Volume 20 [PRU - ROS]: Acute Rheumatism to Redruth


9th Edition of Encyclopedia Britannica - free ninth edition online encyclopedia Britannica Volume 20 [PRU - ROS]: Acute Rheumatism to Redruth Acute Rheumatism ACUTE RHEUMATISM, frequently called RHEUMATIC FEVER, is mainly characterized by inflammation affecting various joints, with a tendency to spread in an erratic manner, a,nd a,ccompanied with much pain, febrile disturb-ance, and perspiration. The nature of this disease has been extensively discussed by pathologists and physicians ; but, although numerous, and many of them ingenious, theories have be… Angora ANGORA.)-CVRI.al ET . CONTINENS . EI . CHALCIDICVM... FECL Little is known about the adjoining buildings called the Athenaaum and Chalcidicum ; Dion Cassius (li. 22) mentions the group. In the reign of Domitian the Curia Julia was again rebiult (Prosp. Aquit., p. 571), and lastly by Diocletian. There is strong evidence to show that the existing church of S. Adriano is the Curia of Diocletian, thou… Arthurian Cvcle ARTHURIAN CVCLE.-Lady Guest, 7he Mabinogion, 1838-50, 3 vols. ; Th. Hersart de la Villemarque, Conks pop. de la Bretagne (1846, 2 vols.), Les Bardes Bretons (IMO, Les Romans de la Table Ronde (1861), and Modhinn, au r En. chanteur Merlin (1862); San Marte [A. Schulz], Die Sagen. von Merlin (Halle, 1853), and Parceval-Studien (Berlin, 1861-62, 3 pts.); [F. 7ainbrinil, Pell' R-imers Historia di Lanc… Asexual Reproduction ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION - as a general account of this process has already been given (see BIOLOGY, V01. p. 686) and the details of its occurrence in the various groups are 'described in the articles devoted to them (see PROTOZOA, HYDROZOA, TAPEWORM, &C.), it suffices here to recall the very broadest aspect of the phenomena, - that asexual reproduction is simply discontinuous growth, and that, as we make an ascending survey of the Aretazoa, that simple form of discontinuous growth which we term asexual reproduction becomes more and more subordinated to, and at last wholly replaced by, that more differentiated or " sexual" form of reproduction characterized by the union of two hetero-geneous cell-elementsnever to reappear save in degenerate forms. Avgvsto AVGVSTO .S.P.Q.R. IMPP . CAESS . SEVERVS . ET . ANTONINVS . PII . FELIC AVGG . R[ESTITVERWNT ; part of the last word only now exists.6 In the narrow space between the temples of Concord and Ves-pasiau (only about 7 feet in width) a small brick and concrete mdicula stands against the Tabularimn. This has been wrongly called a shrine of Faustina, on the authority of a small inscribed pedestal found … Bibliography BIBLIOGRAPHY.-A. Historical. - There are few good works on the history of psychology ; the only one in English (R. Blakey, History of the Philosophy of Mind from the Earliest Period to the Present Time, London, 1848) is said to be worthless. F. A. Carus's Geschichte der Psychologie (Leipsic, 1808) is at least useful for reference. A work bearing the same title by H. Siebeck, of which only the firs… Bibliography BIBLIOGRAPHY. - General : Sachs, Text-book, 2d English edition, 1882 ; Goebel, Grund.zage der Systematik, 1882 ; Vines, 'Alternation of Generations in Thallophytes," Journal .of Botany, 1879 ; Pringsheim, "Heber den Cenerationsweebsel bei den Thallophyten," Jahrb. f. Bizyology BIZYOLOGY, and article "Ovum" (by Allen Thomson), In TodcFs Cyclop. of Anal. and Physiol. (10) Gamgee, op. cil.; llensen, op. cit. (11) Maim, op. ca., and manuals. (12) Balfonr, op. cit.; Flemming, Zellsubstanz, &e., Lelpsle, 1882 Strasburger, Zellbilduny, &c., Leipsie, 1882, and Neue Untersuch., 1884 Carney, Biologie Cellulaire, Louvain, 1885; Brass, Beitr. r. Zellphysio/op.ie Leipsie, 1885; Hert… Chemistry Of Respiration CHEMISTRY OF RESPIRATION - The mechanism which has just been described has for its object an interchange of substances between the body and the external medium. Certain substances pass out of the body at the lungs and others are taken into the body. The discussion of this interchange pertains to what is called the Chemistry of Respiration. Comparison of Inspired and Expired Air. - No incon-siderab… Christian Rome CHRISTIAN ROME - The era of church building in Rome may be said to begin with the reig,n