is probably derived from the other, most rock salt deposits bearing evidence of havi… SaltaSALTA, capital of a. province of the same name in the Argentine Republic, with a population of about 20,000 (1881), is a well-built town occupying a somewhat insalubrious situation, 3780 feet above the sea, at the confluence of the Rio de la Sillata and Rio de Arias, head streams of the Rio Salado (there called Rio Pasaje or Juramanto), about 820 miles north-west of Buenos Ayres. SaltcoatsSALTCOATS, a seaport and watering-place of Ayrshire, Scotland, contiguous to Ardrossan, and 19 miles north of Ayr. SaltilloSALTILLO, the capital of the state of Coahuila in Mexico, 65 miles south-west of Monterey by the Mexican National Railway, on the slope of a hill overlooking a fertile valley. It has well-paved streets, several good public buildings, and cotton factories and other industrial establishments. The population is,about 17,000. miles south of Ogden Junction on the Union and Central Pacific Railroad, an… Saltpetre, Or Nitrate Of PotashSALTPETRE, or NITRATE OF POTASH (KNO3), is a salt obtained as a commercial product in three different ways. (1) It occurs as an efflorescence on the surface or in the superficial stratum of the soil in many parts of the world, but specially to a great extent in the Ganges valley and other parts of India. (2) It is obtained in a semi-artificial manner in nitraries or saltpetre plantations. These co… SalusSALUS (Safety), a goddess worshipped in various parts of ancient Italy: At Rome a temple adorned with paintings by Fabius surnamed the Painter (Pictor) was dedicated to her in 302 me. ; and public prayers were offered to her on behalf of the Roman people and the emperor. SalutationsSALUTATIONS, or greetings, are customary forms of kindly or respectful address, especially on meeting or parting or on occasions of ceremonious approach. Etymologically the word salutation, (Lat. 8alutatio, " wishing health") refers to words spoken, but the conventional gestures are even more purposeful, and both should be considered together. The principal modes of saluting, when classified, fall… Saluzzo, Or Sali10esSALUZZO, or SALI10ES, a city of Italy, at the head of a circondario in the province of Cuneo, 421 miles south of Turin (with which it is connected by railway and a steam tramway), is situated 600 to 650 feet above the sea, just where the last hills of the Monte Viso die away into the plain between the Po and its tributary the Vraita. The upper town preserves some part of the fortifications which p… SalvageSALVAGE is "the reward which is earned by those who have voluntarily saved or assisted in saving a ship or boat, or their apparel, or any part thereof ; or the lives of persons at sea ; or a ship's cargo or any part thereof from peril ; or a wreck from total loss" (Roscoe, Admiralty Law and Practice, p. 13). The word salvage is indifferently used to denote the claim, the reward, or the property sa… SalvianSALVIAN, a Christian writer of the 5th century, was study of the law ; and this is the more likely as he appears to have been of noble birth and could describe one of his relations as being "of no small account in her own district and not obscure in family" (Ep. i.). He was already a Christian when he married Palladia, the daughter of heathen parents, Hypatius and Quieta, whose displeasure ho incu… Salwin Hill TractsSALWIN HILL TRACTS, a district in the Tenasserim division of British Burmah, extending from the northern portion of the province southwards to Kaw-ka-rit on the Salwin river, and occupying the whole of the country between that river on the east and the Poung-loung mountains on the west. The district contains an area of about 4646 square miles, and is bounded on the north by the Kareng-ni state, on… Salza, Hermann VonSALZA, HERMANN VON (c. 1180-1239), one of the most illustrious knights of the Teutonic order, was a scion of the house of Langensalza in Thuringia, where he was born about 1180. SalzbrunnSALZBRUNN, a small German watering-place, visited annually by about 4000 patients, is situated in Silesia, 30 miles to the south-west of Breslau. SalzburgSALZBURG, capital of the present Austrian crownland and formerly of the archbishopric of the same name, occupies a position of singular beauty on the Salzach, 87 miles south-east of Munich, and 154 miles west by south of Vienna. The river, flowing north-west from the glaciers of the Salzburg Alps to the Bavarian plain, passes at this point between two isolated hills, the Monchsberg (1732 feet) on … SalzkammergutSALZKAMMERGUT, a district in the south-west angle of Upper Austria, between Salzburg and Styria, famous for its fine scenery, forms a separate imperial domain about 250 square miles in area, and with a population of over 18,000. The beauty of its lofty mountains, sequestered lakes, and green valleys has made it one of the favourite tourist resorts of Europe, and has gained for it the title of the … SalzwedelSALZWEDEL, an ancient town of Prussian Saxony, lies on the Jeetze, a tributary of the Elbe, 32 miles to the north-west of Stendal. It is an industrial place of some importance, with linen, cotton, and woollen manufactures, carries on a brisk river trade in grain, and possesses a fine Gothic church of the 13th century. But its chief claim to notice lies in the fact that it was for about a century (… SamaraSAMARA, capital of the above government, is situated on the slopes of the left bank of the Volga, 743 miles to the south-east of Moscow, at the mouth of the Samara and opposite the hills of Zheguleff. It is one of the most important towns of the lower Volga for its trade, and its importance cannot fail to increase as the railway to Central Asia advances eastwards. Its population rose from 34,500 i… SamaraSAMARA, a government of south-eastern Russia, on the left bank of the lower Volga, bounded on the north by Kezar', on the west by Simbirsk and Saratoff, on the east by Ufa and Orenburg, and on the south by Astrakhan, the Kirghiz Steppes, and the territory of the Ural Cossacks. The area is 58,320 square miles, and the population in 1882 was 2,224,093. A line drawn eastwards from the great bend of t… SamariaSAMARIA (Heb. ShZmer8n, ; LXX. apx pets, except in 1 Kings xvi. 241), the capital of Northern Israel from the time of Omri to the fall of the kingdom, which was consummated in the long siege of the royal city by Shalmaneser (2 Kings xvii. 5) and its capture by his successor Sargon (r. 721 B.c.). The choice of Samaria as his capital by the warlike and energetic prince to whom the kingdom of Ephraim… SamaritansSAMARITANS. This term, which primarily means "inhabitants of Samaritis or the region of Samaria," is specially used, as in the New Testament and in Josephus, as the name of a peculiar religious community which had its headquarters in the Samaritan country, and is still represented by a few families (about 150 souls) at Nabulus, the ancient Shechem. They regard themselves as Israelites, descendants… Sambalpur, Or SiiiebulpoorSAMBALPUR, or SIIIEBULPOOR, a British district in the chief-commissionership of the Central Provinces of India, Bilaspur and Raipur districts. The Mahanadi, which is the only important river in the district, flows through it, dividing it into unequal parts. The greater portion of Sambalpur is an undulating plain, with ranges of rugged limestone, and shale. Gold dust and diamonds have been found ne… SamnitesSAMNITES, a people of ancient Italy, whose name figures conspicuously in the early history of Rome. They occupied an extensive tract in the centre of the peninsula, which derived from them the name of Samnium. The territory thus designated was a wholly inland district, bounded on the north by the Marsi, Peligni, and Frentani, who separated them from the Adriatic, on the east by Apulia, on the sout… SamosSAMOS, one of the principal and most fertile of the islands in the /Egean Sea that closely adjoin the mainland of Asia Minor, from which it is separated by a strait of only about a mile in width. It is about 27 miles in length, by about 14 in its greatest breadth, and is occupied throughout the greater part of its extent by a range of mountains, of which the highest summit, near its western extrem… SamothraceSAMOTHRACE was the ancient name of an island in the northern part of the JEgean Sea, nearly opposite to the mouth of the Hebrus, and lying north of