Adam Of BremenADAM OF BREMEN, ecclesiastical historian, was born in Upper Saxony, and in 1067, probably on the invitation of Archbishop Adalbert, came to Bremen, where he was appointed canon and magister scholarum. He died in 1076. His Gesta Hanzmaburgensis Ecclesice Pont?:ficum, containing a history of the diocese of Hamburg and Bremen from 788 till the death of Adalbert in 1072, is of great importance as the … Adam, Right HonADAM, RIGHT HON. WILLIAM, nephew of the preceding, eldest son of John Adam, Esq. of Blair-Adam, Kinross-shire, was born on the 2d August 1751, studied at the Universities of Edinburgh and Glasgow, and passed at the Scotch bar in 1773. Soon after he removed to England, where he entered Parliament in 1774, and in 1782 was called to the Common-law bar. He withdrew from Parliament in 1795, entered it … Adam, RobertADAM, ROBERT, architect, the second son of William Adam of Maryburgh, is Fife, was born in 1728. He studied at the University of Edinburgh, and probably received his first instruction in architecture from his father, who, whether a professional architect or not, gave proofs of his skill and taste in the designs of Hopetoun House and the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary. In 1754 young Adam visited the Con… AdamsADAMS, &mum., American statesman, born at Boston, Sept. 27, 1722, was second cousin to John Adams. He studied at Harvard, but, owing to his father's misfortunes in business in connection with a banking speculation, - the " manufactory scheme," - he had t-o leave before completing his course, and to relinquish his intention of becoming a Congregational clergyman. He received his degree, however, an… AdamsADAMS, Joux QUINCY, eldest son of the preceding, was born at Braintree on the llth July 1767. The greater part of his education was received in Europe, which he visited in company with his father in 1778, and again in 1780, when he attended for a time the university of Leyden. When only fifteen years old he went, as secretary, with Francis Dana on his unsuccessful mission to St Petersburg. Returni… Adam's BridgeADAM'S BRIDGE, or Ranaa's Bridge, a chain of sandbanks, extending from the island of Mannar, near the N.W. coast of Ceylon to the island of Rameseram, off the Indian coast, and lying between the Gulf of Mannar on the S.W. and Palk Strait on the N.E. Adams, JohnADAMS, JOHN, a distinguished statesman of the United States of North America. He was born on the 19th or (new style) 30th of October 1735, in that part of the township of Braintree, in Massachusetts, which on a subsequent division was called Quincy. His parents were of that class, then abounding in New England, who united the profession of agriculture with that of some one of the mechanic arts. Hi… Adamson, PatrickADAMSON, PATRICK, a Scottish prelate, Archbishop of St Andrews, was born in the year 1543, in the town of Perth, where he received the rudiments of his education. He afterwards studied philosophy, and took his degree of master of arts at the University of St Andrews. In 1564 he set out for Paris as tutor to the eldest son of Sir William Macgill. In the month of June of the same year, Mary Queen of… Adam's PeakADAM'S PEAK, a lofty mountain in Ceylon, about 45 miles E. from Colombo, in N. lat. 6? 55', E. long. 80? 30'. Adams, RichardADAMS, RICHARD, M.A., divine. Two contemporaries of the same name are frequently confounded with each other. The more eminent was son of the Rev. Richard Adams, rector of Worrall, in Cheshire. The family records seven clergymen of the Church of England in succession. The present worthy was born at Worrall, but the loss of the registers leaves the date uncertain. It is usually, but erroneously, sta… Adams, ThonasADAMS, THONAS - " the prose Shakspeare of Puritan t heol ogians," as Southey named him - has left as few personal memorials behind him as the poet himself. The only facts regarding the commonplaces of his biography are furnished by epistles-dedicatory and epistles to the reader, and title-pages. From these we learn that he was, in 1612, " a preacher of the gospel at Willington," in Bedfordshire, w… AdanaADANA, a city of Asia Minor, the capital of the province of the same name, on the right bank of the Sihun, about 30 miles from the sea, in N. lat. 37? 1', E. long. 35? 18'. It is built on the site of the ancient Antiochia ad Sarum. Its position, commanding the passage of the mountains to the north of Syria, rendered it important as a military station in the contest between the Egyptians and the Tu… Adanson, MichelADANSON, MICHEL, a celebrated French naturalist, descended from a Scottish family which had at the Revolution attached itself to the fortunes of the house of Stuart, was born the 7th of April 1727, at Aix, in Provence, where his father was in the service of M. de Vintimille, archbishop of that province. On the translation of this prelate to the archbishopric of Paris, about the year 1730, the elde… AdaptationADAPTATION, in Biology, is the process by which an organism or species of organisms becomes modified to suit the conditions of its life. Every change in a living organism involves adaptation; for in all cases life consists in a continuous adjustment of internal to external relations. The term is usually restricted, however, to imply such modifications as arise during the life of an individual, whe… AddaADDA, the ancient Addua, a river of Northern Italy, formed by the union of several small streams, near the town of Bormio, in the Rhmtian Alps, flows westward through the Valtellina into the Lake of Como, near its northern extremity. AdderADDER, the common viper (Vipers commas). Addington, Henry, Viscount SidmouttiADDINGTON, HENRY, VISCOUNT SIDMOUTTI, prime minister of England, eldest son of Dr Anthony Addington, was born at Reading on the 30th May 1757. He was educated at Winchester and at Brazenose College, Oxford. In 1784 he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, but being elected about the same time member of Parliament for Devizes, he did not enter on legal practice. He was already on terms of intimac… Addison, JosephADDISON, JOSEPH, was the eldest son of Lancelot Addison, Dean of Lichfield, and was born at his father's rectory of Milston in Wiltshire, on the 1st day of May 1672. After having passed through several schools, the last of which was the Cha?ter-house, he went to Oxford when he was about fifteen years old. He was first entered of Queen's College, but after two years was elected a scholar of Magdale… Adeitsbach RocksADEItSBACH ROCKS, a remarkable group of isolated columnar rocks in a valley of the Riesengebirge, on the frontier of Bohemia and Prussian Silesia, 9 miles W.N.W. of Brannan. The mountain, for several miles, appears divided into detached masses by perpendicular gaps, varying in depth from 600 to 1200 feet. These masses are from a few feet to several hundred yards in diameter. The part called the la… Adelaar, CortADELAAR, CORT SivAnTsEN, surnamed the Eagle, a famous naval commander, was born at Brevig in Norway in 1622. At the age of fifteen he became a cadet in the Dutch fleet under Van Tromp, and after a few years entered the service of the Venetian Republic, which was engaged at the time in a war with Turkey. In 1645 lie had risen to the rank of captain; and after sharing in various victories as command… AdelaideADELAIDE, the capital of the British colony of South Australia and of the county of the slime name, situated on the Torrens, seven miles from Port Adelaide, with which it is connected by railway. The river, which is spanned at this point by several bridges, divides the city into two parts - North Adelaide, the smaller of the two, but containing the chief private houses, occupying a gentle slope on… Adel Or SomauliADEL or SOMAULI, an extensive tract of country, stretching eastward from the neighbourhood of Tajurrali to Cape Guardafni, between 43? and 51? E. long., with a breadth not accurately ascertained. AdelsbergADELSBERG, a market town of Austria, in the province of Carniola, 26 miles SW. of Laibach, and about the same distance E. of Trieste. About a mile from the town is the entrance to the famous stalactite cavern of Adelsberg, the largest and most magnificent in Europe. The cavern is divided into four grottoes, with two lateral ramifications which reach to the distance of about a mile and a half from … Adelung, Friedrich VonADELUNG, FRIEDRICH VON, a distinguished philologist, nephew of John Christoph Adelung, was born at Stettin on the 25th February 1768. After studying philosophy and jurisprudence at Leipsic he accompanied a family to Italy, where he remained for several years. At Rome he obtained access to the Vatican library, a privilege which he utilised by collating and editing some valuable old German MSS. that… Adelung, Johann ChristopilADELUNG, JOHANN CHRISTOPIL a very eminent German grammarian, philologist, and general scholar, was born at Spantekow, in Pomerania, on the 8th August 1732, and educated at the public schools of Anclam and Closterbergen, and the university of Halle. In the year 1759 ho was appointed professor at the gymnasium of Erfurt, but relinquished this situation two years after, and went to reside in a privat… AdenADEN, a town and seaport of Yemen in Arabia, belonging to Britain, situated on a peninsula of the seine mane, 100 miles east of the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. The peninsula of Aden consists chiefly of a mass of barren and desolate volcanic rocks, extending five miles from east to west, and three from its northern shore to Ras Sanailah or Cape Aden, its most southerly point; it is connected with the … AdepnoADEPNO, a city of Sicily, in the province of Catania, near the foot of Mount Etna, 17 miles N.W. of Catania. AdhesionADHESION, a term used to denote the physical force in virtue of which one body or substance remains attached to the surface of another with which it has been brought into contact. It is to be distinguished from cohesion, which is the mutual attraction that the particles of the same body exert on each other; and it differs from chemical attraction or aginity, since the properties of the substances … AdigeADIGE (German, Etsch), the ancient Athesis, a large river of Italy, formed by several rivulets which rise in the Rhaetian Alps, and unite near Glarus. AdipocereADIPOCERE (from adeps, fat, and cera, wax), a substance into which animal matter is sometimes converted, deriving its name from the resemblance it bears to both fat and wax. AdiposeADIPOSE (adeps, fat), a term in Anatomy, signifying fatty; as adipose tissue, adipose cell, &c. Adipose TissueADIPOSE TISSUE. - The adipose or fatty tissue varies in its amount in different individuals. It is especially found in the marrow of the bones; as a layer beneath the skin, differing iu thickness in