of Constantine and the peace of the church. Refiwo then Christian worship was conducted with various degrees of secrecy either in private houses or in the catacombs (q.v.), ac-cording as the reigning emperor viewed the sect with tolerance or dislike. The type of church which in the beginning of the 4th centur… Chronic Rheumatism CHRONIC RHEUMATISM appears occasionally to be deve-loped as the result of the acute form, but is more frequently an independent constitutional affection, and is usually a complaint of later life. The causes associated with its occurrence are habitual exposure to cold and damp; hence its frequency among outdoor workers. It is -also apt to arise in persons debilitated by overwork or privation. Certa… Development Of Substantive Institutions Of Law DEVELOPMENT OF SUBSTANTIVE INSTITUTIONS OF LAW - The Citizen and his " Caput." - The early law of Rome was essentially personal, not territorial. A man enjoyed the benefit of its institutions and of its protection, not because he happened to be within Roman territory, but because he was a citizen, - one of those by whom and for whom its law was established. The theory of the early jus gentium was … Distribution Of Reptiles In Time DISTRIBUTION OF REPTILES IN TIME - The first appearance of Reptiles on the surface of the globe is indicated by very fragmentary remains. Speci-mens of deeply biconcave vertebrm of Carboniferous age from Nova Scotia are believed to be those of a marine Saurian (Eosaurus acadianus); if this view is correct, this oldest of Reptiles would bear the stamp of one of the most Fish-like of the class. Form… Distribution Of Reptiles Over Earth's Surface DISTRIBUTION OF REPTILES OVER EARTH'S SURFACE - Serious obstacles present themselves at the present time to a satisfactory treatment of the geographical distribution of Reptiles. We have mentioned at the end of the preceding section that the geological record is much too incomplete to permit a comparison to be drawn between their distribution in the present and next preceding periods, and that we … Division Of Reptiles Into Orders DIVISION OF REPTILES INTO ORDERS - Of the various modifications that have been proposed in the classification of Reptiles the more important are mentioned in the historical part of this article. We adopt here a serial arrangement of those orders which seem to be well established, having already referred to tha attempts that have been made to arrange these orders into higher groups. Order 1. ICIITH… East Prussia EAST PRUSSIA (Ostpreussen), the larger of the two provinces, has an area of 14,280 square miles, and is bounded by the Baltic Sea, Russia, and West Prussia. It shares in the general characteristics of the great north German plain, but, though low, its surface is by no means absolutely flat, as the southern half is traversed by a low ridge or plateau (comp. GERMANY), which attains a height of 1025 … Ervnt ERVNT.5 Another temple of Concord, built in 219 B.c., stood on the Capitoline Arx (Liv. xxii. 33, xxvt. 23) ; and a bronze fedicula of Concord in the Area Vuleani, which must have been close by the great temple. This was dedicated by Cn. Flavius, 305 B.C. (see Liv., ix. 46) ; according to Pliny (H.N., xxxiii. 6) it stood " in Grmcostasi, qum tune supra Cornitium erat." Both these were probably onl… Fabricivs FABRICIVS . C . F . CVR . VIAR . FACIVNDVM . COERAVIT. Like the other existing bridges, it is built of great blocks of peperino and tufa, with a massive facing of travertine on both sides. Corbels to support centering were built in near the springing of the arches, so that they could be repaired or even rebuilt without a scaffolding erected in the river-bed. The well-preserved Pons Cestins, prob-a… General Literatore Of 31ediatal 110mance GENERAL LITERATORE OF 31EDIATAL 110MANCE.