Imbros and north-east of Lemnos. It is still called Samothraki, and though of small extent is, next to Mount Athos, by far the most important natural feature in this part of the )Egean, from its great elevation - the group of mountains which occupies a… SamoyedesSAMOYEDES, a Ural-Altaic stock, scattered in small the Karagasses, and the Samoyedes of the middle Obi. (B) Those inhabiting the subarctic region form three separate sub-groups : - (a) the Yuraks in the coast-region from the Yenisei to the White Sea ; (b) the Tavghi Samoyedes, between the Yenisei and the Khatanga ; (c) the Ostiak Samoyedes, intermingled with Ostiaks, to the south of the others, in… SamsonSAMSON (Hebrew, Shinishtin), the great enemy of the Philistines, is reckoned as one of the judges of Israel in two editorial notes which belong to the chronological scheme of the book of Judges (xv. 20, xvi. 31); but his story itself, which is a self-contained narrative by a single hand (Jud. xiii. 2-16, 31a), represents him not as a judge but as a popular hero of vast strength and sarcastic humou… SamuelSAMUEL (v*iy, Sh6m661),1 a seer and "judge" of Israel in the time of the Philistine oppression. His history, as told in the first book of Samuel (compare Psalm xcix. 5; Ecclus. xlvi. 13 sq.), is too familiar to call for repetition here, and a critical estimate of his place in Hebrew history has been given in ISRAEL, vol. xiii. p. 403. There remain, however, one or two points of detail which may be… Samuel, Books OfSAMUEL, BOOKS OF. The Hebrew Book of Samuel, like the Hebrew Book of Kings, is in modern Bibles divided into two books, after the Septuagint and Vulgate, whose four books of "kingdoms" answer to the Hebrew books of Samuel and Kings. The connexion between the books of Samuel and Kings has been spoken of in the article KINGS (q.v.). These two books, together with Judges, are made up of a series of e… SanaaSANAA (SAN'A.), the capital of Yemen in Arabia, and seat of the Turkish governor of that province, is situated in 15? 22' N. lat. and 44? 31' E. long., in a well-watered upland valley, 4000 feet above the sea and six to nine miles broad, running north and south between two tablelands. The western table-land, over which lies the road to the port of Vodaida on the Red Sea, rises 1200 feet above the … San AntonioSAN ANTONIO, a city of the United States, incorporated in 1873, the county-seat of Bexar (Bejar) county and the principal centre of western Texas, is situated in the fertile plain watered by the head-streams of the San Antonio river, which, after a course of 200 miles, falls into the Gulf of Mexico at Espiritu Santo Bay. It is an important junction for several of the Texan railways, lying on the m… SanchezSANCHEZ. SanchuniathonSANCHUNIATHON, (that is, Ininci, " the god Sakkun lath given ") is the name of the pretended author of the Phoenician writings said to have been used by Priu,o BYRLIHS (q.v.). San Cristobal De Los LlanosSAN CRISTOBAL DE LOS LLANOS, otherwise known as CIUDAD REAL, chief town of the Mexican state of Chiapas, stands in a fertile valley on the eastern slope of the central mountain range 450 miles east-south-east from the city of Mexico. Sancroft, WilliamSANCROFT, WILLIAM (1616-1693), archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Fressingfield in Suffolk 30th January 1616, and entered Emmanuel College, Cambridge, in July 1634. He became M.A. in 1641 and fellow in 1642, but was ejected in 1649 for refusing to accept the " Engagement." He then remained abroad till the Restoration, after which he was chosen one of the university preachers, and in 1663 he was… SanctuarySANCTUARY is the Christian representative of the classical ASYLUM (q.v.), and was no doubt suggested in the first instance by the cities of refuge of the Levitical law, Originally every church or churchyard was a sanctuary for criminals. In England about thirty churches, from a real or pretended antiquity of the privilege, acquired special reputation as sanctuaries, e.g., Westminster Abbey and Bev… SandalwoodSANDALWOOD, a fragrant wood obtained from various trees of the natural order SantalaceT and from the genera Santalum and Fusanus. The principal commercial source of sandalwood is Santalum album, L., a native of India, but it is also yielded by S. Freycinetianum, Gaud., and S. pyrularium, A. Gray, in the Hawaiian Islands, S. Homei, Seem., and S. austro-caledonicum, Viell., in New Caledonia, and S. … SandarachSANDARACH is a resinous body obtained from the small Coniferous tree Callitris guadrivalvis, native of the north-west regions of Africa, and especially characteristic of the Atlas Mountains. The resin, which is procured as a natural exudation on the stems, and also obtained by making incisions in the bark of the trees, comes into commerce in the form of small round balls or elongated tears, transp… SandbachSANDBACH, a town and urban sanitary district of Cheshire, is situated on the Trent and Mersey Canal, and on the London and North-Western Railway, at the junction for Northwich, 25 miles east-south-east of Chester and 5 north-east of Crewe. Sand-blastSAND-BLAST. The erosive influence of driven sand is turned to useful account for several industrial purposes by means of an apparatus devised, about 1870, by Mr B. C. Tilghman of Philadelphia. Tilghman's sand-blast consists of a contrivance for impelling, with graduated degrees of velocity, a jet or column of sand, by means of compressed air or steam, against the object or surface to be acted on. … Sandby, PaulSANDBY, PAUL (1725-1809), founder of the English school of water-colour painting, was descended from a branch of the Sandbys of Babworth, and was born at Nottingham in 1725. After commencing his artistic studies in London, in 1746 he was appointed by the duke of Cumberland draughtsman to the survey of the Highlands. In 1752 he quitted this post, and retired to Windsor, where he occupied himself wi… Sandeau, Leonard SylvainSANDEAU, LEONARD SYLVAIN Ram (1811-1882), a French novelist of much grace and not a little power, was born at Aubusson (Creuse) on February 9,1811. He made acquaintance as an art student with Madame Dudevant (George Sand), who had just taken to an unrestrained literary life at Paris. The intimacy did not last long, but it produced Rose et Blanche (1831), a novel written in common, and from it Geor… Sand-eel Or Sand-launceSAND-EEL or SAND-LAUNCE. The fishes known under these names form a small isolated group (Ammodytina), distantly related to the cod-fishes. ,Their body is of an elongate-cylindrical shape, with the head terminating in a long conical snout, the projecting lower jaw forming the pointed end. A low long dorsal fin, in which no distinction between spines and rays can be observed, occupies nearly the who… Sanderson, RobertSANDERSON, ROBERT (1587-1663), bishop of Lincoln, and one of the worthies celebrated by Izaak Walton, was born at Rotherham, Yorkshire, in 1587. He was educated at the grammar school of his native town and at Lincoln College, Oxford, took orders in 1611, and was promoted successively to several benefices. On the recommendation of Laud he was appointed one of the royal chaplains in1631, and as a pr… SandhurstSANDHURST, a city of Victoria, Australia, in the county of Bendigo, is situated in 36? 