different individuals; and collected in the cavity of the abdomen in the folds of peritoneum, Known as the mesentery and omenta, in which, and indeed in the other localities where it occurs, it is inti… Adirondack MountainsADIRONDACK MOUNTAINS, a group of mountains in the N. of the state of New York, North America, lying between Lakes Champlain and Ontario. AditADIT (from adire, to go to), a passage or door. AdjudicationADJUDICATION-, in Scottish Law, the name of that action by which a creditor attaches the heritable, i.e., the real, estate of his debtor, or his debtor's heir, in order to appropriate it to himself either in payment or security of his debt. AdjudicationADJUDICATION in Bankruptcy, in English Law, is equivalent to the Scotch award of sequestration. AdjustmentADJUSTMENT, in Commerce, the settlement of a loss incurred at sea on insured goods. AdjutageADJUTAGE, a short tube or nozzle, inserted in an .orifice, by means of which liquids flow from a vessel more -freely. AdjutantADJUTANT, a military officer whose duty it is to assist the commanding officer of a regiment or battalion. AdjutantADJUTANT, the Ciconia Argala, or Leptoptilos Argala, a species of stork found in tropical India. It is of great size, sometimes six or even seven feet in height, the body and legs bearing nearly the same proportion as in the common stork. The bill is long and large; while the head, neck, and pouch are bare, or covered only with a few scattered hairs. At the back of its neck there is a second pouch… AdjygurhADJYGURH, a town and fort of India, in the presidency of Bengal, 130 miles S.W. of Allahabad. AdministratorADMINISTRATOR, in English Law, he to whom the ordinary or judge of the ecclesiastical court, now the Court of Probate, acting in the queen's name, commits the administration of the goods of a person deceased, in default of an executor. AdministratorADMINISTRATOR, in Scottish Law, a person legally empowered to act for another whom the law presumes incapable of acting for himself, as a father for a pupil child. AdmiralADMIRAL, a great officer or magistrate, who has the government of a navy an the hearing of all maritime causes. There can be little doubt of the Asiatic origin of the name given to this officer, which does not appear to have been known in the languages of Europe before the time of the Holy Wars. Anzir, in Arabic, is a chief or commander of forces ; it is the same word as the ameer of the peninsula… AdmiralADMIRAL (THE LORD HIGH) OF ENGLAND, an ancient officer of high rank in the state, who not only is vested with the government of the navy, but who, long before any regular navy existed in England, presided over a sovereign court, with authority to hear and determine all causes relating to the sea, and to take cognizance of all offences The period about which this officer first makes his appearance … Admiral Of The FleetADMIRAL OF THE FLEET is O. mere honorary distinction, which gives no command, but merely an increase of half-pay, his being ?3, 7s. a-day, and that of an admiral ?2, 2s. The title has been sometimes conferred on the senior admiral on the fist of naval officers, and was a short time held by the Duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV. In 1851 were appointed, for the first time, two admirals of the … AdmiraltyADMIRALTY, Man COURT or. This is a court of law, in which the authority of the lord high admiral is exercised in his judicial capacity. Very little has been left on record of the ancient prerogative of the admirals of England. For some time after the first institution of the office they judged all matters relating to merchants and mariners, which happened on the main sea, in a summary way, accordi… Admiralty ChartsADMIRALTY CHARTS. These useful aids to navigation are constructed in the hydrographic department of the British Admiralty, by specially-appointed surveyors and draughtsmen, and they are issued to the public by order of the lords commissioners of the admiralty. They are divided into various sections as follows :-1. English and Irish Channels and coasts of the United Kingdom; 2. North Sea and adjace… Admiralty, IrelandADMIRALTY, IRELAND. - For all executive functions Ireland is subject to the jurisdiction and orders of the lord high admiral, or lords commissioners for executing the office, of Great Britain. Admiralty IslandADMIRALTY ISLAND, an island belonging to the United States, about 90 miles long from N. to S., and 25 miles broad, lying between King George III. Admiralty IslandsADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a group of about forty islands lying to the N.E. of New Guinea, between 2? and 3? S. lat., and 146? 18' and 147' 46' E. long. Admiralty, ScotlandADMIRALTY, SCOTLAND. Adolphus, JohnADOLPHUS, JOHN, historian and barrister, was born in London on the 7th August 1768. He was educated under the care of a grand-uncle, and after making a voyage to the West Indies was enrolled as an attorney about the year 1790. Called to the bar in 1807, he devoted himself to practice in criminal causes, and in a few years attained a leading position among Old Bailey counsel. His masterly defence o… Adolphus, John LeycesterADOLPHUS, JOHN LEYCESTER, sum of the above, also a distinguished barrister (died 1862), was the first to pierce the mask of the author of Wave?ley, in a series of critical letters addressed to Richard Heber, which he published in 1821. AdonisADONIS, according to some authors, the son of Theias, king of Assyria, and his daughter Smyrna [Myrrha], was the favourite of Venus. He was fond of hunting; and Venus often warned him not to attack the larger wild beasts ; but neglecting the advice, he was killed by a wild boar he had rashly wounded. Venus was inconsolable, and turned him into a flower of a blood colour, supposed by some to be an … AdonisADONIS, a genus of ranunculaceous plants, known commonly by the names of Pheasant's Eye and Kos Adonis. There are ten or twelve species given by authors, but they may be probably reduced to three or four. There are two indigenous species, Adonis aut?mnalis and Adonis wstival is. They are commonly cultivated. An early flowering species, Adonis vernalis, is well worthy of cultivation. A DOPTIAN CONT… AdonisADONIS, in Ancient Geography, a small river rising in Mount Lebanon, and falling into the sea at Byblus. AdoptionADOPTION, the act by which the relations of paternity and filiation are recognised as legally existing between persons not so related by nature. Cases of adoption were very frequent among the Greeks and Romans, and the custom was accordingly very strictly regulated in their laws, In Athens the power of adoption was allowed to all citizens who were of sound mind, and who possessed no male offspring… AdoptionADOPTION, as a Biblical term, occurs only in the New Testament. In Old Testament history the practice was unknown, though cases approximating to it have been pointed out. In the New Testament vlot9?0-(a occurs in several passages, on which is founded one of the leading doctrines of theology. ADORATION(from os, oris, the mouth, or from oro, to pray), an act of homage or worship which, among the Rom… AdourADOUR, the ancient Aturns, a river of France which rises near Barege, in the department of Upper Pyrenees, and, flowing first northwards, then with a circuit to the west, passes through the departments of Gers and Landes, and falls into the Bay of Biscay 3 miles below Bayonne. AdowaADOWA, the capital of Tigre, in Abyssinia, is situated in 14? 12' N. lat., 39? 3' E. long., on the left bank of the River Hasain, 145 miles N.E. of Gondar. AdraADRA, the ancient 'lidera, a seaport of Spain 011 the Mediterranean, in the province of Almeria, 60 miles S.B. of Grenada. AdrastusADRASTUS, in Legendary History, was the son of Talaus, king of Argos, and Lysianassa, daughter of Polybus, king of Sicyon. Being driven from Argos by Amphiaraus, Adrastus repaired to Sicyon, where he became king on the death of Polybus. After a time he was reconciled to Amphiaraus, to whom he gave his sister in marriage, returned to Argos, and occupied the throne. He acquired great honour in the f… AdriaADRIA (6 'ASpias - Acts xxvii. 27) in St Paul's time meant all that part of the Mediterranean between Crete and Sicily. AdriaADRIA, a city of Italy, in the province of Rovigo, between the rivers Po and Adige. It is a place of great antiquity, and was at an early period a seaport of such importance and celebrity as to give name to the sea on which it stood. Originally an Etruscan colony, it enjoyed for a time remarkable prosperity; but under the Romans it appears never to have been of much importance, and after the fall … AdrianADRIAN V., a Genoese, whose name was Ottoboni Fiesci, occupied the papal throne for only five weeks in 1276. AdrianADRIAN, a town of the United States, capital of Lenawee co., Michigan, situated on a branch of the Raisin river, and on the Michigan Southern Railway, 73 miles W.S.W. of Detroit. AdrianADRIAN I., son of Theodore, a Roman nobleman, occupied the pontifical chair from 772 to 795. Soon after his accession the territory that had been bestowed on the popes by Pepin was invaded by Desiderius, king of the Longobards, and Adrian found it necessary to invoke the aid of Charlemagne, who entered Italy with a large army, and repelled the enemy. The pope acknowledged the obligation by conferr… Adrian, CardinalADRIAN, CARDINAL, was born at Corneto, in Tuscany, and studied at Rome. lie was sent by Innocent VIII. as nuncio to Britain, to endeavour to reconcile James III. of Scotland and his subjects. That king having died, Adrian remained in England, where Henry VII. presented him to the bishopric of Hereford, and afterwards to that of Bath and Wells; but he never resided in either of these dioceses. On h… Adriani, Giovanni BattistaADRIANI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, born of a patrician family of Florence about 1511, was secretary to the republic of Florence, and for thirty years professor of rhetoric at the university. Adrian IiADRIAN II., born at Rome, became pope in 867, at the age of seventy-six. He faithfully adhered to the ambitious policy of his immediate predecessor, Nicholas I., and used every means to extend his authority. His persistent endeavours to induce Charles the Bald to resign the kingdom of Lorraine to the emperor were unsuccessful. Ilinemar, archbishop of Rheims, who had crowned Charles, denied the pop… Adrian IiiADRIAN III., born at Rome, succeeded Martin II. in 884, and died in 885 on a journey to Worms. Adrian IvADRIAN IV. whose name was Nicholas Breakspeare, was born before 1100 A.D. at Langley, near St Albans, in Hertfordshire, and is the only Englishman who has occupied the papal chair. His request to be allowed to take the habit of the monastery of St Albans having been refused by Abbot Richard, he proceeded to Paris, where he studied with diligence, and soon attained great proficiency, especially in … AdrianopleADRIANOPLE (called by the Turks EDRENEII), a city of European Turkey, in the province of Rumelia, 137 miles W.N.W. of Constantinople; 41? 