-Modern critical editions of the chansons aud romances invariably contain literary introductions. Most of these have been already referred to. For the general history of the subject, see [Bp. R. Hurd] Letters on Chivalry arid Romance, 1762 ; Clara Reeve, The Progress of Rourance,Colchester,1785, 2 vols.; J. Moore, "View of the Commence-ment and Progress of … Gian Battista GIAN BATTISTA (1485-1557), the eldest son of Paolo Ramusio and Tomyris Alacachio, was born at Treviso in 1485 (20th June). Having been educated at Venice.and at Padua, at an early age he entered the public service (1505), becoming in 1515 secretary of the senate and in 1533 secretary of the Council of Ten. He also served the republic in various missions to foreign states,_e.g., to Rome, to Switzer… Gieolamo Giuseppe GIEOLAMO GIUSEPPE (1555-1611), the son of Paolo, was born at Venice in 1555. He entered the public service in 1577, and was employed in connexion with various foreign missions. In 1601 he published at Lyons the French text of Villehardouin ; and, besides an Italian translation of this old historian (who seems thus to have furnished occupation for three generations of Ramusios), he left behind him … Giovanni Della GIOVANNI DELLA. ROBBIA (1469-1529 ?) durin,?,t-r a, great part of his life worked as assistant to his father, Andrea, and in many cases the enamelled sculpture of the two cannot be distinguished. Some of Giovanni's independ-ent works are of great merit, especially the earlier ones ; during the latter part of his life his reliefs deteriorated in style, owing mainly to the universal decadence of the… Girolaho GIROLAHO (1450-1486), younger brother of Paolo, had a notable histoty. After he had studied medicine at Padua public suspicion was roused against him in connexion with the death of a lady with whom he had had some love passages, and this ran so high that he was fain, by help of his brother Paolo, to whom he transferred his property, to make his escape (about 1481-83) to Syria and to take up his ab… Gistration, Mortgage, Partition GISTRATION, MORTGAGE, PARTITION, EXCAMBION, FIXTURES (qq.ve.), taking of land in execution, declaration of title, and apportionment. Not a year passes in which the land law is not altered to a greater or less degree. Bills have been introduced within recent years, but hitherto unsuccess-fully, for amending the law by the assimilation of the succession to real and personal estate, a,nd for the comp… Grad1entia GRAD1ENTIA, the three first genera of which are Tailed Batrach-ians, viz., two species of Proteus (one being the P. anguizzus), Triton, and S'alamandra; followed by true Saurians - Caudiverbera, Gecko, Chamteleo, Iguana, Basiliscus, Draco, G'ordylus, Crocodilus, &ineus, Stellio, Seps. The work concludes with an account of the experiments made by Laurenti to prove the poisonous or innocuous nature … Grande GRANDE (Or RIO BRAVO) DEL NORTE, which rises in the Rocky Mountains between the La Plata and San Juan ranges in the south-west of Colorado, has a total course of about 1800 mile,s, and forms for 1100 miles the boundary between the United States and Mexico, but owing to the shallowness of its ordinary current is navigable for steamers only to Kingsbury's Rapids, 450 miles from the sea. (2) RIO GRA.NDE DO NORTE, Or Potengi, or Potingi, which gives its Portuguese name to a northern province of Brazil, rises in the Serra dos Cairiris-Novos, passes Natal, the capital of the province, and falls into the sea to the south of Sao Roque. (3) Rio GRANDE DO Sur., the out-let of the Lag5a dos Patos, wrongly supposed .by the early explorers to be the mouth of a great river, gives its name to a city and province of Brazil (see below). (4) Rio GRA_NDE, a river of Western Africa, enters the sea opposite the Bissagos Archipelago (see SENEGAMBIA). Greek And Latin Romance GREEK AND LATIN ROMANCE - Although the distance in manner is immense between the Ass of Lucian and the Amadis de Gaula, and again between the latter and Ivanhoe or Eugenie Grandet, there are few varieties of modern fiction which are not faintly shadowed forth in the literatures of Greece and Rome (including in this denomination the post-classical periods of Italy and Byzantium) : fables and tales,… History Of Qijaranti Ne HISTORY OF QIJARANTI NE. - The first lazarets in Europe were constructed for the plague ; and that disease was the only one for which quarantine was practised (not to mention the earlier isolation of lepers, and the attempts to check the invasion of syphilis in northern Europe about 1490) down to the advent of yellow fever in Spain at the beginning of the 19th century, and the arrival of Asiatic c… History Of The Roman Republic In The Middle Ages HISTORY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC IN THE MIDDLE AGES - The history of the Roman republic during the Middle Ages hns yet to be written, and only by the discovery of new documents can the difficulties of the task be com-pletely overcome. Although very different in its origin, the Rornan republic gradually assumed the same form as the other Italian communes, and with almost identical institu-tions. But, … John Rastell Or Rastall JOHN RASTELL or RASTALL, printer and author, was born at London towards the end of the 15th century. He was educated at Oxford, and married Elizabeth, the sister of Sir Thomas More. He was a man of considerable learning and, although not bred to the law like his son, showed his devotion to legal studies by his writings. He went into the printing business about the year 1514, and produced Liber ass… Latin LATIN ; only some points, especially phonetic, which need a fuller discussion, are taken up again here. We will now briefly review the fate of popular Latin through its successive stages, showing everywhere the earliest appearance of the germs of Modern Romance. I. First (Pre-Classical) Period.. to c. 80 B.c. (Cicero). Latin, like all other literary languages, began as a living popular speech. The… Latreille LATREILLE, who commenced the study of. Reptiles as early as 1801, had kept pace with the progress of science when he published, in 1825, his Families Naturelles Regne Animal (Paris, 1825, 8vo). He separated the Batrachians as a class from the Reptiles, and the latter he divides into two sections only, Cataphracta and Squamosa - in the former Crocodiles being associated with the ?he-Ionians. He bas… Leading Al7tfiorities Locomotive Power LOCOMOTIVE POWER - Locomotives may broadly be reduced to two classes, according to the situation of the working cylinders. In the first class these are within the framing, under the boiler, with the main driving axle cranked at two points to receive the power from the two cylinders ; in the second class they are outside the framing, and connected, not to the axle, which is straight, but to crank-p… Madagascar MADAGASCAR possesses Chelydidse and Testudinida3 without Trionyx, like South Americ,a. A species of Crocodile. Mamie-leontidse more differentiated here than in Africa, with which it has also Gerrhosauridx and Zonuridte in common ; Agamidze are replaced by the South-American Iguanidx. Snakes chiefly South-American ; no poisonous Snake. The TROPICAL AMERICAN' REGION is characterized by the full deve… Mainimalia, Voi MAINIMALIA, VOI. XV. p. 428). The following are the general characters applicable to all the members of the family. First, as regards dentition. Incisors variable, generally reduced in number and often quite rudimentary, and early deciduous. Canines, in existing species, absent. Molar series, consisting of the full number of four premolars and three molars above and below, all in contact and close… Medieval Romance MEDIEVAL ROMANCE - The oldest and certainly the most important of the cycles of raedival romance is that which passes under the name of King Arthur, or of the Round Table. The names, characters, and actions of its heroes have permeated modern literature throughout Europe ; yet so little do we know concerning the origines and the first authors of the tales 'which form the body of Arthurian romance … Metropolitan Railway METROPOLITAN RAILWAY - Railways designed for the local service of large cities are neces-sarily either sunk below or mised above the level of the streets. The late Ilr Charles Pearson, solicitor to the City of London, was the originator of the system of intra-metropolitan railways. He worked at the subject from the year 1837. The Metropolitan and the Metropolitan District Railways in and. around L… Michael Constantine Psellus MICHAEL CONSTANTINE PSELLUS the younger was born at Constantinople in 1020, of a consular and patrician family. He studied at Athens, and by his talents and vast industry made himself master of all the learning of the age, including theology, law, physics, mathematics, philosophy, and history. At Constantinople he taught philosophy, rhetoric, and dialectic with the greatest success, and was honour… Michael Psellus MICHAEL PSELLUS the elder, a native of Andros and a pupil of Photius. He flourished in the second half of the 9th