46' S. lat. and Ili? 17' E. long., at a height of 758 feet above the sea, on Bendigo Creek (a sub-tributary of the Murray), 100f miles north-north-west of Melbourne by the railway to Echuca. Built on an exhausted part of old goldfields of Bendigo (1851), and long better known by that name, Sandhurst, which becam… San DiegoSAN DIEGO, a city and port of entry of the United States, chief town of San Diego county, California, 15 miles north of the Mexican frontier. Sandomir, Or SedomienzSANDOMIR, or SEDOMIENZ, a town of Russian Poland, in the province of Radom, is one of the oldest towns of Poland, being mentioned in annals as early as 1079 ; from 1139 to 1332 it was the chief town of the principality. Under Casimir IIL it received extensive privileges and reached a high degree of prosperity and strength. In 1429 it was the seat of a congress for the establishment of peace with L… SandowaySANDOWAY, a district in the south of the Arakan division of British Burmah, ceded to the British by treaty in 1826, embracing an area of 3667 square miles, and bounded on the north by the Ma-i river, on the west by the Bay of Bengal, on the east by the Arakan Mountains, and on the south by the Khwa river. The whole face of the country is mountainous, the Arakan range sending out spurs which reach … SandpiperSANDPIPER (Germ. Scoulpfesfer), according to Willughby in 1676 the name given by Yorkshiremen to the bird now most popularly known in England as the "Summer-Snipe," - the Tringa hypoleucos of Linnious and the Totanus, Actitis, or Tringoides ltypoleueus of later writers, - but probably oven in Willughby's time of much wider signification, as for more than a century it has certainly been applied to … SanduskySANDUSKY, a city of the United States, the capital of Erie county, Ohio, lies at the mouth of Sandusky river, 210 miles by rail north-east of Cincinnati, and is handsomely built of limestone from the subjacent strata on ground rising gradually from the shore of Lake Erie. SandwichSANDWICH, an English borough, market-town, and Cinque Port, is situated in the east of Kent, opposite the Downs, on a branch of the South-Eastern Railway, and on the Stour, 2 miles from the sea, 12 miles east of Canterbury, and 4 north-west of Deal. The streets are narrow and the houses irregularly built. The old line of the walls on the land side is marked by a public walk. The Fishers' Gate and … Sandwich, John MontaguSANDWICH, JOHN MONTAGU', FOURTH EARL OF (1718-1792), was born 3d November 1718, and succeeded peninsula. The Bay of San Francisco is reached from the ocean through the Golden Gate, a strait about 5 miles long and averaging 1 mile in width, with a depth of 30 feet on the bar at the entrance and from 60 to 100 feet within. The bay, which extends past the city in a southsouth?east direction for about… Sandys, GeorgeSANDYS, GEORGE (1577-1644), famous in the reigns of James I. and Charles I. as a traveller and a metrical translator. San FernandoSAN FERNANDO, formerly ISLA DE LEON, a fortified city of Spain, in the province of Cadiz, near the head of the inner bay, and 91 miles by rail from the city of Cadiz (see vol. iv. p. 627), is a modern town with straight and level streets, two churches, two hospitals, several barracks, and a school of navigation, with an observatory. San FranciscoSAN FRANCISCO, a city of the United States, the largest commercial city of California and of the Pacific coast, is situated in 37? 47' 22"?55 N. lat. and 122? 25' 40'?6 W. long., on the end of a peninsula which has the Pacific Ocean on one side and the Bay of San Francisco on the other. The width of this tongue of land within the city limits is about 6 miles, and its whole length about 26. The ori… SangerhausenSANGERHAUSEN, an ancient town of Prussian Saxony, is situated on the Gonna, near the south base of the Harz Mountains, and 30 miles to the west of Halle. San JoseSAN JOSE, a city of the United States, capital of Santa Clara county, California, lies 40 miles south-east of San Francisco and 8 miles from the southern end of San Francisco Bay, in the heart of the beautiful Santa Clara Valley. It is at this point that the railwayS from the two sides of the bay meet. The main part of the city occupies a gently rising plateau between the Coyote and Guadalupe rive… San JoseSAN JOSE, the capital of Costa Rica, Central America, stands 3900 feet above the sea, in a beautiful valley surrounded by mountains, on the west side of the main range about 15 miles north-west of Cartago (the ancient capital), with which it is connected by a railway (1884). San JuanSAN JUAN (or HARD) ISLANDS, an archipelago (San Juan, Orcas, Shaw, Lopez, Blakely, Cypress, &c.) lying between Vancouver Island and the mainland of North America, which were for many years the subject of dispute between the British and the United States Governments, and were finally assigned to the latter country by the arbitration of the emperor of Germany (21st October 1872). Geographically the … San Juan De La FronteraSAN JUAN DE LA FRONTERA, the capital of a province of the Argentine Republic, is situated 2310 feet above the sea in a great bend of the Rio de San Juan, 95 miles north of Mendoza and 730 miles from Buenos Ayres, with which it is about to be connected by rail (1886). Sankt PoltenSANKT POLTEN, a small town, and the seat of a bishop, in Lower Austria, is situated on the Treisen, a tributary of the Danube, 61 miles west of Vienna by rail. San Lucar De BarramedaSAN LUCAR DE BARRAMEDA, a town of Spain, in the province of Cadiz, and 27 miles by sea from that city, in a bare, sandy, and. undulating country, on the left bank of the Guadalquivir, not far from its mouth. San Luis PotosiSAN LUIS POTOSI, a city of Mexico, capital of the state of the same name, is situated at a height of 6200 feet on the eastern edge of the great plain of Anahuac, in a valley running north and south, 160 miles north-west of Queretaro. It is a great centre for the " diligence" traffic, and in 1885 was connected by rail with Tampico, a promising harbour on the Gulf of Mexico. The city proper, which h… San MarinoSAN MARINO, the smallest independent republic in Europe, has an area of 33 square miles (Strelbitsky), lies between the provinces of Forli and l'esaro-Urbino, and consists of part of the eastern spurs of the Apennines. Monte Titano, the central and culminating summit, has three peaks (M. Guaita, Cucco, and Gista), the three Penne of San Marino - a name evidently identical with the Celtic Penn or B… San Martin De JoseSAN MARTIN DE JOSE (1778-1850), Chilian general, was born at Yapeyti, on the Uruguay river, February 25, 1778. In his eighth or ninth year he accompanied his own family to Spain for his education, and being intended for the military profession was admitted into the college of nobles at Madrid. He saw active service and gained distinction in the war of independence, and had risen to the rank of lie… SanmicheleSANMICHELE, MichELE (1484-1559), one of the ablest architects of his time, learnt the elements of his profession from his father Giovanni and his uncle Bartolommeo, who both practised as architects at Verona with much success. Like almost all the enthusiastic students of that time he went at an early age to Rome to study classic sculpture and architecture. His great talents soon became known, and … Sannazaro, JacopoSANNAZARO, JACOPO (1458-1530), one of the poets of the Renaissance in Italy, was born in 1458 at Naples of a noble family, said to have been of Spanish origin, which had its seat at San Nazaro near Pavia. His father died during the boyhood of Jacopo, who was accordingly brought up in a very plain way at Nocera Inferiore. He afterwards studied at Naples under Pontanus, when, according to the fashio… San RemoSAN REMO, a town and seaport of northern Italy, at the head of a circondario in the province of Porto Maurizio on the Western Riviera, 161 miles by rail east of Mentona and 841 south-west of Genoa. Climbing the slope of a steep hill, it looks south over a small bay of the Gulf of Genoa, and, protected towards the north by hills rising gradually from 500 to 8000 feet, has the reputation of being in… San Salvador, Or SalvadorSAN SALVADOR, or SALVADOR (Republica del SalI' vador), the smallest but most densely peopled of the republics of Central America, has a coast-line of 160 miles along the Pacific from the mouth of Rio de la Paz to that of the Goascoran in the Gulf of Fonseca, and is bounded inland by Guatemala on the west and Honduras on the north and east. Its length from east to west is 140 miles, and its average… San SebastianSAN SEBASTIAN, a seaport of Spain, capital of the province of Guipuzcoa, 42 miles north-north-west of Pamplona, and 402 miles by rail from Madrid. SanskritSANSKRIT is the name applied by Hindu scholars to the ancient literary language of India. The word sanzskrita is the past participle of the verb kar, "to make " (cognate with Latin creo), with the preposition sam, "together " (cog. akto, 4 jn c, Eng. "same "), and has probably to be taken here in the sense of " completely formed " or " accurately made, polished," - some noun meaning " speech " (es… SanskritSANSKRIT - The history of Sanskrit literature labours under the same disadvantage as the political history of ancient India, from the total want of anything like a fixed chronology. As there are extremely few well-ascertained political facts until comparatively recent times, so in that whole vast range of literary development there is scarcely a work of importance the