41' N. lat., 26? 35' E. long. It is pleasantly situated partly on a bill and partly on the banks of the Tundja, near its confluence with the 'Maritza. Next to Constantinople, Adrianople ie the most important city of the empire. It is the seat of a bishop of the … Adrian, PubliusADRIAN, PUBLIUS IELitis, Roman emperor. Adrian ViADRIAN VI., born of humble parentage at Utrecht in 1459, studied at the university of Louvain, of which he became vice-chancellor. He was chosen by the Emperor Maximilian to be tutor to his grandson, the Archduke Charles, through whose interest as Charles V. he was afterwards raised to the papal throne. In 1517 he received the cardinal's hat from Leo X., and in 1519 he was made bishop of Tortosa. … Adriatic SeaADRIATIC SEA, the Adriatieum Mitre of the ancients, is an arm of the Mediterranean which separates Italy from Triest, Croatia, Dalmatia, and Albania. It extends from 40? to 45? 50' N. lat. in a N.W. direction. Its extreme north-west portion forms the Gulf of Venice, and on the east side are the gulfs of Triest, Fiume, Cattaro, and Drino. Its greatest length is 450 miles, its mean breadth 90 miles,… AdullamADULLAM, in Scripture Geography, a city in the plain country of the tribe of Judah. The cave Adullam, in which David took refuge after escaping from Oath (1 gam. xxii. 1), was probably situated among the mountains to the cast of Judah, near the Dead Sea. From its being described as the resort of "every one that was in distress," or " in debt," or " discontented," it has often been humorously allud… AdulteryADULTERY (from the Latin adulterium) is the sexual intercourse of a married person with another than the offender's husband or wife. Among the Greeks, and in the earlier period of Roman law, it was not adultery unless a married woman was the offender. The foundation of the later Roman law with regard to adultery was the lex Julia de adulteriis coercendis passed by Augustus about B. C. 17. (See Dig… AdventADVENT, the period of the approach of the nativity, lasting, in the Greek Church, from St Martin's Day (Nov. 11), and, in other churches, from the Sunday nearest to St Andrew's Day (Nov. 30) till Christmas. The observance of it dates from the 4th century, and it has been recognised since the 6th century as the commencement of the ecclesiastical year. With the view of directing the thoughts of Chri… AdvertisementADVERTISEMENT (from the French avertissement, a giving notice, or announcement) denotes in a general sense any information publicly communicated through the press or otherwise. It is the profit derived from advertisements that supports the larger number of newspapers. While some of these drag out a sickly existence, others derive a large revenue from this source. The duty upon advertisements (whic… AdvocateADVOCATE (from the Latin advocates), a lawyer authorised to plead the causes of litigants in courts of law. The word is used technically in Scotland in a sense virtually equivalent to the English term barrister; and a derivative from the same Latin source is so used in most of the countries of Europe where the civil law is in force. The advocates of the Romans meant, as the word implies, a person … AdvocationADVOCATION, in Scottish Law, was a mode of appeal from certain inferior courts to the supreme court. Advowson, Or AdvowzenADVOWSON, or ADVOWZEN (advocatio), in English, Common Law, the right of presentation to a .vacant eccle siastical benefice, is so called because the patron defends or advocates the claims of the person whom he presents. Originally all appointments within a diocese lay with the bishop; but when a landowner founded a church on his estate and endowed it, his right to nominate the incumbent was usuall… AdytumADYTUM, the most retired and sacred place of ancient temples, into which none but the officiating priests were allowed to enter. Aeolian HarpAEOLIAN HARP, named from ./Eolus, god of the wind, a musical instrument consisting of cat-gut strings stretched over a wooden sound-box. Aerated WatersAERATED WATERS. Waters impregnated with an unusually large proportion of carbonic acid, or other gaseous substances, occur abundantly in springs throughout the world ; and, in addition to their gaseous constituents, generally hold in solution a large percentage of different salts. The manufacture of aerated waters arose out of the attempt to imitate these by artificial means, but till about the be… Aeroe, Or ArroeAEROE, or ARROE, an island of Denmark, in the Little Belt, lying 7i miles S. of Funen, between Alsen and Langeland. AeroliteAEROLITE (arjp, air, and XNes, a stone), a stony or metallic body, which, falling through the atmosphere, reaches the earth's surface. These meteoric stones generally contain a considerable proportion of iron ; indeed, the iron in some of these substances exceeds the siliceous matter, and some have then given them the name of meteoric irons. A remarkable aerolite that fell at /Egospotami, in 467 B… AeronauticsAERONAUTICS every stage of society men have sought, by the combination of superior skill and ingenuity, to attain those distinct and obvious advantages which nature has conferred on the different tribes of animals, by endowing them with a peculiar structure and a peculiar force of organs. The rudest savage learns from his very infancy to imitate the swimming of a fish, and plays on the surface of … Aeronautics First Person Who RoseAERONAUTICS FIRST PERSON WHO ROSE The first person who rose into the air from British ground appears to have been Mr J. Tytler,1 who ascended from the Comely Gardens, Edinburgh, on August 27, 1784, in a fire-balloon of his own construction. He descended on the road to Restalrig, about half-a-mile from the place where he rose. A brief account appeared in a letter, under date August 27, in the Londo… Aeronautics History Of AerostaticsAERONAUTICS HISTORY OF AEROSTATICS The history of aerostatics in the Middle Ages, like that of every other subject relating even remotely to science or knowledge of any kind, is little better than a record of the a falsehoods or chimeras circulated by impostors or enthusiasts. Truth was completely obscured by ignorance and fanaticism, and every person of superior talents and acquiremeats was belie… AetionAETION, a painter, whose famous picture of the marriage of Roxana and Alexander was exhibited at the Olympic games, and gained Aaiun so much reputation that the president of the games gave him his daughter in marriage. AetiusAETIUS, a Greek physician, born at Amida in ?Mesopotamia, who lived at the end of the 5th or the beginning of the 6th century. AetiusAETIUS, a Roman general of the closing period of the western empire, born at Dorostolus in Mcesia, late in the 4th century. While detained for some time as a hostage in the camp of Rhuas, king of the Huns, he acquired an influence with the barbarians that was afterwards of much advantage to himself, though the same cannot be said of it as regards the empire. He led into Italy an army of 60,000 Hun… AetiusAETIUS, surnamed " the Atheist," founder of an extreme sect of the Arians, was a native of Ccek-Syria. After working for some time as a coppersmith, he became a travelling doctor, and displayed great skill in disputations on medical subjects; but his controversial power soon found a wider field for its exercise in the great theological question of the time. He studied successively under the Arians… Afanasief, Aleksandr Nikolaevici19AFANASIEF, ALEKSANDR NIKOLAEVICI19 a Russian scholar, distinguished for his researches in Slavonic literature and archeology, was born about 1825. Afer, DonitiusAFER, DONITIUS, orator, born at Nismes, flourished under Tiberius and the three succeeding emperors. Quintilian makes frequent mention of him, and commends his pleadings. But be disgraced Ins talents by acting as public accuser in behalf of the emperors against some of the most distinguished personages in Rome. Quintilian, in his youth, assiduously cultivated the friendship of Domitius. He tells u… AffidavitAFFIDAVIT means a solemn assurance of a matter of fact known to the person who states it, and attested as his statement by some person in authority. Evidence is chiefly taken by means of affidavits in the practice of the Court of Chancery in England. By 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 42, s. 42, provision is made for appointing commissioners in Scotland and Ireland to take affidavits. The term is generally a… AffinityAFFINITY, in Law, as distinguished from consanguinity, is applied to the relation which each party to a marriage, the husband and the wife, bears to the kindred of the other. The marriage having made them one person, the blood relations of each are held as related by affinity in the same degree to the one spouse as by consanguinity to the other. But the relation is only with the married parties th… Affinity, ChemicalAFFINITY, CHEMICAL, the property or relation in virtue of which dissimilar substances are capable of entering into chemical combination with each other. Substances that are so related combine always in fixed and definite proportions; the resulting compound differs from its components in its physical properties, with the exception that its weight is exactly the sum of their weights; and the combina… Affre, Denis AugusteAFFRE, DENIS AUGUSTE, Archbishop of Paris, was born at St Rome, in the department of Tarn, on the 27th Sept. 1793. When fourteen years of age, having expressed his desire to enter the church, he became a student at the seminary of St Sulpice, of which his maternal uncle, Denis Bayer, was director. His studies being completed before he had reached the age necessary for ordination, he was occupied f… Afghan TurkestanAFGHAN TURKESTAN is a convenient name applied of late years to those provinces in the basin of the Oxus which are subject to the Amir of Kabul. BADAKHSHAN and its dependencies, now tributary to the Amir, are sometimes included under the name, but will not be so included here. The whole of the Afghan dominions consist of AFGHANISTAN as defined under that heading, AFGHAN TURKESTAN, and BADAKHSHAN wi… Afium-kara-hissarAFIUM-KARA-HISSAR, a city of Asiatic Turkey, in the pashalic of Anatolia, nearly 200 miles E. of Smyrna, and 50 miles S.S.E. of Kutaiah. AfragolaAFRAGOLA, a town of Italy, in the province of Napoli, 6 miles N.N.E. of Naples. AfraniusAFRANIUS, Lucius, whose early history is unknown, was a devoted friend and adherent of Pompey, whom he served with distinction as one of his lieutenants in the Sertorian and Mithridatic wars. In the year 60 