century, and strove to stem the rising tide of barbarism by his devotion to letters and philosophy. His study of the Alexandrine theOlogy, as well as of profane literature, brought him under the suspicions of the orthodox, and a former pupil of his, by name Constantine, accused him in … Modern Romance Of 17th Century MODERN ROMANCE OF 17TH CENTURY - The inspiration of medimval romance is gone; but it is necessary briefly- to trace its final reflexions to the close of the 17th century, when prose fiction began to assume more definitely the character of the modern novel. We have seen how large a place in the history of romances is occupied by France down to the end of the 16th century. We first meet with the so-… Movements Of Respiration MOVEMENTS OF RESPIRATION - Anatomy of the Air Passages. - The essential organs of respira-tion consist of an air tube called the traehea, communicating at its upper end with the mouth and bifurcating below into two bronchi, one on tbe right band and one on the left. Each bronchus divides and subdivides, diminishing in calibre at every division until a diameter of about 1 mm. is attained ; such a d… New Zealand NEW ZEALAND is characterized by the possession of the Rhynchocephalian type, without any other Reptile with the exception of certain Skinks and Geckos. Arranging these primary divisions of the globe in accordance with the distribution of the several orders of Reptiles, we find that with regard to CHELONIANS the regions stand in the following relation to each other : - I. Emydidz fully developed. A… Nightingale NIGHTINGALE (V01. Osteology OSTEOLOGY.-CUViCY, Ossentens Fossiles. 9th ed., Paris, 1834; De Blainville, Osteographie-Crorodilus, lee., 1855; E. Hoffmann, Vergl..i)steolog. des Schlii-fenbeins, 1837 ; llbstlin, Der Bau des knochernen Kopfes, Sttittgart,1844 ; Glebe], " Skelet d. Krokodile," in Giebers Ztsch. f. d. Ges. Naturw., 1877; Klein, "Skull of Crocodile," in Jahreshefted. Vereins fur Vaterl. Natttrk. in IViirttemberg, … Paolo PAOLO (GIROLANO GASPARE)1 (1532-1600) was the only child of Gian Battista, and was born on 4th July 1532. Like his father, he maintained a large correspondence with many persons of learning and note. In 1541 Francesco Contarini, procurator of St Mark's, brought from Brussels a MS. of Villehardouin's History of the Conquest of Con-stantinople, which he presented to the Council of Ten. In 1556 they … Paolo The Elder PAOLO THE ELDER (C. 1443-1506), the first of those thus commemorated, migrated in 1458 from Rimini to Venice, where he obtained full citizenship, studied law, and became a member of the magistracy, filling the offices of vicario, of judicial assessor, and of criminal judge under various administrators of the Venetian provinces on the continent. Period PERIOD I. : 509-265 B.c.12 - (a) The Struggle between th,e Orders. - It is characteristic of Rome that the change from monarchy to republic 13 should have been made with the least possible disturbance of existing forms. The title of king was retained, though only as that of a priestly officer (rex sacrorum) to whom some of the religious functions of the former kings were transferred. The two annua… Period Ii Rome And The Mediterranean States PERIOD II ROME AND THE MEDITERRANEAN STATES, 265-146 n.c. - (a) Conquest of the West. - Though marked out by her geographical position as the natural centre of the Mediterranean, Italy had hitherto played no active part in Mediterranean politics but, now that she was for the first time united, it was felt throughout the Mediter-ranean world that a new power had arisen, and Rome, as the head and re… Pleurospondylia PLEUROSPONDYLIA. Dorsal vertebrm devoid of transverse processes and not movable upon one another, nor aro the ribs movable upon the vertebrw. A plastron. Order 1, CHELONIA. The dorsal vertebra (which have either complete or rudiment-ary transverse processes) are movable upon one another, and the ribs upon them. No plastron. The dorsal vertebrm have transverse processes which are either entire or v… Principles Of Quarantine PRINCIPLES OF QUARANTINE. - Plague, yellow fever, and Asiatic cholera are the three great spreading diseases which have been successively the subject of quarantine restrictions. For many years plague has ceased to have any