date of which scholars have s… Sanskrit Classical PeriodSANSKRIT CLASSICAL PERIOD - The classical literature of India is almost entirely a product of artificial growth, in the sense that its vehicle was not the language of the general body of the people, but of a small and educated class. It would scarcely be possible, even approximately, to fix the time when the literary idiom ceased to be understood by the common people. We only know that in the 3d c… Sanskrit Scientific LiteratureSANSKRIT SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE - I. LAW (Dharina). - Among the technical treatises of the later Vedic period, certain portions of the lialpa-stitras, or manuals of ceremonial, peculiar to particular schools, were referred to as the earliest attempts at a systematic treatment of law subjects. These are the Dharma-siltras, or "rules of (religious) law," also called Samaijacliarika-stltras, or "rules… Sanskrit Vedic PeriodSANSKRIT VEDIC PERIOD - The term veda - i.e., "knowledge," (sacred) " lore " - embraces a body of writings the origin of which is ascribed to divine revelation (eruti, literally "hearing"), and which forms the foundation of the BrAhmanical system of religious belief. This sacred canon is divided into three or (according to a later scheme) four coordinate collections, likewise called Veda : - (1) t… Sanson, NicolasSANSON, NICOLAS (1600-1667), a French cartographer, who, while it is a mistake to call him the creator of French geography, attained a great and well-deserved eminence in his profession. He was born of an old Picardy family of Scottish descent, at Abbeville, on December 20, 1600, and was educated by the Jesuits at Amiens. The mercantile pursuit by which he first sought to make his living proved a … Sansovino, Andrea Contucci Del MonteSANSOVINO, ANDREA CONTUCCI DEL MONTE (14601529), an able Florentine sculptor, who lived during the rapid decline of plastic art which took place from about the beginning of the 16th century; he was the son of a shop- herd called Niccolo di Domenico Contucci, and was born in 1640 at Monte Sansavino near Arezzo, whence he took his name, which is usually softened to Sansovino. He was a pupil of Anton… Sansovino, JacopoSANSOVINO, JAcOPO (1477-1570), was called Sansovino after his master Andrea (see above), his family name being Tatti. Born in 1477, he became a pupil of Andrea in 1500, and in 1510 accompanied him to Rome, devoting himself there to the study of antique sculpture. Julius IL employed him to restore damaged statues, and while working in the Vatican he made a full-sized copy of the Laocoon group, whic… Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez DeSANTA ANNA, ANTONIO LOPEZ DE (1798-1876) for many years a prominent figure in the troubled politics of Mexico, was born at Jalapa on February 21, 1798, Having entered the army, he joined the party of ITURBIDE (q.v.) in 1821, and gained distinction and promotion by the part he took in the surprise and capture of Vera Cruz. In the following year he quarrelled with his chief and himself became leader… Santa FeSANTA FE, a city of the United States, capital of New Mexico, stands in a wide plain surrounded by moun thins about 7000 feet above the sea, in 35? 41' N. lat. and 105? 46' W. long., near the Santa FC Creek, which joins the Rio Grande del Norte 14 or 15 miles farther southwest. It is connected by a branch line (18 miles) with the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa FC Railroad at Lamy Junction, 835 miles … Santa FeSANTA FE, a city of the Argentine Republic, capital of the province of Santa F6 (38,600 square miles ; 189,000 inhabitants), occupies an area of 400 acres, 90 miles north of Rosario, on the north-east or left bank of the Rio Salado at its junction with the Parana, in a district subject to periodical inundations. Santal Parganas, TheSANTAL PARGANAS, THE, a British district in the lieutenant-governorship of Bengal, forming the southern portion of the Bhagalpur division, and lying between 23? 48' and 25? 19' N. lat., and between 86? 30' and 87? 58' E. long. The total area of the district is 5456 square miles ; it is bounded on the north by the districts of Bhagalpur and Purniah, on the east by Maldah, Murshi&bad, and Birblim, o… Santa Maura, Or LeiicadiaSANTA MAURA, or LEIICADIA (Actoret8a, ancient At-exc'Es), one of the Ionian Islands, with an area of 110 square miles and a population (1880) of 25,000 (20,892 in 1870), lies off the coast of Acarnania (Greece), immediately south of the entrance to the Gulf of Arta. It first appears in history as a peninsula (Odyssey, xxiv. 378), and, if the statements of ancient authorities be accepted literally,… SantanderSANTANDER, a province in the north of Spain, on the shores of the Bay of Biscay, bounded on the E. by Biscaya, on the S. by Burgos and Palencia, and on the W. by Leon and Oviedo. The area is 2113 square miles. The province is mountainous in character, being traversed from east to west by the Cantabrian chain, which in the Picos de Europa reaches a height of over 8700 feet, and sends off numerous b… SantanderSANTANDER (Portus Blendium, Roam S. Andrew), capital of the above province, 31G miles by rail from Madrid, is the seat of a bishopric and one of the chief seaports of Spain. Tho population in 1877 numbered 41,000, having almost doubled in the preceding quarter of a century, and the trade of the port has increased in an even greater proportion. The town is situated on the inside of a rocky peninsul… SantaremSANTAREM, a city of Brazil, at the head of a comarca in the province of Para, is situated on the right bank near the mouth of the Rio Tapajos, a right-hand tributary of the Amazon. SantaremSANTAREM, a city and bishop's see of Portugal, in the province of Estremadura, on the declivities of the right bank of the Tagus, 464 miles by rail from Lisbon. Santerre, Jean BaptisteSANTERRE, JEAN BAPTISTE (1650-1717), French painter, born at Magny near Pontoise in 1650, was a pupil of Bon Boulogne. He began life as a portrait-painter, but refused to paint any except those who pleased his taste; he was incapable of managing the large compositions then in vogue, but enjoyed for half a century a great reputation as a painter of the nude. He had opened his studio to a class of y… SantiagoSANTIAGO, the capital of Chili, and the chief town of a province of its own name (now 5223 square miles in extent, reduced in 1883 by the formation of the new province of O'Higgins), is situated in 33? 26' 42" S. lat. and 70? 40' 36" W. long., at a height of about 1830 feet above the sea, in a wide and beautiful plain between the main range of the Andes and the less elevated heights of Cuesta del … SantiagoSANTIAGO (or ST JAGO) DE CUBA, a city and seaport of Cuba, at one time the capital of the whole island, and now the chief town of the eastern department, is situated in 19? 57' 7" N. lat. and 75? 54' 3" W. long. (lighthouse), on a fine bay on the south coast. The spacious and well-defended harbour is accessible to the largest vessels, but silt near the wharf allows only those drawing less than 14 … Santiago De CompostellaSANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELLA, the former capital of Galicia, in the north-west of Spain, situated in 42? the primacy of all Spain, but its former glories have quite departed. In the Middle Ages its shrine, which con-, tained the body of St James the Great, was one of the most famous in Europe, and gathered crowds of pilgrims from all parts. The city became, in fact, the focus of all the 'art and chival… Santiago Del EsteroSANTIAGO DEL ESTERO, chief town of the province of Santiago in the Argentine Republic, is situated in 27? 46' S. lat. and 64? 