B.C., and chiefly by Pompey's support, he was raised to the consulship, but in performing the duties of that office he showed, like many other soldiers both before and since, an utter incapacit… AfraniusAFRANIUS, Lucius, a Latin poet who lived about a century before Christ. AfricaAFRICA this vast continent, thougn associated from the dawn of civilisation with traditions and mysteries of the most stimulating kind, has remained until recently one of the least known, and, both commercially and politically, one of the least important of the great divisions of the globe. The knowledge of Africa possessed by the ancients was very limited, owing principally to its physical constr… Africa AbyssiniaAFRICA ABYSSINIA As in Abyssinia, so here, this part of the eastern plateau edge is the great water-parting of the continent, and the streams which form the Orange river flow down its inward slope. There is no break in the continuance of the edge where it passes round from the Drakenberg to form the inmost and highest of the alternate ridges and terraces of the Cape Colony. It is now named in succ… Africa Addition 1856AFRICA ADDITION 1856 In 1856 an important addition was made to the more exact geography of Africa, in a survey of the greater part of the course of the Orange river, by Mr Moffat, a son of the veteran South African missionary. The following year was one of great activity in African exploration. Damara Land, in the south-west, was traversed- by Messrs Hahn and Rath as far as the southern limit of t… Africa Agriculture Of EgyptAFRICA AGRICULTURE OF EGYPT The agriculture of Egypt has always been considerable, there being three harvests in the year. The industry is limited: one peculiar branch is the artificial hatching of eggs in ovens heated to the requisite temperature, a process which has been handed down from antiquity, and is now chiefly carried on by the Copts. Floating bee-hives arc also peculiar to the Nile. The … Africa Atlantic SystemAFRICA ATLANTIC SYSTEM Passing round to the Atlantic system, the Sebu, the Ummer Rebia, and the Tensift, from the Atlas range, are permanent rivers flowing across the fertile plain of Western Marocco, which they serve to irrigate. Africa British SettlementAFRICA BRITISH SETTLEMENT The British settlement on the Gambia has about 7000 inhabitants. Bathurst is the chief town. The Portuguese settlement consists of small factories south of the Gambia, at the Bissagos Islands, Bissao, Cached, and sonic other points. The west coast of Africa, from Senegambia to the Nourse River, is commonly comprised by the general denomination Guinea Coast, a term of Port… Africa Cape Verde IslandsAFRICA CAPE VERDE ISLANDS The Cape Verde Islands, subject to Portugal, are a numerous group about 80 miles from Cape Verde. They obtained their name from the profusion of sea-weed found by the discoverers in the neighbouring ocean, giving it the appearance of a green meadow. They are also of volcanic Fernando Po, a very mountainous forest?covered is in the Bight of Biafra. The British settlement o… Africa Central RegionsAFRICA CENTRAL REGIONS Central Africa comprises the regions which extend from the southern borders of the Sahara in the north to Cape Colony in the south, and from Senegambia in the west to the territory of the Egyptian pashalic on the east. It comprehends the central basins of the great lakes from Lake Chad to the Nyassa, and the greater part of the basins of the Niger, Congo, Nile, and Zambeze. … Africa ChameleonAFRICA CHAMELEON The chameleon is common in Africa. Africa Chief Native TribesAFRICA CHIEF NATIVE TRIBES The chief native tribes within the British territory are the Hottentots, Bechuanas, and Kaffres. No manufacture is conducted at the Cape except the making of wine, of which from 10,000 to 40,000 gallons are annually exported to England. Various articles of provision are supplied to ships sailing between Europe and the East Indies. Cape Town is the capital of the colony, … Africa ClimateAFRICA CLIMATE The climate is, upon the whole, salubrious, and is not of the same excessive character as that of Algeria; regular sea-breezes exercise an ameliorating influence both in summer and winter; frost is almost unknown, and snow never falls. During summer occasional winds from the south render the atmosphere exceedingly dry and hot. The natural productions of the country are somewhat simi… Africa Countries Above EgyptAFRICA COUNTRIES ABOVE EGYPT The countries above Egypt are inhabited by two tribes of people resembling each other in physical characters, but of distinct language and origin. One is, perhaps, the aboriginal or native, the other a foreign tribe. Dr Prichard terms them Eastern Nubians, or Nubians of the Red Sea, and Nubians of the Nile, or Berberines. All these tribes are people of a red-brown comp… Africa CountryAFRICA COUNTRY The country included under the general name of Barbary extends from the borders of Egypt on the east to the Atlantic on the west, and is bounded by the Mediterranean on the north, and by the Sahara on the south. It comprises the states of Marocco, Algeria, Tunis, and Tripoli. Marocco, the most westerly state of Barbary, is thus named by the Europeans, but by the Arabs themselves Mog… Africa Dr SchweinfurthAFRICA DR SCHWEINFURTH Most important in the following years (1869-71) were the researches of the botanist, Dr Schweinfurth, in the region of the complicated network of tributaries received by the White Nile west of Gondokoro, during which he passed the water-parting of the Nile basin in this direction, and came into a new area of drainage, possibly belonging to the system of Lake Chad ; and the o… Africa Dutch SettlementAFRICA DUTCH SETTLEMENT Though the Dutch settlement in South Africa was founded as early as 1650, not much information of the interior of that portion of the continent was gained till the end of the 18th century, when a series of journeys was commenced by Sparrmann, and followed up by Vaillant, Barrow, Trotter, Somerville, Lichtenstein, Burchell (1812), Campbell, Thomson, Smith, Alexander (1836-37… Africa Early SettlementsAFRICA EARLY SETTLEMENTS The early settlements of the Jews in Egypt are facts universally known. Under the Ptolemies, large numbers of them settled at Alexandria and in Cyrenaiea, and after the destruction of Jerusalem they rapidly spread over the whole of the Roman possessions in Africa; many also took refuge in Abyssinia. King Philip II. having driven them out of Spain, many thousands of familie… Africa Eastern Cost LandsAFRICA EASTERN COST LANDS On the eastern coast-land the rains are more dependant on the direction of the monsoon winds; about the mouths of the Zambeze and on the Mozambique coast the rains begin in November, after the north-cast monsoon wind has set in over the northern part of the Indian Ocean, bringing with it the vapours drawn from the sea to condense on the coast slopes. The rains continue he… Africa Eastern Portion SaharaAFRICA EASTERN PORTION SAHARA The eastern portion of the Sahara appears to have nearly the same general elevation as the western half, and near its centre several fertile mountain regions, comparable with that of Ashen, are known. Such is the mountainous country of Borgu, north-east of the kingdoms which surround Lake Chad, and Tibesti, north of it, in the centre of the Tibbu district, recently ex… Africa ExpeditionsAFRICA EXPEDITIONS Of the expeditions which have been progressing in Africa contemporaneously with these later journeys of Dr Livingstone, that of Sir Samuel Baker is perhaps the most important, though its story has until now been one of almost continuous hardship and disaster. Up to the middle of the year 1870, at which time the expedition, consisting of upwards of 1500 men, with numerous vessels… Africa Habitable Portion Of SaharaAFRICA HABITABLE PORTION OF SAHARA The habitable portions of the Sahara are possessed by three different nations. In the extreme western portion are Moors and Arabs. They live in tents, which they remove from one place to another ; and their residences consist of similar encampments, formed of from twenty to a hundred of such tents, where they are governed by a sheik of their own body; each encamp… Africa InsectsAFRICA INSECTS Of the insect tribes Africa also contains many thousand different kinds. The locust has been, from time immemorial, the proverbial scourge of the whole continent; scorpions, scarcely less to be dreaded than noxious serpents, are everywhere abundant; and the zebub, or fly, one of the instruments employed by the Almighty to punish the Egyptians of old, is still the plague of the low a… Africa Kawara Joliba TerminationAFRICA KAWARA JOLIBA TERMINATION The termination of the Joliba, Kawara, or Niger, remained in obscurity till 1830, when it was ascertained by Lander and his brother, who succeeded in tracing the river from Yaouri down to its mouth. They embarked on a second expedition, which sailed in 1832, for the purpose of ascending the Kawara as far as Timbuktu. But only Rabba was reached, and the general resu… Africa Lake ChadAFRICA LAKE CHAD Lake Chad, on the margin of the pastoral belt, is supplied by a large river named the Shari, coming from the moist forest country which lies nearer the equator; and the lake, which till recently was believed to have no outlet, overflows to north-eastward, fertilising a great wady, in which the waters become lost by evaporation as they are led towards the more arid country of the S… Africa LocationAFRICA LOCATION Africa lies between the latitudes of 38? N. and 35? S., and is of all the continents the most truly tropical. It is, strictly speaking, an enormous peninsula attached to Asia by the isthmus of Suez. The most northern point is the Cape, situated a little to the west of Cabo Blanco, and opposite Sicily, which lies in lat. 37? 20' 40" N., long. 9? 