practical interest in this connexion ; the last occasion of alarm in the Mediterranean ports was the outbreak of 1859, at Benghazi, in Tripoli ; and at the present date the sole… Prud'hon, Pierre PRUD'HON, PIERRE (1758-1823), French painter, born at Cluny on the 4th of April 1758, was the third son of a mason. The monks of the abbey undertook his education. The paintings which decorated the monastery excited his emulation, and by the aid of Moreau, bishop of Nikon, he was placed with Devosges, director of the art school at Dijon. In 1778 Prud'hon went to Paris armed with a letter to Wille,… Pr Ussia PR USSIA (Ger., Preussen; Lat., Borussia), a kingdom: of northern Europe and by far the most important member of the German empire, occupies almost the whole of northern Germany, between 5? 52' and 22? 53' E. long. and 49? 7' and 55? 53' N. lat. It now forms a tolerably compact mass of territory, with its longest axis from southwest to north-east ; but within the limits just indicated lie the "enc… Prussia PRUSSIA, in the original and narrower sense of the word, is a district in the north-eastern corner of the modern kingdom of the same name, stretching along the Baltic coast for about 220 miles, and occupying an area of upwards of 24,000 square miles. The eastern part of this territory formed the duchy of Prussia, which was acquired by the electors of Brandenburg in 1618, and furnished them with th… Prussia Geography PRUSSIA GEOGRAPHY - Physical Features.1-Fully three-fifths of Prussia belong to the great north European plain and may be generally characterized as lowlands. The plain is much wider on the east, where only the southern margin of Prussia is mountainous, than on the west, where the Hanoverian hills approach to within less than 100 miles of the sea. A line drawn from Diisseldorf through Halle to Bre… Prussia History PRUSSIA HISTORY - The claims which Prussian history makes upon our attention are based neither upon venerable antiquity nor upon uniformity of origin. The territorial and political development of the country has taken place wholly within the last thousand years ; and the materials out of which it has been built up - marquisates and duchies, ecclesiastical principalities and free imperial cities - … Prussian Blue PRUSSIAN BLUE. See PRUSSIC ACID (p. 24 infra). PRUSSIC ACID, the familiar name for a dangerously here taken as a convenient heading under which to treat of cyanides generally. This generic term (from Ki,avos, blue) is not meant to hint at any generic property ; it is due simply to the fact that all cyanides, in an historical sense, are derivatives of a blue pigment which was discovered accidentall… Prussia, Rhenish PRUSSIA, RHENISH (German, Rheinpreussen, Rheinprorinz, Rheinland), the most westerly province of the kingdom of Prussia, is bounded on the N. by Holland, on the E. by Westphalia, Hesse-Nassau, and Hesse-Darmstadt, on the S.E. by the Rhenish Palatinate, on the S. and S.W. by Lorraine, and on the W. by Luxemburg, Belgium, and Holland. The small district of Wetzlar in the midst of the province of Hes… Prynne, William PRYNNE, WILLIAM (1600-1669), was born at Swains-wick near Bath in 1600. He was educated at Bath grammar-school, and became a commoner of Oriel College, Oxford, in 1616, taking his B.A. in 1621 ; he was admitted a student of Lincoln's Inn in the same year, and in due time became a barrister. His studies led him deeply into legal and constitutional lore, and no less deeply into ecclesiastical antiqu… Prytanis PRYTANIS (pl. prytctneis) was the title of certain officials in Greek states. They appear to have succeeded the kings at the time when the monarchical form of government was abolished throughout Greece. At Rhodes they continued to be the chief magistrates as late as the 1st century B.c., but in other states their functions dwindled. Though they were not priests, they had the charge of certain publ… Przemysl PRZEMYSL, one of the principal towns of Galicia, Austria, and the seat of a Roman Catholic and of a Greek bishop, is picturesquely situated on the river San, about 140 miles to the east of Cracow. It contains several churches, of which the two cathedrals are the most interesting, and numerous convents, schools, and seminaries. Among its manufactures are wooden