19' W. long., 520 feet above the sea, on the banks of the Rio Duke. SantillanaSANTILLANA, E:IDO LOPEZ DE MENDOZA, MARQUIS OF (1398-1458), Castilian poet, was born at Carrion de los Condes in Old Castile on August 19, 1398. His father, Don Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, grand admiral of Castile, having died while Iiligo was still quite young, the boy was brought up by his uncle Don Alfonso Enriquez. From his twentieth year onwards he became an increasingly prominent figure at the… Santini, GiovanniSANTINI, GIOVANNI (1787-1877), Italian astronomer, born 30th January 1787 at Caprese, in the province of Arezzo, was from 1813 director of the observatory at Padua. SantosSANTOS, a city and seaport of Brazil in the province of Sao Paulo, is situated on the north side of the island of Sao Vicente or Eugua-Guacu, which forms the west side of the harbour-bay (an inlet 3) miles deep, with soundings varying from 4 to 10 fathoms). It is a well-built town with wide airy streets, and most of the better classes have their residences at Barra Fort (4 miles out) and other sub… Sao LeopoldoSAO LEOPOLDO, a German colony in the province of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, founded in 1824. Saone-et-loireSAONE-ET-LOIRE, a department of the east central region of France formed in 1790 from the districts of takes its name bound the department on the south-east and on the west respectively. Between these the continental watershed between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic called the Charollais Mountains runs south and north. Its altitude (2500 feet on the south) diminishes to the north in the directi… Saone, HauteSAONE, HAUTE-, 1a department in the north-east of France, formed in 1790 from the northern portion of Franche Comte, and traversed by the river Saone. Situated between 47? 14' and 48" 1' N. lat. and between 5? 21 and 6? 49' E. long., it is bounded N. by the department of the Vosges, E. by the territory of Belfort, S. by Doubs and Jura, and W. by COte-d'Or and Haute-Marne. On the north-east, where … Sao PauloSAO PAULO, a city of Brazil, capital of a province of the same name, is situated on the north-western slope of the Serra do Mar, on a left-hand tributary of the Tiete, a confluent of the Parani. It is an old and irregularly built city, with some picturesque old churches and convents. The centre of the provincial railway system, 86 miles distant from SAN-ros (q.v.), its seaport on the Atlantic coas… Sappan WoodSAPPAN WOOD is one of several red dyewoods of commerce, all belonging to the Leguminous genus Cresalpinia, or to the closely allied genus Peltophornm. SapphireSAPPHIRE, a blue transparent variety of corundum or native alumina. It differs, therefore, from the Oriental ruby mainly in its colour. The colour varies from the palest blue to deep indigo, the most esteemed tint being that of the blue cornflower. It often happens that a crystal of sapphire is particoloured, and hence a fine cut stone may derive its tint from a deep-coloured portion at the back, … SapphoSAPPHO (in Attic Greek cLIrsboi, but called by herself ?Piorck), which is necessitated by the metre also in Anatol., ix. 190, though Alcreus, himself an jEolian and her contemporary, calls her 1,0.74)4 incomparably the greatest poetess the world has over seen, was a native of Lesbos, and probably both was born and lived at Mytilene. For the idea that she migrated thither from Eresus is merely a co… SaraSARA.WAK, a territory in the north-west of Borneo, which, reclaimed from piracy and barbarism by the energy of Sir James BROOKE (q.v.), was converted into an independent and prosperous state. With an area estimated at from 35,000 to 40,000 square miles, it has a population of about 250,000. The coast extends from Tanjong Datu, a prominent cape in 2? 3' N. lat., northwards to the frontier of Brunei… SarabandSARABAND (Ital. SaracensSARACENS was the current designation among the Christians of Europe in the Middle Ages for their Moslem enemies, especially for the Moslems in Europe. Saran, Or SarunSARAN, or SARUN, a British district in the lieutenant-governorship of Bengal, lying between 25? 40' and 26? 38' N. lat. and 83? 58' and 85? 14' E. long. It forms one of the north-western districts of the Patna, division in the Behar province, and comprises an area of 2622 square miles. Saran is bounded on the north by the district of Gorakhpur in the North-Western Provinces, on the east by the Ben… SaratoffSARATOFF, a government of south-eastern Russia, on the right bank of the lower Volga, having Penza and Simbirsk on the north, Samara. and Astrakhan on the east, and the Don Cossacks, Voronezh, and Tamboff on the west. The area is 32,624 square miles, and the population (1882) 2,113,077. The government has an irregular shape ; and a narrow strip, 140 miles long and from 20 to 45 miles wide, extendi… SaratoffSARATOFF, capital of the above government, situated ant cities of eastern Russia, and ranks among the very few government of Samara, is in reality a suburb of Saratoff. queathed to the city his collection of modern pictures and the name of " Radistcheff's Museum" (in memory of Radistcheff, the author prosecuted by Catherine IL). Agriculture and gardening are still the support of a section of the p… Saratoga SpringsSARATOGA SPRINGS, a village of the United States, whose mineral waters, apart from any charm of situation, have rendered it one of the most fashionable of summer resorts. It lies in the east of Saratoga county, New York, 186 miles by rail north of New York city, on a level plateau in the valley of the Hudson, not far from the junction of this river with the stream discharging from Saratoga Lake. T… SardanapalusSARDANAPALUS was, according to the account of Ctesias (preserved by Diodorus, 23 sq.), the last king of Nineveh, and he is described in terms that have made his name proverbial as the type of splendid and luxurious effeminacy. SardiniaSARDINIA (Ital. Sardegna, Fr. Sardaigne, Span.. Cerdena, called by the ancient Greeks 'IXvo6ua, from a. fancied resemblance to the print of a foot), an island in the Mediterranean, about 140 miles from the west coast of Italy, of which kingdom it forms a part. It is separated from the island of Corsica by the Strait of Bonifacio, which is about 72 miles wide, and only about 50 fathoms deep. Sardin… SardisSARDIS (c1 lidp8c,$), the capital of the kingdom of Lydia, the seat of a conventus under the Roman empire, and the metropolis of the province Lydia in later Roman and Byzantine times, was situated in the middle Hermus valley, at the foot of Mount Tmolus, a steep and lofty spur of which formed the citadel. It was about 20 stadia (21 miles) south of the Heron's. The earliest reference to Sardis is i… SardonyxSARDONYX, a name applied to those varieties of onyx, or stratified chalcedony, which exhibit white layers alternating with others of red or brown colour. The brown chalcedony is known to modern mineralogists as sard and the red as carnelian. The simplest and commonest type of sardonyx contains two strata, - a thin layer of white chalcedony resting upon a ground of either carnelian or Bard; but the… SarmatiansSARMATIANS (1.,ccupoiuc(rat .1.up,uoirat? Sarmatm). In the time of Herodotus (iv. 110-117) the steppes between the Don and the Caspian were inhabited by the Sauromatm, a nomadic horse-ridin,, people, whose women rode, hunted, and took part in battle like the men, so that legend (pre- sumably the legend of the Greek colonists on the Black Sea) represented the race as descendants of the Amazons by S… SarnoSARNO, a city of Italy, in the province of Salerno, 30 miles east of Naples by rail, lies at the foot of the Apennines near the sources of the Sarno, a stream connected by canal with Pompeii and the sea. Sarpi, PietroSARPI, PIETRO (1552-1623), was born at Venice, August 14, 1552, and was the son of a small trader, who left him an orphan at an early ago. Quiet, serious, devoted to study, endowed with great tenacity of application and a prodigious memory, the boy seemed born for a monastic life, and, notwithstanding the opposition of his relatives, entered the order of the Servi di Maria, a minor Augustinian con… Sarrazin, JacquesSARRAZIN, JACQUES (1588-1660), French painter, born at Noyon in 1588, was a pupil of the father of Simon Guillain, but he went to Rome at an early age and worked there under a Frenchman named Anguille. Starting thus, Sarrazin speedily obtained employment from Cardinal Aldobrandini at Frascati, where he won the friendship of Domenichino, with whom he afterwards worked on the high altar of St Andrea… SarsaparillaSARSAPARILLA, a popular alterative remedy, prepared from the long fibrous roots of several species of the genus Smilax, indigenous to Central America, and extending from the southern and western coasts of Mexico in the north to Peru in the south. These plants grow in swampy forests seldom visited by European travellers, and, being dicecious and varying much in the form of leaf in different individ… SartheSARTHE, a department of the north-west region of France, formed in 1790 out of the eastern part of Maine, 29 communes of Anjou, and portions of Perche. Situated between 47? 