41' E. Its southernmost point is Cabo… Africa MineralsAFRICA MINERALS Among the minerals of Africa, salt is widely distributed, though in some districts wholly wanting. Thus in the Abyssinian high land the salt, which is brought up in small blocks from the depressed salt plain on the Red Sea coast beneath, is so valued as to be used as a money currency ; and in the native kingdoms of South Central Africa, the salt districts are royal possessions stri… Africa Moors Large EmpireAFRICA MOORS LARGE EMPIRE The Moors who inhabit large portions of the empire of Marocco, and arc spread all along the Mediterranean coast, are a mixed race, grafted upon the ancient Mauritanian stock; whence their name. After the conquest of Africa by the Arabs they became mixed with Arabs; and having conquered Spain in their turn, they intermarried with the natives of that country, whence, after … Africa Mountaineers Shuluh Northern AtlasAFRICA MOUNTAINEERS SHULUH NORTHERN ATLAS The Shuluh, who are the mountaineers of the Northern Atlas, live in villages of houses made of stone and mud, with slate roofs, occasionally in tents, and even in caves. They are chiefly huntsmen, but cultivate the ground and rear bees. They are described as lively, intelligent, well-formed, athletic men, not tall, without marked features, and with light c… African ContinentAFRICAN CONTINENT The African continent, as far as it has yet been explored, seems to be the portion of the globe least disturbed by volcanic action. The known active volcanoes in the continent are those of the Camaroon Mountains, on the coast of the Gulf of Guinea in the west, and the Artali volcano in the depressed region of the salt desert which lies between the Abyssinian plateau and the Red S… African Great PlateauAFRICAN GREAT PLATEAU The general elevation of the surface of the great African plateau, the limits of which have now been traced, may be taken at from 3000 to 4000 feet above the sea; but its surface presents very great undulations, from the depressions which are occupied by some of the great lakes, to the high mountains which rise above its average leveL The most prominent of these interior mass… African Lakes In Souther Continental SystemAFRICAN LAKES IN SOUTHER CONTINENTAL SYSTEM Lake Ngami, the corresponding lake in the southern continental system, at an elevation of about 2900 feet, is also a shallow reedy lagoon, varying in extent according to the season. The Zuga river carries off its surplus water to eastward. Salt lakes are of frequent occurrence in the areas of continental drainage; perhaps the most remarkable of these is … Africa North African ExplorationAFRICA NORTH AFRICAN EXPLORATION North African exploration is also vigorously progressing. In the west, during 1869, Winwood Reade made a journey from Sierra Leone to the head of the Niger, and from 1867 onwards M. Munzinger, consul at Massowa, has greatly extended our knowledge of Northern Abyssinia. A notable journey of exploration in the Sahara remains to be mentioned. In 1869 Dr Nachtigal was … Africa Northern RegionAFRICA NORTHERN REGION The northern region is poor in natural productions, but in the south the vegetation is most luxuriant ; palms form a prominent feature, and the monkey bread-tree attains its most colossal dimensions. The date-tree, dourra, cotton, and indigo are cultivated. The date-palm does not extend beyond the south of Abou-Egli, in lat. 18? 36'. The elephant occasionally wanders as far … Africa Northern Sengal RisesAFRICA NORTHERN SENGAL RISES The Senegal rises in the northern portion of the belt of mountains which skirt the Guinea coast, and has a northwesterly course to the sea. During the rainy season it is navigable for 500 miles, from its mouth to the cataract of Feloo, for vessels drawing 12 feet of water, but at other times it is not passable for more than a third part of this distance. The Gambia has… Africa NubiansAFRICA NUBIANS The country of the Nubians is limited on the west by that of the Tibbus, who are spread over the eastern portions of the Sahara, as far as Fezzan and Lake Chad. Dr Latham considers it probable that their language belongs to the Nubian class. They inhabit the locality of the ancient Libyans or Lib yes. Their colour is not uniform. In some it is quite black, but many have copper-colou… Africa Nubia Red SeaAFRICA NUBIA RED SEA Nubia extends along the Red Sea, from Egypt to Abyssinia, comprising the middle course of the Nile. The natural features of the country are varied; the northern portion consisting of a burning sterile wilderness, while the southern, lying within the range of the tropical rains, and watered by the Abyssinian affluents of the Nile, exhibits vegetation in its tropical glory, fore… Africanus, JuliusAFRICANUS, JULIUS, called also SEXTUS by Suidas, a Christian historian of the 3d century, born, according to some, in Africa, and, according to others, in Palestine, of African parents. Little is known of his personal history, except that he lived at Emmaus, and that he went on an embassy to the emperor Heliogabalus to ask the restoration of that town, which had fallen into ruins. His mission succ… Africa Ogowai RiverAFRICA OGOWAI RIVER The Ogowai (pron. Ogowee) river, the delta of which forms Cape Lopez, immedaitely S. of the equator, is a great stream which is believed to drain a large area of the forest zone between the Niger and the Congo ; as yet, its lower coast is only known to a distance of 200 miles from the sea. Above the delta the main stream of the river, named the Okanda, breaks through the edge o… Africa Old Calabar RiverAFRICA OLD CALABAR RIVER Old Calabar river, the Camaroon river, and the Gaboon, are the best known of a number of wide inlets or estuaries of the sea, which occur on the west coast immediately north of the equator; but these are merely the receptacles of a number of minor streams, not the mouths of great rivers, as at one time supposed. Africa Physical ConfigurationAFRICA PHYSICAL CONFIGURATION The physical configuration of the Sahara has already been indicated. Notwithstanding the proverbial heat, which is almost insupportable by day, there is often great cold at night, owing to the excessive radiation, promoted by the clearness of the sky. Rain is nearly, though not entirely absent, in this desolate region. It appears that when nature has poured her bounty… Africa Plateau Of BarbaryAFRICA PLATEAU OF BARBARY The plateau of Barbary, in the north of the continent, beyond the lower land of the Sahara, is a distinct and separate high land, stretching from Cape Bon, on the Mediterranean coast opposite Sicily, in a south-westerly direction to the Atlantic coast, through Tunis, Algeria, and Marocco. Africa ReligionAFRICA RELIGION In religion, Christianity is professed in Abyssinia, and in Egypt by the Copts, but its doctrines and precepts are little understood and obeyed. Mohammedanism prevails in all Northern Africa, excepting Abyssinia, as far as a line passing through the Soudan, from the Gambia on the west to the confluence of the Quorra and Benue, and thence eastward, generally following the 10th paral… Africa Rohlfs GerhardAFRICA ROHLFS GERHARD A series of important journeys by Gerhard Rohlfs had now (1861) begun in Marocco and in the Maroccan Sahara; and on the equatorial east coast region, Baron von der Decken had extended Rebmann's information in the region of the snowy mountain, Kilimanjaro. In the south the artist Baines had crossed the Kalahari Desert from Damara Land to the falls of the Zambeze. In 1862 Pethe… Africa SenegambiaAFRICA SENEGAMBIA Senegambia, the country of the Senegal and Gambia, extends from the Sahara in the north to lat. 10? in the south, and may be considered as extending inland to the sources of the waters which flow through it to the Atlantic. The western portion is very flat, and its contiguity to the great desert is frequently evidenced by dry hot winds, an atmosphere loaded with fine sand, and cl… Africa Somali CountryAFRICA SOMALI COUNTRY The Somali country is famous for its aromatic productions and gums of various kinds ; and it is supposed that the spices and incense consumed in such large quantities by the ancient peoples of Egypt, Greece, Syria, and Rome, were derived from this part of Africa, and not from Arabia. Africa Southern TerritoryAFRICA SOUTHERN TERRITORY In Southern Africa are the extensive miniature woods of heaths, as characteristic as the groves of date-palms in the north. No less than five hundred species have already been discovered. These plants, of which some reach the height of 12 to 15 feet (Erica nrceolaris), are covered throughout the greater part of the year with innumerable flowers of beautiful colours, the r… Africa South Of The BeltAFRICA SOUTH OF THE BELT South of the belt of Negro states of the Soudan lies the great unknown region of Central Africa. On the east the unexplored area is bounded by the numerous states of the lake region made known by Burton, Speke, and Livingstone. Of these the chief are Unyamwesi, occupying the plateau south of the Victoria Lake, and east of Lake Tanganyika, with the capital town of Kaseh or … Africa SpeciesAFRICA SPECIES Of Edentata the seven species known to occur in Africa are also peculiar to it. The aardwark (Orycteropus capensis) is essentially burrowing in its habits; and the burrows formed by these animals are the source of frequent danger to the waggons and horses of the Cape colonists. A genus of moles is met with in South Africa, but is not found in the tropical regions. The Cape or gilded… Africa The Comoro IslesAFRICA THE COMORO ISLES The Comoro isles, four in number, are in the north part of the Mozambique Channel, and inhabited by Arab tribes. Itounion or Bourbon, 400 miles east of Madagascar, is a colony of France, producing for export, coffee, sugar, cocoa, spices, and timber. Mauritius, ceded to the British by the French in 1814, is 90 miles north-east of Bourbon. The sugar-cane is chiefly cultivate… Africa The High PlainsAFRICA THE HIGH PLAINS The high plains or terraces are remarkable for their extraordinary change of aspect in the succession of the seasons. During the summer heats they are perfect deserts, answering to the term applied to them, karroos, signifying, in the Hottentot language, "dry" or "arid." But the sandy soil being pervaded with the roots and fibres of various plants, is spontaneously clothed w… Africa The RiversAFRICA THE RIVERS The rivers which flow down from the terraces of the Cape Colony are numerous, but have little permanent depth of water, shrinking almost to dryness excepting after rains, when they become impetuous torrents ; sonic have cut deep channels, much beneath the level of the country, and the banks of these canons are choked with dense vegetation. Passing round to Natal and Zulu Land, th… Africa The RuvumaAFRICA THE RUVUMA The Ruvuma, which has its chief tributaries from the plateau edge on the eastern side of Lake Nyassa, is the next great river of the drainage to the Indian Ocean. It has been navigated by Livingstone for 150 miles from the coast, and formed part of his route in entering the continent on the journey from which he has not yet returned, but its basin has not yet been explored. Still… Africa TribesAFRICA TRIBES At two different periods, separated from each other by perhaps a thousand years, Africa was invaded by Arabic tribes, which took a lasting possession of the districts they conquered, and whose descendants form no inconsiderable portion of the population of North and Central Africa, while their language has superseded all others as that of civilisation and religion. ' Of the first inv… Africa Two JourneysAFRICA TWO JOURNEYS Two journeys from the west coast now claim attention. In 1846 a Portuguese trader named Grata succeeded in again reaching the country of the South African potentate, named the Muata Yanvo, from Angola ; he was followed by a Hungarian named Ladislaus Magyar, who explored the central country in various directions from 1847 to 1851. Between. 