wares, linen, leather, and liqueur, a… Psalmanazar, George PSALMANAZAR, GEORGE (C. 1679-1763), the assumed name of a pretended native of Formosa, who was in reality a Frenchman, and was born about 1679, probably in Languedoc. According to his own account he was sent in his seventh year to a free school taught by two Franciscan monks, after which he was educated in a Jesuit college "in an archiepiscopal city." On leaving college he was recommended as tutor… Psalms, Book Of PSALMS, BOOK OF, or PSALTER, the first book of the Hagiographa in the Hebrew Bible. Title and Traditional Authorship. - The Hebrew title of the book is tn't:ti, tehillim, or 1:14171 "the book of hymns" or rather "songs of praise."1 The singular 161n is properly the infinitive or nomen verbi of a verb employed in the technical language of the temple service for the execution of a jubilant song of p… Psaltery PSALTERY. For the mediaeval instrument of this name (" sautrie " or " cembalo "), see PIANOFORTE (vol. xix. p. 65). The Hebrew 1?., rendered V?cal-4pcov,4 vciflAa, OaAFLOs (Ps. lxxi. 22), iccOdpa (Ps. lxxxi. 2), Opyarov (Am. v. 23, vi. 5), in the LXX., and " psaltery " or " viol " in the A.V. (also " lute " in the Prayer-Book version of the Psalms), appears to have been a small stringed instrument… Pskoff PSKOFF, a government of the lake-region of northwest Russia, which extends from Lake Peipus to the source of the Dwina, having St Petersburg on the N., Novgorod, Tver, and Smolensk on the E., Vitebsk on the S., and Livonia on the W. It has an area of 16,678 square miles. In the south-east it extends partly over the Alaun heights - a broad ridge 800 to 1000 feet above the sea, deeply indented with … Pskoff PSKOFF, capital of the above government, is picturesquely situated on both banks of the broad Velikaya river, 9 miles from Lake Pskoff and 171 miles by rail south-west of St Petersburg. The chief part of the town, with its kremlin on a hill and several suburbs, occupies the right bank of the river, to which the ruins of its old walls descend ; the Zapskovie, consisting of several suburbs, stretche… Psychology PSYCHOLOGY - in the several natural sciences the scope and subject-. matter of each are so evident that little preliminary discussion on this score is called for. It is easy to distinguish the facts dealt with in a treatise on light from those that belong to one on sound ; and even when the the same fashion distinguish internal from external sense, or make clear to ourselves what we mean by phenom… Pterodactyle PTERODACTYLE. The extinct flying reptiles known as " pterodactyles " are among the most aberrant forms of animals, either living or extinct. Since the beginning of this century, when Blumenbach and Cuvier first described the remains of these curious creatures, they have occupied the attention of naturalists, and various opinions have been expressed as to their natural affinities. The general propo… Pterosaltria PTEROSALTRIA (extinct) - Diviorphodon, Ithamphorhynchus, and Pterodactylus. As this ordinal arrangement deals in a uniform measure with extinct as well as living Reptiles, it is more complete than, and marks as great a progress in the history of herpetology as, any of the classifications recorded hitherto. The study of fossil Reptiles had been continued after Cuvier by many workers, as Goldfuss, E… Ptolemy PTOLEMY (CLAUDIUS PTOLE5frEl7S), celebrated as a mathematician, astronomer, and geographer. He was a native of Egypt, but there is an uncertainty as to the place of his birth; some ancient manuscripts of his works describe him as of Pelusium, but Theodorus Meliteniota, a Greek writer on astronomy of the 12th century, says that he was born at Ptolemais Hermii, a Grecian city of the Thebaid. It is c… Public Health PUBLIC HEALTH. State medicine as an organized department of administration is entirely of modern growth. By the common law of England the only remedy for any act or omission dangerous to health was an action for damages or an indictment for nuisance. (See NUISANCE.) At the same time the jurisdiction of the commissioners of sewers acted to a certain extent as a preventive means. Commissions of sewe… Publilius PUBLILIUS (less correctly written PUBLICS) SYRUS, known to Aulus Gellius in the 2d century A.D. Each apocryphal writings of