35' and 48? 30' N. lat., and between 0? 25' W. and 0? 55 E. long., it is bounded N. by the department of Orne, N.E. by Eure-et-Loir, E. by Loir-et-Cher, S. by Indre-et-Loire and Maine-et-Loire, and W. by Mayenne. The Sarthe, a … Sarti, GiuseppeSARTI, GIUSEPPE (1729-1802), musical thecrist and composer, was born at Faenza, Italy, December 1,1729, eduealed - according to the best accounts - by Padre Martini, and appointed organist of the cathedral of Faenza before the completion of his nineteenth year. Resigning his appointment in 1750, Sarti devoted himself with ardour to the study of dramatic music, and in 1751 produced his first opera,… Sarto, AndreaSARTO, ANDREA. DEL (1487-1531). This celebrated painter of the Florentine school was born in Gualfonda, Florence, in 1487, or perhaps 1486, his father Agnolo being a tailor (sarto): hence the nickname by which the son is constantly designated. The family, though of no distinction, can be traced back into the 14th century. Vannucchi has constantly been given as the surname, - according to some mode… SassariSASSARI, the chief town of the northern province of the island of Sardinia (Italy), is situated in the midst of orange and olive groves at a height of 650 feet above the sea, 12,1 miles from Porto Torres, on the railway to Chilivani, a junction on the main line from Terranova to Cagliari. Till about 1860-65 it was surrounded by a high wall built in the 14th century and strengthened by twenty-six l… SataSATA.RA, chief town and headquarters of the above district, is situated in 17? 41' 25" N. lat. and 74? 2' 10" name from the seventeen walls, towers, and gates which the Satara fort was supposed to possess. Satali, Adalia, Or AndaltyrhSATALI, ADALIA, or ANDALTYRH, one of the principal towns on the south coast of Asia Minor, giving the name of Gulf of Adalia to the great bay which the ancients styled Mare Pamphylicum. Arranged like a Greek theatre round the harbour, it presents an unusually picturesque appearance against its background of mountains ; and it is enclosed by a triple wall of modern construction, strengthened by a d… Sa Ta RaSA TA RA, or SATTARAH, a British district in the central division of the Bombay presidency, India, between 16? 50' and 18? 10' N. lat. and 73? 45' and 75? E. long. It has an area of 4988 square mile.cand is bounded on the north by the river Nira and the states of Bhor and Phaltan, on the east by Sholapur district, on the south by the Varna river separating it from Kolhapur and Sangli states, and o… SatireSATIRE. Satire, in its literary aspect, may be defined as the expression in adequate terms of the sense of amuseand that the utterance is invested with literary form. Withsentiment into which it shades. The lofty ethical feeling of a Johnson or a Carlyle borders it on the one hand, the witty sarcasm of a Talleyrand, rancorous or good-natured, on the other ; but, however exalted the satirist's aims… SaturnSATURN, an ancient Italian god, whom the Romans, and till recently the moderns, identified with the Greek god Cronus. the bosom of Earth. This vexed Earth, and she called on her sons to avenge her on their father Sky. They all shrank from the deed save Cronus, who waylaid and mutilated his father with a sickle or curved sword. From the drops of blood which fell to the earth sprang the Furies and t… SatyrSATYR. In ancient Greek mythology the satyrs were spirits, half-human half-bestial, that haunted the woods and mountain; companions of Pan and Dionysus. Fancy represented them as strongly built, with flat noses, pointed ears, and the tails of horses or goats. They were a roguish and wanton but faint-hearted folk, lovers of wine and women, ever roaming the wild to the music of pipes and cymbal; cas… Sau3lSAU3L.A.REZ, JAMES SAUMAREZ Or SATISMAREZ, BARON DE (1757-1836), English admiral, was descended from an old family, and was born at St Peter Port, Guernsey, 11th March 1757. Many of his ancestors had distinguished themselves in the naval service, and he entered it as midshipman at the age of thirteen. For his bravery at the attack of Charleston in 1775 on board the "Bristol" he was raised to the r… SaumurSAUMUR, a town of France, at the head of an arrondissement in the department of Maine-et-Loire, is situated on an island and on the left bank of the Loire, 38 miles south-west of Tours, and 27 miles south-east of Angers. A large metal bridge connects the Tours-Angers railway with that of 3Iontreuil-Bellay by which Saumur communicates with Poitiers and Niort. Two stone bridges (755 and 905 feet lon… Saunderson, NicholasSAUNDERSON, NICHOLAS (1682-1739), mathematician, was born at Thurlstone, Yorkshire, in January 1682.. appointment. He was created doctor of laws in 1728 by command of George II., and in 1736 was admitted a member of the Royal Society. He died of scurvy on the 19th of April 1739. Saunderson possessed the friendship of many of the eminent mathematicians of the time, such as Newton, Halley, De Moivre… Saurin, JacquesSAURIN, JACQUES (1677-1730), one of the group of defend himself before the synod against a trumped-up charge of heterodoxy. SauropsidaSAUROPSIDA. This name was introduced by Huxley in his Introduction to the Classification of Animals, 1869, to designate a province of the Vertebrate formed by "Sauroids" for the same province. The five divisions of the Reptilia, and thus three provinces - Ichtliyopsida, Sauropsida, and Hammalia - are formed. The characters which distinguish the Sauropsida, that is, which are common to birds and re… Saussure, Horace Benedict DeSAUSSURE, HORACE BENEDICT DE (1740-1799), ono of Switzerland's most celebrated physicists, was born in Geneva on February 17, 1740.1 His youth was passed at his father's farm, where he early acquired a love for the study of nature. Following the example of his father and of his uncle Charles Bonnet, with whom he was associated in a research on the leaves of plants, he devoted himself at first to b… Saussure, NicolasSAUSSURE, NICOLAS .THEODORE DE (1767-1845), eldest son of Horace Benedict de Saussure, was born on October 14, 1767, at Geneva, and is known chiefly for his work on the chemistry of vegetable physiology. He was a shy man, who lived quietly and avoided society ; yet like his ancestors he was a member of the Genevan representative council, and gave much attention and thought to public affairs. He to… Savage, RichardSAVAGE, RICHARD (1697-1743), a mediocre poet and notorious literary character of the time of Pope, associated with Pope in the publication of the Duneiad. He had nearly reached the end of his career when Johnson went up to London, made his acquaintance, and was fascinated by his vivacity and knowledge of the world. After his death, Johnson gave his romantic history of himself in one of the most el… SavannahSAVANNAH, a city of the United States, the capital of Chatham county, Georgia, and the largest city in the State, is situated on the right or southern bank of the Savannah river, 12 miles in a straight line and 18 miles by water from the ocean. By rail it is 104 miles southwest of Charleston, S.C. Stretching about three miles along the river, opposite Hutchinson's Island, and extending inland 1+ m… Savary, Anne Jean MarieSAVARY, ANNE JEAN MARIE B,EN (1774-1833), duke of Rovigo, was born at Marcq, in the canton of Grandpre and department of Ardennes, on 26th April 1774. He was educated at the college of St Louis in Metz, where he gained a scholarship. When a youth of sixteen he became a volunteer in a cavalry regiment. His first military experiences were with the army of the Rhine under Custine ; he distinguished h… SaviglianoSAVIGLIANO, a city of Italy, in the province of Cuneo, 31+ miles by rail south of Turin, lies in a plain between the Maira and the Mellea (head-streams of the Po) 1081 feet above the sea. It still retains some traces of its ancient walls, demolished in 1707, and has a fine collegiate church (Sant' Andrea, dating at least from the 11th century, but in its present form comparatively modern), a trium… Savigny, FriedrichSAVIGNY, FRIEDRICH Cum Vox (1779-1861), was born at Frankfort-on-the-Main on February 21, 1779. He was descended from an ancient family, which figures in the history of Lorraine, and which derived its name from the castle of Savigny near Charmes in the valley of the Moselle. When Lorraine passed into the possession of France, his family attached itself to Germany, and his ancestors filled importan… Savile, Sir HenrySAVILE, SIR HENRY (1549-1622), a learned Englishman, was the second son of Henry Savile, and was born at Over Bradley, near Halifax, Yorkshire, 30th November 1549. He entered Brasenose College, Oxford, whence he was elected to Merton College in 1561, where he took his degree in Arts and was chosen fellow. After graduating M.A. in 1570, he voluntarily read lectures on mathematics in the university.