1851 and 1853 Livingstone made two jour… Africa Warm ZonesAFRICA WARM ZONES Although Africa belongs almost entirely to the torrid and warm zones, its vegetable productions are essentially different in different parts. Thus, in the extreme north, groves of oranges and olives, plains covered with wheat and barley, thick woods of evergreen oaks, cork-trees, and sea-pines, intermixed with cypresses, myrtles, arbutus, and fragrant tree-heaths, form the princi… Afzel1us, Arwid AugustAFZEL1US, ARWID AUGUST, the Swedish historian, poet, and comparative mythologist, was born at Fjellaker in 1785. Afzelius, AdamAFZELIUS, ADAM, an eminent Swedish naturalist, born at Larf, West Gothland, in 1750. Having studied at Upsala under Linmeus, he became teacher of oriental literature in that university in 1777, and demonstrator of botany in 1785. For two years (1792-94) he resided on the west coast of Africa as botanist to the Sierra Leone Company. After acting for some time as secretary to the Swedish embassy in … AgadesAGADES, the capital of the kingdom of Air, or Asben, in Central Africa, situated in 17? 2' N. lat., 8? 5' E. long. The town is built on the edge of a plateau, 2500 feet above the level of the sea, and is supposed to have been founded by the Berbers to serve as a secure magazine for their extensive trade with the Songhay empire. The language of the people is a dialect of Songhay. In former times Ag… AgamemnonAGAMEMNON. The stern obligations of a king and the majesty of his office, as compared with his humane desires and occasional frailty, give the keynote to the character of Agamemnon. But the kingly office, like the sceptre which was the symbol of it, had come to him from Pelops (Iliad, ii. 100) through the stained hands of Atreus and Thyestes, and had brought with it a certain fatality, by which hi… Aga, Or AgraAGA, or AGRA, a word, said to be of Tatar origin, signifying a dignitary or lord. AgapeAGAPE, plur. AGAPE, the love-feast, or feast of charity, which among the primitive Christians usually accompanied the Eucharist. The word (i.-yarv, love) is first employed in this sense in the Epistle of Jude, verse 12. The su,b- gestion of a connection between Christian love-feasts and the Zpavot and iracpeac of Greece and Rome is both improbable and unnecessary. The feelings of love and brotherh… AgapetusAGAPETUS, deacon of the St Sophia Church at Constantinople, presented to the Emperor Justinian a work entitled Charta Regia, composed in 527, which contained advice on the duties of a Christian prince. Agarde, ArthurAGARDE, ARTHUR, a learned English antiquary, born at Foston, in Derbyshire, about 1540. He was trained a lawyer; but entering the exchequer as a clerk, he became deputy-chamberlain in 1570. This office, which he held for forty-five years, gave him unrivalled opportunities for carrying on his favourite study. Along with his intimate friends, Sir Robert Cotton and Camden, he was one of the original … AgasiasAGASIAS, son of Dositheus, a famous sculptor of Ephesus, who is supposed to have lived about the 4th century. AgassizAGASSIZ, Louis JOHN RUDOLPH, was the son of a Swiss Protestant clergyman. His father was the pastor of the parish of Motiers, a small town situated near the northeastern angle of the Little Murtensee, and not far from the eastern extremity of the Lake of Neuchatel. Agassiz was born at this retired place on May 28,1807. Educated first at home, then spending four years at the gymnasium of Bienne, he… AgateAGATE (from Achates, a river in Sicily, on the banks of which it is said to have been found), a name applied by mineralogists to a stone of the quartz family, generally occurring in rounded nodules or in veins in trap rocks. The number of agate balls in the rock often give it the character of amygdaloid; and when such a rock is decomposed by the elements, the agates drop out, and are found in the … AgatharchusAGATHARCHUS, a Greek painter, commemorated by Vitruvins for having first applied the laws of perspective to architectural painting, which he used successfully in preparing scenery for the plays of iEschylus. AgathoclesAGATHOCLES, a famous tyrant of Sicily, was the son of a potter at Rhegium. AgatiioAGATIIO, an Athenian tragic poet, the disciple of Prodicus and Socrates, celebrated by Plato in his Protagoras for his virtue and his beauty. Agat IrasAGAT IRAS, a Greek historian and poet, born at Myrina in Asia Minor, about 536 A.D. He was educated at Alexandria, and in 551 went to Constantinople, where, after studying Roman law for some years, he practised as an advocate. The title "Scholasticus," generally given to Agathias, was that by which advocates were known in Constantinople. Of the poetry by Agathias but little remains; his Daphniaca … AgdeAGDE, a town of France, in the department of Herault, on the left bank of the river of that name, 30 miles S.W. of Montpellier. It is a place of great antiquity, and is said to have been founded, under the name of A gat h e , by the Greeks. In the neighbourhood there is an extinct volcano, and the town is built of black volcanic basalt, which gives it a grim and forbidding aspect. It has a fine ol… AgeladasAGELADAS, an eminent statuary of Argos, and the instructor of the three great sculptors, Phidias, Myron, and Polycletus. Agelnoth, 1ethelnotiiAGELNOTH, 1ETHELNOTII, Or ETIIELNOTII, known also as Achelnotus, son of Egelmaer the Earl, Archbishop of Canterbury in the reign of Canute, was trained in the monastery at Glastonbury, for which he afterwards obtained new privileges from the king. According to William of Malmesbury, he exercised a great and salutary influence over Canute in the way both of encouragement and restraint. He was appoi… Ag EnAG EN, the chief town of time department of Lot-etGaronne in France, is situated on the right bank of the Garonne, 73 miles S.E. of Bordeaux. AgentAGENT, in Diplomacy, Commerce, and Jurisprudence, is a name applied generally to any person who acts for another. It has probably been adopted from France, as its function in modern civil law was otherwise expressed in Roman jurisprudence. Ducange (s.v. Agentes) tells us that in the later Roman empire the officers who collected the grain in the provinces for the troops and the household, and after… AgesilausAGESILAUS, king of the Lacedemonians, the second of the name, son of Archidamus II., was, through the influence of Lysander, raised to the throne in 398 B.C., in opposition to the superior claim of his nephew Leotychides. Immediately on his accession he advised the Lacedinonians to anticipate the king of Persia, who was making great preparations for war, and attack him in his own dominions. He was… Aggregation, StatesAGGREGATION, STATES or, the three states - solid, liquid, and gaseous - in which matter occurs, depending on the degree of cohesion that subsists between the molecules or atoms of material bodies. In the solid state, the molecules cohere so firmly that their relative positions cannot be changed without the application of force, and the body retains a definite form ; in the liquid state, they move … Aghrim, Or AughrimAGHRIM, or AUGHRIM, a small village in Galway, 4 miles W. of Ballinasloe, is rendered memorable by the decisive victory gained there, on 12th July 1691, by the forces of William III., under General Ginkell, over those of James II., under the French general St Ruth. Agincourt, Or AzincourtAGINCOURT, or AZINCOURT, a French village, in the department of Pas de Calais, situated in 50' 35' N. lat., 2? 10' E. long., famous on account of the victory obtained there by Henry V. of England over the French. Following the example of several of his predecessors, the young king crossed over to France in the third year of his reign on a military expedition. Having landed at the mouth of the Sein… AgioAGIO (Ital. agqio, exchange, discount), a term used in commerce to denote the difference between tire real and the nominal value of money. In some states the coinage is so debased, owing to the wear of circulation, that the real is greatly reduced below the nominal value. Where this reduction amounts, e.g., to 5 per cent., if 100 sovereigns were offered as payment of a debt in England while such s… Agis IiAGIS II. succeeded his father Archidamus, and reigned from 427 to 399 B. C. He distinguished himself during the Peloponnesian war as an able and successful general, and headed the Spartans at the great and decisive battle of Mantinea. Aars III. succeeded his father Archidamus III., 33S B. c. Ile took an active part in the league of the Grecian states against Alexander the Great, and at the head of… AgistmentAGISTMENT (from the old French gesir or gin, to lie ; see Edina. AgnanoAGNANO, L.:WO a small circular lake near Naples, about two miles in circumference, and evidently situated in the crater of an extinct volcano. AgnatesAGNATES (Agnati), in Roman Law, are persons related through males only, as opposed to cognates. Agnesi, Maria GaetanaAGNESI, MARIA GAETANA, an Italian lady preeminently distinguished for her scientific attainments, was born at Milan on the 16th of May 1718, her father being professor of mathematics in the university of Bologna. When only nine years old, she had such command of Latin as to be able to publish an elaborate address in that language, maintaining that the pursuit of liberal studies was not improper fo… Agnes', Maria TeresaAGNES', MARIA TERESA, sister of the above (died 1780), was well known as a musician, having composed a -number of cantatas, besides three operas - Sophonisbe, Ciro a Armenia, and Nitocri. AgnoetjeAGNOETJE (from Cryvo&o, to be ignorant of), in Church History, a sect of ancient heretics who maintained that 'Christ's human nature did not become omniscient by its union with His divinity. Agnolo, BaccioAGNOLO, BACCIO D', wood-carver, sculptor, and architect, was born at Florence in 1460. The first was his original calling, and he attained considerable distinction in it before he turned his attention to architecture, which he -went to Rome to study in 1530. He still carried on wood-carving, and his studio was the resort of the most -celebrated artists of the day--Michael Angelo, Sansovius, the br… AgnoneAGNONE, a town of South Italy, at the foot of Monte Capraro, 20 miles N.W. of Campobasso. Agnus DeiAGNUS DEI is also the popular name for the anthem beginning with these words, which is said to have been introduced into the missal by Pope Sergius I. (687-701). Agnus DelAGNUS DEL the figure of a lamb bearing a cross, symbolical of the Saviour as the "Lamb of God." The device occurs in medimval sculptures, but the name is especially given in the Church of Rome to a small cake made of the wax of the Easter candles, and impressed with this figure. AgobardAGOBARD, a Frank, born in 779, became coadjutor to Leidrad, archbishop of Lyons, in 813, and on the death of the latter succeeded him in the see (816). AgonaliaAGONALIA, in Roman Antiquity, festivals celebrated on the 9th January, 2Ist May, and 11th December in each year, in honour of Janus, whom the Romans invoked before undertaking any affair of importance. Agonic LinesAGONIC LINES (from a privative, and yor?a, an angle), the imaginary lines on the earth's surface where the magnetic needle indicates no declination or deviation from the terrestrial meridian - that is, points to the true north and south. Agonotheta, Or AgonotiietesAGONOTHETA, or AGONOTIIETES (dydv and TAiku.), in Grecian Antiquity, was the president or superintendent of the sacred games. AgoraAGORA (ecycipco, to congregate), the place used among the ancient Greeks as a public market, and corresponding in general with the Roman forum. From its convenience as a meeting-place, it became in most of the cities of Greece the general resort for social and political purposes. In Thessaly, however, the market-place was kept apart from "the field of freedom," where the commons met; and at Sparta… AgoranomoiAGORANOMOI, magistrates in the republics of Greece, whose position and duties were similar to those of the aadiles of Rome. AgordoAGORDO, a town in North Italy, 12 miles N.W. of Belluno. Agosta, Or AugustaAGOSTA, or AUGUSTA, a city of Sicily, 14 miles N. of Syracuse, and in the province of that name. It is built on a peninsula, and is united to the mainland by a narrow causeway. By some writers it is supposed to occupy the site of ancient Megarcc Ilyblcea. The modern city, which was founded by the emperor Frederick II. in 1229-33, suffered severely during the wars of succeeding centuries, and was s… Agostini, LeonardoAGOSTINI, LEONARDO, an eminent antiquary of the 17th century, born at Siena. Agostino And AgnoloAGOSTINO and AGNOLO (or ANGELO) DA SIENA, two brothers, architects and sculptors, who flourished in the first half of the 14th century. Agostino, PaoloAGOSTINO, PAOLO, an eminent Italian musician, born at Yalerano in 1593. AgoutiAGOUTI, a genus of mammals (the Dusyprocta) found in South America and in some of the West Indian islands, belonging to the same family as the guinea-pig, viz., that of CaviZe in the order Bodentia. The largest and commonest species is the D. Aguti, somewhat resembling a rabbit, but about the size of a hare, whence it is sometimes called the rabbit or hare of South America. The feet have large and… AgraAGRA, a division, district, and city of British India, under the jurisdiction of the lieutenant-governor of the North-Western Provinces. Agra CityAGRA CITY, situated on the banks of the Janina river, in 27? 10' N. lat., and 78? 5' E. long., is the head-quarters of the division and capital of the district. Formerly it was the provincial capital also, but since the mutiny the seat of government has been removed from Agra to Allahabad. The city, which is about 4 miles in length by 3 in breadth, sweeps along the banks of the river in a semicirc… Agra DistrictAGRA DISTRICT lies between 26? 43' 45" and 27? 24' 15" N. lat., and between 77? 28' and 78` 53' E. long. It is bounded on the N. by the district of Mathura; on the E. by the Mainpuri and Etowah districts; on the S. by the Gwalior territory and the Dholpur state; and on the W. by the Bhartpur territory. Its area in 1872 was returned at 1873 square miles, and its population at 1,094,184 souls. The g… Agram, Or ZagrabAGRAM, or ZAGRAB, the capital of the Austrian province of Croatia, is finely situated on a hill near the banks of the Save, in 45? 49' N. lat. and 16? 1' E. long., 160 miles south of Vienna. Agrarian LawsAGRARIAN LAWS (Leges Agrarice), when used in the most extended signification of the term, are laws for the distribution and regulation of property in land. The history of these enactments is not only important as explanatory of the constitution of the ancient republics, but is rendered highly interesting by the conflicting opinions which have been entertained respecting their object and operation.… AgredaAGREDA, a town of Spain, in the province of Old Castile, 23 miles N.E. of Soria. AgricolaAGRICOLA (originally SCHNITTEE. or SCHNEIDER), JOHANNES, one of the foremost of the German reformers, was born on the 20th April 1492, at Eisleben, whence ha is sometimes called liagister Islebius. He studied at Wittenberg, where he soon gained the friendship of Luther. In 1519 he accompanied Luther to the great assembly of German divines at Lcipsic, and acted as recording secretary. After teachin… AgricolaAGRICOLA (originally LANDMANN), GEORG, a famous mineralogist, born at Glauchau in Saxony, on the 24th March 1494. After studying at Leipsic and in Italy, he practised for some time as a physician at Joachimsthal in 13ohenria. In 1531 he was enabled to gratify his natural inclination towards the study of geology and mineralogy by removing to the mining district of Chemnitz in Saxony, where he had b… Agricola, Cheistoph LudwigAGRICOLA, CHEISTOPH LUDWIG, landscape-painter, was born at Regensburg on the 5th Nov. 1667, and died at the same place in 1719. Agricola, CnzzusAGRICOLA, CNZZUS Julius, was born at Forum Julii, now Frejus, in Provence, 37 A.D., and was in Vespasian's time made lieutenant to Vettius Bolanus in Britain. Upon held for three years ; he then was recalled to Rome, and winter in. He spent the following winter in concerting inspiring them with a desire of imitating the Roman mannobles at length had their sons educated ; and they who adopted the R… Agricola, Johann FriedrichAGRICOLA, JOHANN FRIEDRICH, musician, was born at Dobitschen in Saxe-Altenburg, on the 4th Jan. 1720, and died in 1774. Agricola, RodolpiiusAGRICOLA, RODOLPIIUS (originally ROELOF HUYSmernsT), a distinguished scholar, born at Bafflo, near Groningen, in 1443. He was educated at Louvain, where he graduated as master of arts. After residing for seine time in Paris, he went in 1476 to Ferrara in Italy, and attended the lectures of the celebrated Theodore Gaza on the Greek language. Having visited Pavia and Rome, lie returned to his native… AgricultueAGRICULTUE.E. - In most parts of the country there are two harvests, as generally in India. One of these, called by the Afghans Lahcirak, or the spring crop, is sown in the end of autumn, and reaped in summer. It consists of wheat, barley, and a variety of lentils. The oilier, called voizah or tirmai, the, autumnal, is sown in the end of spring, and reaped in autumn. It consists of rice, varieties… AgricultureAGRICULTURE 15th CENTURY But long before the 15th century, it is certain that there was a class of tenants holding on leases for lives, or for a term of years, and paying a rent in land produce, in services, or in money. Whether they gradually sprung up from the class of bondmen, according to Lord Kames,2 or existed from the earliest period of the feudal constitution, according to other writers,3 … Agriculture Ancient RomeAGRICULTURE ANCIENT ROME In ancient Rome each citizen received, at first, an allotment of about two English acres. After the expulsion of the kings this allotment was increased to about six acres. These small inheritances must, of course, have been cultivated by hard labour. On the increase of the Roman territory the allotment was increased to fifty, and afterwards even to five hundred acres. Many… Agriculture Artificial ManuresAGRICULTURE ARTIFICIAL MANURES Besides those substances, the most important of which we have now enumerated, which are available as manure in their natural state, there are various chemical products, such as salts of ammonia, potash, and soda, copperas, sulphuric and muriatie acid, &c., which, in combination with lime, guano, night-soil, and other substances, are employed in the preparation of man… Agriculture Babylonians Egyptians And RomansAGRICULTURE BABYLONIANS EGYPTIANS AND ROMANS Along with the Babylonians, Egyptians, and Romans, the Israelites are classed as one of the great agricultural nations of antiquity. The sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt trained them for the more purely agricultural life that awaited them on their return to take possession of Canaan. Nearly the whole population were virtually husbandmen, and personall… Agriculture BeansAGRICULTURE BEANS The common field bean has not hitherto been recognised as an available forage plant. Mr Mechi has, we believe, the merit of first showing its great value for this purpose. In the hot dry summer of 1868, when pastures utterly failed, and men were at their wits' end how to keep their stock in life, he had recourse to his bean crop, then at its full growth, and its green pods filled… Agriculture BeansAGRICULTURE BEANS The only members of this family statedly cultivated for their grain are beans and pease. Before the introduction of clover and turnips these legumes occupied a more important place in the estimation of the husbandman than they have done since. Indeed, in many districts naturally well adapted for the culture of turnips, that of beans and pease was for a time all but abandoned. Rec… Agriculture Benefit Of FencesAGRICULTURE BENEFIT OF FENCES The fences by which farms are generally enclosed and Subdivided form another part of what may be termed their fixtures, and may therefore be suitably noticed here. When lands are let to a tenant, the buildings and fences are usually put into sufficient repair, and lie is taken bound to keep and leave them so at the issue of his occupancy. Although there are some perso… Agriculture BonesAGRICULTURE BONES It is now about sixty years since ground bones began to be used by farmers in the east side of England as a manure for turnips. At first bones were roughly smashed by hammers and applied in great quantities. By and by mills were constructed for grinding them to a coarse powder, in which state they continued to be used as a dressing for turnips, at the rate of sixteen to twenty bu… Agriculture Breast Plough And Trenching ForkAGRICULTURE BREAST PLOUGH AND TRENCHING FORK Before leaving the implements of tillage, it may be proper to notice two, which have been a good deal brought under notice of late years, viz., the breast-plough and trenching-fork. The former is extensively used in carrying out the process of paring and burning. It is the implement known in Scotland as the daughter (or thin turf) spade. In using it the… Agriculture Breeding Of Cart HorsesAGRICULTURE BREEDING OF CART HORSES In breeding cart-horses regard must be had to the purpose for which they are designed. If the farmer contemplates the raising of colts for sale, he must aim at a larger frame than if he simply wishes to keep up his own stock