… Savings BanksSAVINGS BANKS (Fr. caisses d'epargne; Germ. Sparkassen) are institutions for the purpose of receiving small deposits of money and investing them for the benefit of the depositors at compound interest. They are, in general, managed by benevolent persons, who seek no remuneration for their services. They originated in the latter part of the 18th century - a period marked by a great advance in the or… SavoieSAVOIE, a department of south-eastern France, formed in 1860 of the districts of Upper Savoy, Savoy proper, Tarentaise, and llaurienne, which formed the southern part of the province of Savoy in the kingdom of Sardinia. Isere flows east and west through the Tarentaise valley by Bourg St Maurice, Moutiers, Albertville, and Montmelian; its principal tributary the Arc flows along the Maurienno valley… Savoie, HaliteSAVOIE, HALITE-, a frontier department of France, formed in 1860 from the old provinces of Genevois, Chablais, and Faucigny, which constituted the northern half of the duchy of Savoy in the kingdom of Sardinia. Situated between 45? 40' and 46? 25' N. lat. and between 5? 50' and 7? 2' E. long., it is bounded N. by the Lake of Geneva, E. by the Valais canton, S.E. by the duchy of Aosta (Italy), S. a… SavonaSAVONA, a city of Italy, in the province of Genoa, 251 miles west of that town, and 91 miles south of Turin by rail, is after Genoa and Nice the most important of the cities of the Riviera. The greater part of the town is now modern, consisting of handsome gardens, boulevards, and well-paved broad streets lined with massive arcades and substantial houses, built in enormous square blocks from four … Savonarola, GirolamoSAVONAROLA, GIROLAMO (1452-1498). The roll of Italian great men contains few grander names than that of Savonarola, and the career of this patriot-priest, reformer, and statesman is one of the strangest pages of Italy's history. Amid the splendid corruptions of the Italiah Renaissance he was the representative of pure Christianity, the founder and ruler of an ideal Christian martyr and a shameless… SavoySAVOY. The history of the house of Savoy shows in a striking manner how the destinies of a nation may depend on the fortunes of a princely family. During eight centuries, and through all changes of fortune, the princes of Savoy have kept one end steadily in view, and, in the words of Charles Emmanuel IIl., have " treated Italy as an artichoke to be eaten leaf by leaf." The ambitions of princes and… Saw-fliesSAW-FLIES (Tenthredinidw). This subdivision of the Hymenoptera is characterized by possessing a sessile abdomen which hides the base of the posterior legs. The antennae vary in their structure and in the number of their joints. The ovipositor is modified to form two saws, which when at rest lie in a sheath formed of two valves. by their greater number of legs ; usually 9 to 11 pairs are present. … SawsSAWS. Blades of steel with serrated edges have been used from time immemorial to rend or divide substances of various kinds, including metals and stone ; but the principal modern use of the saw is to divide wood. Modern saws are of the finest steel, but the ancients used bronze saws, and among uncivilized nations saws have been made with flakes of flint imbedded in a wooden blade, and held in plac… SaxeSAXE, MAcrarcE, COMTE DE (1696-1750), marshal of France, was tho natural son of Augustus II. of Saxony and the countess Aurora of Konigsmark. An entry in the parish registers of Goslar shows that he was born in that town, 28th October 1696. In 1698 the countess sent him to Warsaw to his father, who had been elected king of Poland the previous year, but on account of the unsettled condition of the … Saxe-altenburgSAXE-ALTENBURG (Germ. Sachsen-Altenburg), a duchy in Thuringia, and an independent member of the German empire, consists of two detached and almost equal are in the east or Altenburg division and 256 in the west watered by the Pleisse and its tributaries, forms an undulating and fertile region, containing some of the richest agricultural soil in Germany. The western district, through which the Saa… Saxe-coburg-gothaSAXE-COBURG-GOTHA (Germ. Sachsen-Koburg- S Gothic), a duchy in Thuringia, and an independent member F of the German empire, consists of the two formerly separate duchies of Coburg and Gotha, which lie at a distance of 14 miles from each other, and of eight small scattered exclaves, the most northerly of which is 70 miles from the most southerly. The total area is 760 square Gotha. The duchy of Cob… Saxe-meiningenSAXE-MEININGEN (Germ. Sacksen-Hein,ingen), duchy in Thuringia, and an independent member of the German empire, consists chiefly of an irregular crescent-shaped territory, which, with an average breadth of 10 miles, stretches for over 80 miles along the south-west slope of the Thuringian Forest. Tho convex side rests upon the duchy of Coburg, and is in part bounded by Bavaria, while the concave sid… SaxifrageSAXIFRAGE (Saxifraga), a genus of plants which gives its name to the order of which it is a member. There are nearly 200 species distributed in the temperate and arctic parts of the northern hemisphere, frequently at considerable heights on the mountains. They are mostly herbs with perennial rootstocks, leaves in tufts, or, on the flower-stalks, scattered. ? The arrangement of the flowers is very … SaxonySAXONY is the name successively given in German history' to a medieval duchy in northern Germany, to a ,later electorate which afterwards became the present kingdom of Saxony (described below), and to a ducal province of Prussia. The last was formed directly out of part of the second in 1815, but the connexion between the first and second, as will be seen from the present article, is neither local… Saxony GeographySAXONY GEOGRAPHY - The kingdom of Saxony, the history of which has been traced above, is the third constituent of the German empire in point of population, and the fifth in point of area. With the exception of the two small exclaves of Ziegelhein in Saxe-Altenburg and Leihschwitz on the borders of Reuss, Saxe-Weimar, and Saxe-Altenburg, it forms a compact whole of a triangular shape, its base exte… Saxony, PrussianSAXONY, PRUSSIAN (Germ. Provinz Sachsen), one of S the central provinces of the kingdom of Prussia, consists mainly of what was formerly the northern part of the kingdom of Saxony (ceded to Prussia in 1815), but also comprises the duchy of Magdeburg, the Altmark, and other districts, the connexion of which with Prussia is of earlier date. The area of the province is 9750 square miles. On the W. it… Say, Jean BaptisteSAY, JEAN BAPTISTE (1767-1832), an eminent French political economist, was born at Lyons 5th January 1767. His father, Jean Etienne Say, was of a Protestant family which had originally belonged to Nimes, but had removed to Geneva for some time in consequence of the revocation of the edict of Nantes. Young Say was intended to follow a commercial career, and was accordingly sent, with his brother Ho… Scala Nova, ScalaSCALA NOVA, SCALA Nuova., or (Turkish) KUSHADAM, also known as New Ephesus, a harbour on the west coast of Asia Minor, in the vilayet of Aidin, opposite the island of Samos. ScaligerSCALIGER. For some account of the great Della Scala (Lat. Scaliger) family, the reader is referred to the article VERONA. The name has also been borne by two scholars of extraordinary eminence in the world of letters. I. JULIUS CiESAR SCALIGER (1484-1558), SO distinguished by his learning and talents that, according to De Thou, no one of the ancients could be placed above him and the age in which … ScammonySCAMMONY. Under this name the dried juice of the root of Convolvulus &ammonia, L. (o-Ka1movia), is used in medicine.' It appears to have been known to the Greeks as early as the 3d century B.c., and is supposed to