of working cattle. These considerations will so far guide him as to the size of the mares and stallions which he selects to breed from ; bu… Agriculture BreedsAGRICULTURE BREEDS Here we shall confine our attention to those breeds which are cultivated expressly for the labours of the farm ; for although the breeding of saddle-horses is chiefly carried on by farmers, and forms in some districts an important part of their business, it does not seem advisable to treat of it here. It is a department of husbandry requiring such a combination of fitness in the… Agriculture British Selection Of SoilsAGRICULTURE BRITISH SELECTION OF SOILS The soil constituting time subject-matter on which the husbandman operates, its character necessarily regulates to a large extent time nature of his proceedings. The soil or surface covering of the earth in which plants are produced is exceedingly varied in its qualities. Being derived from the disintegration and decomposition of the rocks which constitute th… Agriculture Burnt ClayAGRICULTURE BURNT CLAY About fifty years ago burnt clay was brought much into notice as a manure, and tried in various parts of the country, but again fell into disuse. It is now, however, more extensively and systematically practised than ever. Frequent reference to the practice is to be found in the volumes of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. This burning of clay is acco… Agriculture Cake CrushersAGRICULTURE CAKE CRUSHERS Machines for breaking linseed-cake into large pieces for cattle, or smaller ones for sheep, are now in general use. Agriculture Capital Required For WorkingAGRICULTURE CAPITAL REQUIRED FOR WORKING A FARM The amount of capital that is required in order that the business of farming may be conducted advantageously, is largely determined by the nature of the soil, &c., of each farm, the system of management appropriate to it, the price of stock and of labour, and the terms at which its rents are payable. In the case of land of fair quality, on which the … Agriculture Cattle Murrain And Potatoe DiseaseAGRICULTURE CATTLE MURRAIN AND POTATOE DISEASE Another class of outward events, which has had an important influence upon agriculture, requires our notice. We refer to those mysterious diseases affecting both the animal and vegetable kingdoms, the causes and remedies for which have alike baffled discovery. The murrain, or " vesicular epizootic," appeared first in 1841, having been introduced, as i… Agriculture Chaff CuttersAGRICULTURE CHAFF CUTTERS The use of this class of machines has increased very much of late years. Fodder when cut into lengths of from half-an-inch to an inch is somewhat more easily masticated than when given to animals in its natural state; but the chief advantages of this practice are, that it prevents waste, and admits of different qualities - as of hay and straw, straw and green forage, or c… Agriculture Charred PeatAGRICULTURE CHARRED PEAT Charred peat has been excessively extolled for its value as a manure, both when applied alone, and still more in combination with night-soil, sewage water, and similar matters, which it dries and deodorises. Agriculture ChicoryAGRICULTURE CHICORY Chicory, burnet, cow-parsnip, and prickly comf?ey, all known to be palatable to cattle and yielding a large bulk of produce, have probably been less carefully experimented with than their merits deserve. Agriculture Chicory For Its RootsAGRICULTURE CHICORY FOR ITS ROOTS The very extensive, and constantly increasing consumption of the roots of chicory as a substitute for coffee, renders it now an agricultural crop of some importance. The soils best adapted for its growth are deep friable looms. The process of cultivation is very similar to that required for the carrot, excepting only that it is not sown earlier than the first week… Agriculture Corn Bruiser And Grinding MillAGRICULTURE CORN BRUISER AND GRINDING MILL The now frequent use of various kinds of grain in the fattening of live stock creates a necessity for machines to prepare it for this purpose, either by breaking, bruising, or grinding. Agriculture Crimson CloverAGRICULTURE CRIMSON CLOVER Crimson clover, though not hardy enough to withstand the climate of Scotland in ordinary winters, is a most valuable forage crop in England. Agriculture CropAGRICULTURE CROP The abundant crop of 1813, and restored communication with the continent of Europe in the same year, gave the first check to these unnaturally exorbitant prices and rents. The restoration of peace to Europe, and the re-enactment of the Corn Laws in 1815, mark the commencement of another era in the history of our national agriculture. It was ushered in with a time of severe depress… Agriculture CropsAGRICULTURE CROPS Jerusalene Artichoke. This root, although decidedly inferior to the potato in flavour, is yet deserving of cultivation. It grows freely in inferior soils, is easily propagated from the tubers, and requires little attention in its cultivation. When once established in the soil, it will produce abundant crops for successive years on the same spot. It is sometimes planted in woods t… Agriculture Cross BreedsAGRICULTURE CROSS BREEDS We have this enumerated the most important of our pure breeds of sheep, but our list would be defective were we to omit those cross-breeds which are acquiring increased importance every day. With the extended cultivation of turnips and other green crops there has arisen an increased demand for sheep to consume them. Flockmasters in upland districts, stimulated by this dema… Agriculture Cultivated Crops Crops Of Limited CultivationAGRICULTURE CULTIVATED CROPS CROPS OF LIMITED CULTIVATION Under this head we shall notice a variety of crops which, however valuable in themselves, and important to the farmers of particular localities, are, from one cause or other, not adapted for general cultivation. Flax is probably the most important of these crops. Indeed, from the rapid growth of our linen trade, the growing demand for linse… Agriculture Cultivated Crops Root Crops PotatoAGRICULTURE CULTIVATED CROPS ROOT CROPS POTATO The events of late years render it necessary to regard this root somewhat differently than was warranted by its previous history. Its value-as an article of food, relished alike by prince and peasant, its easy culture, its adaptation to a very wide diversity of soil and climate, and the largeness of its produce, justly entitled it to the high esteem i… Agriculture Dairy BreedsAGRICULTURE DAIRY BREEDS The dairy breeds of cattle next claim our attention, for although cattle of all breeds are used for this purpose, there are several which are cultivated chiefly, if not exclusively, because of their fitness for it. Dairy husbandry is prosecuted under two very different and well-defined classes of circumstances. In or near towns, and in populous mining and manufacturing dis… Agriculture Down And Forest BreedsAGRICULTURE DOWN AND FOREST BREEDS The breeds peculiar to our chalky downs and other pastures of medium elevation next claim our notice. Southdowns. - Not long after Robert Bakewell had begun, with admirable skill and perseverance, to bring to perfection his celebrated Leicesters, which, as we have seen, have either superseded or totally altered the character of all the heavy breeds of the country… Agriculture DrainingAGRICULTURE DRAINING From the moist climate of Britain, drainingis undoubtedly the all-important preliminary operation in setting about the improvement of the soil. To drain land is to rid it of its superfluous moisture. The rivers of a country with their tributary brooks and rills are the natural provision for removing the rain water which either flows directly from its surface, or which, after p… Agriculture Drilling And HorseAGRICULTURE DRILLING AND HORSE Drilling and horse and hand hoeing seem to have been in use before the publication of Tull's book. "Hoeing," he says, "may be divided into deep, which is our horse-hoeing ; and shallow, which is the English hand-hoeing ; and also the shallow horse-hoeing used in some places betwixt rows, where the intervals are very narrow, as 16 or 18 inches. This is but an imitatio… Agriculture Education Of FarmersAGRICULTURE EDUCATION OF FARMERS But the mere possession of capital does not qualify a man for being a farmer, nor is there any virtue inherent in a lease to insure his success. To these must be added probity, knowledge of his business, and diligence in prosecuting it. These qualifications are the fruits of good education, (in the fullest sense of that term), and are no more to be looked for witho… Agriculture Experiments At Rothamstead And Lois WeedonAGRICULTURE EXPERIMENTS AT ROTHAMSTEAD AND LOIS WEEDON Some curious information has been obtained regarding the effects of growing successive crops of one kind of plant on the same field, from two examples of it that attracted much attention. We refer to the experiments of Mr Lawes at Rothamstead, and of the Rev. Mr Smith . at Lois Weedon. It is well known that Mr Lawes _for a number of years devo… Agriculture Extensive BogsAGRICULTURE EXTENSIVE BOGS The reclamation of extensive bogs, or deposits of peat, is a more arduous undertaking, requiring a considerable expenditure of capital and longer time before a return is obtained from it. The extent of land of this description in Great Britain and Ireland is very great. Very exaggerated statements of the profits to be derived from its improvement have often been publishe… Agriculture FallowingAGRICULTURE FALLOWING When, by such operations as have now been described, land has been reclaimed from its natural state, and rendered fit for the purposes of the husbandman, it is everywhere so charged with the germs of weeds, most of which possess in a remarkable degree the power of reproduction and multiplication, that it is only by the most incessant and vigorous efforts he can restrain them … Agriculture Farm BuildingsAGRICULTURE FARM BUILDINGS PLANSIn erecting new homesteads, or in making considerable additions to or alterations upon existing ones, it is of much importance to call in the aid of an architect of ascertained experience in this department of his art, and then to have the work performed by contracts founded upon the plans and specifications which he has furnished. A reasonable sum thus expended wil… Agriculture Farm Buildings General RequisitesAGRICULTURE FARM BUILDINGS GENERAL REQUISITES In pursuance of the plan already indicated, let us now refer for a little to Farm-Buildings. We have spoken of the soil as the raw material upon which the farmer operates : his homestead may, in like manner, be regarded as his manufactory. That it may serve this purpose in any good measure, it is indispensable that the accommodation afforded by it be a…
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