have been one of the medicines recommended to Alfred the Great by Helias, patriarch of Jerusalem (Cockayne Leech, doms, vol. ii. pp. xxiv., 289, 175; 273, 281). The scammony plant is a n… ScanderbegSCANDERBEG, i.e., Iskander (Alexander) Bey, is the Turkish name and title of GEORGE CASTRIOTA, the youngest son of John Castriota, lord of an hereditary principality in Albania. ScanderoonSCANDEROON (IscANDEnts), or ALExANDRETTA, lies girdled by green hills on the picturesque bay of the same name, the ancient Sinus Issicus, at the extreme north of the Syrian coast, where it forms an angle with that of Asia Minor. Scandinavian DiaSCANDINAVIAN DIA czars. - As above remarked, the Scandinavian dialects are not grouped, so far as their relationship is concerned. a., 1111811 L expectedJUUZILLE, 1111111 the 1lLe I - ary languaqs. Leaving out of account the Icelandic dialects and those of the Faroes, each of which constitutes a separate group, the remainder may be thus classified :2 - Itiest-Norteegian Dialects, - spoken on the … Scandinavian LanguagesSCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES. By this expression we understand the closely allied languages which are and have been spoken by the Germanic population in Scandinavia, and by the inhabitants of the countries that have been wholly or partially peopled from it. At present the territory of these languages embraces - Sweden, except the most northerly part -(Lapland and inland parts of Vesterbotten, where Finn… ScarboroughSCARBOROUGH, a parliamentary borough of England, frequently called " the Queen of Watering Places," situacres, but it is not now more than 17 acres 10 perches, or 43 acres, including store yards, dykes, and holms. The first castle was built in the Anglo-Norman period, and is referred to as being in decay in 1154 - a fact which throws back its origin earlier than 1136, the date assigned for its ere… Scarlatti, AlessandroSCARLATTI, ALESSANDRO (1659-1725), composer of sacred and dramatic music, was born at Trapani in Sicily in 1659, and became in early youth a pupil of Carissimi. In 1680 Queen Christina of Sweden appointed him her maestro di cappella, and commissioned him to write his first opera, L'Onesta nell' Amore, for performance at her palace in Rome. In 1693 he produced his first oratorio, I Dolori di Maria … Scarlatti, DomenicoSCARLATTI, DOMENICO (1683-1757), son of the preceding, was born at Naples in 16S3, and studied music first under his father and then under Gasparini. He began his career by composing a few operas, among them Amide, produced at Rome in 1715, and remarkable as the earliest known attempt to pose Shakespeare's hero as the pinto =ma of a dramma per la musica. But his real strength lay in the excellence… Scarlet Fever And ScarlatinaSCARLET FEVER and SCARLATINA are names applied indifferently to an acute infectious disease, characterized by high fever, accompanied with sore throat and a diffuse red rash upon the skin. This fever appears to have been first accurately described by Sydenham in 1676, before which period it bad evidently been confounded with smallpox and measles. In connexion with the causation of this disease, th… Scarron, PaulSCARRON, PAUL (1610-1660), poet, dramatist, novelist, and husband of Madame de Maintenon, was born or at least baptized on the 4th July 1610. His father, of the same name, was a man of position, and a member of the parlement of Paris. Paul the younger (who is said to have quarrelled with his stepmother) became an abbe, was not ill-allowanced, and travelled to Rome in 1634. He returned and became a… ScaupSCAUP, - the wild-fowler's ordinary abridgment or ScAur-DucK, meaning a Duck so called " because she feeds upon Scaup, i.e., broken shelfish," as may be seen in Willughby's Ornithology (p. 365); but it would be more proper to say that the name comes from the " Musselscaups," or "Mussel-scalps," the beds of rock or sank on which Mussels (Jlytilus edulis, and other species) are aggregated, - the Awl… ScepticismSCEPTICISM signifies etymologically a state of doubt or indecision in the face of different mutually conflicting statements (akirrop.w., I consider, reflect, hesitate, doubt). It is implied, moreover, that this doubt is not merely a stage in the road to certainty and true knowledge. The provisional suspense of judgment recommended by Descartes and others as the true beginning of philosophy is no m… SceptreSCEPTRE. Though the sceptre is now used principally as one of the insignia of royalty, the word originally had a more extended meaning. Among the early Greeks the-;.; cricn-rpov was simply a long staff used by aged men (II. xviii. 416; Herod., i. 196), and thus came to be used as a sign of authority by officials of many kinds - judges, military leaders, priests, heralds, and others. It is frequent… Scfielling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph VonSCFIELLING, FRIEDRICH WILHELM JOSEPH VON (1775-1854), a distinguished German philosopher, was born on 27th January 1775 at Leonberg, a small town of Wiirtemberg, otherwise notable as scene of the early years of Kepler's life. Through both parents he was connected with families of distinction in the Protestant church community. His father, a solidly trained scholar of Oriental languages, was called… SchadowSCHADOW, a distinguished name in the annals of German art. I. JOHANN GOTTFRIED SCHADOW (1764-1850), an eminent sculptor, was born in 1764 in Berlin, where his father was a poor tailor. His first teacher was an inferior sculptor, Tassaert, patronized by Frederick the Great ; the master offered his daughter in marriage, but the pupil preferred to elope with a girl to Vienna, and the father-in-law no… SchafarikSCHAFARIK (in Bohemian SIFAiliK), Palm JOSEPH (1795-1861), was by origin a Slovak, and was born in 1795 at Kobeljarova, a village of northern Hungary, where his father was a Protestant clergyman. It was not till his sixteenth year that any enthusiasm was aroused in him for the language and literature of his race. At this time an essay of Jungmann's fell into his hands, and at once gave a direction… SchaffhausenSCHAFFHAUSEN, the capital of the above canton, is situated on the bank of the Rhine, 30i miles by rail west of Constance and GO east of Basel, and communicates by a bridge with the village of Feuerthalen (1000 inhabitants) in Zurich. It is a city of contrasts - mediaeval architecture of the true Swabian type and modern manufactures mingling curiously together. The cathedral, formerly the church of… SchaffhausenSCHAFFHAUSEN, in area (111.7 square miles) and actual population (38,348) the 19th and in relative density of population the 7th of the cantons of Switzerland, forms the most northern angle of the Swiss territory, and lies on the right or German side of the Rhine, which separates it from the cantons of Thurgau and Zurich. It is divided into three distinct portions by spurs of the grand-duchy of Ba… Schalcken, GodfriedSCHALCKEN, GODFRIED (1643-1706), genre and portrait painter, was born at Dort in 1643, and studied under Van Hoogstraten, and afterwards under Gerhard Douw, whose works his earlier genre-pictures very closely resemble. SchamylSCHAMYL (i.e., SAMUEL), prophet and hero of the Caucasian mountaineers, was born in 1797. SchandauSCHANDAU, a small town of Saxony, is situated on the right bank of the Elbe, at the mouth of the little valley of the Kirnitzsch, 21 miles to the south-east of Dresden, and 4 miles from the Bohemian frontier. Scharnhorst, Gerhard Johann David VonSCHARNHORST, GERHARD JOHANN DAVID VON (1756-1813), Prussian general, celebrated as the author of the so-called "Icriimpersystem," or short-service system (see vol. ii. p. 594), by which the Prussian nation was prepared for the war of liberation, was a Hanoverian by birth, and served in the Hanoverian army from 1778 to 1801, when he passed into Prussian service, and soon became the leader in the reconstruction of its forces. SchassburSCHASSBUR,G (Hung. Segesvdr), chief town of the Transylvanian county of Nagy-Kiikiillo, Hungary, stands on the river Nagy-Kiikiill6, 24 miles east-south-east of Maros-Vasarbely, in 46? 10' N. lat., 24? 47' E. long. It consists of two parts, - the one which formerly served as a fortress on the top of a hill, and the other in the valley below, - the two being connected by a covered passage. Schhssbu…
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