Seneca ; the number of genuine (Teubner, 1869) and W. Meyer (Teubner, 1880). P CKLER -MUSKAU, HERMANN LUDWIG HEINRICH, PRINCE OF (1785-1871), a German author, was born at Muskau in Lusatia on 30th October 1785. He served for some time in the body-guard at Dresden, and afterwa… Pudsey PUDSEY, a township of the West Riding of Yorkshire, is situated on an acclivity rising above the valley of the Aire and on the Great Northern Railway, 4 miles east of Bradford and 6 south-west of Leeds. Puebla PUEBLA, or in full LA PUEBLA DE LOS ANGELES, a city of Mexico, formerly capital of the province of Tlaxcala, now of the state of Puebla, lies 76 miles south-east of Mexico, in 19? N. lat. and 98? 2' W. long., at a height of 7220 feet above the sea. It is admirably situated on a spacious and fertile plateau, which, while almost destitute of trees, is, especially in the neighbourhood of the city, cl… Puerto Cabello PUERTO CABELLO, a town and seaport in the South American republic of Venezuela, in the province of Cara-hobo, used to rank next to Cartagena, and possesses one of the finest natural harbours in that part of the world. It is backed at the distance of about 5 miles by a range of mountains 3000 feet high, across which pass, at a height of 1800 feet, the road (36 miles) and the railway now (1885) in c… Puerto De Santa Maria PUERTO DE SANTA MARIA, probably the " Menesthei Portus " of Ptolemy, commonly called EL PUERTO (" The Port "), a town of Spain, in the province of Cadiz, 7 miles to the north-east of that city (21/ miles by rail; see sketch map, vol. iv. p. 627), near the mouth and on the right bank of the Guadalete, which is here crossed by a suspension bridge. It is a pleasant and well-built though somewhat dull… Puerto Principe PUERTO PRINCIPE, or now more correctly CIUDAD DEL PRINCIPE, a city at the head of the central department of the island of Cuba. When first founded in the beginning of the 16th century by Velazquez, it was, as its more familiar name implies, on the sea-coast ; but it has been more than once shifted southward and inland, and is now nearly as far from the north as from the south side of the island. _… Pufendorf, Samuel PUFENDORF, SAMUEL (1632-1694), was born at Chemnitz, Saxony, on the 8th of January 1632, tht same year which also saw the birth of three other illustrious political and philosophical writers - Locke, Cumberland, and Spinoza. He belonged to an ecclesiastical family ; his father was a Lutheran pastor, and he himself was destined for the ministry. Having completed his preliminary studies at the celeb… Puff-bird PUFF-BIRD, the name first given, according to Swain-son (Zool. Illustrations, ser. 1, ii., text to pl. 99), by English residents in Brazil to a group of Birds known to ornithologists as forming the restricted Family Bucconidw, but for a long time confounded, under the, general name of Barbets, with the Capitonide of modern systematists, who regard the two Families as differing very considerably fr… Puffin PUFFIN, the common English name of a sea-bird, the Fratercula arctica of most ornithologists, known however on various parts of the British coasts as the Bottlenose, Coulterneb, Pope, Sea-Parrot, and Tammy-Norie, to say nothing of other still more local designations, some (as Marrott and Willock) shared also with allied species of Alcidte, to which Family it has, until very lately, been invariably… Puget, Pierre PUGET, PIERRE (1622-1694), born at Marseilles on 31st October 1622, painter, sculptor, architect, and engineer, is a rare instance of precocious genius and mature power. At the age of fourteen he carved the ornaments of the galleys built in the port of his native city, and at sixteen the decoration and construction of a ship were entrusted to him. Soon after he went to Italy on foot, and was well … Pugin, Al7gustiis Welby Northmore PUGIN, Al7GUSTIIS WELBY NORTHMORE (1812-1852), architect, was the son of Augustus Pugin, a native of France, who practised as an architect in London. He was born in Store Street, Bedford Square, on 1st March 1812. After completing the ordinary course of education at Christ's Hospital (blue-coat school), he entered his father's office, where he displayed a remarkable talent for drawing. When he had… Pulci, Luigi PULCI, LUIGI, Italian poet, was born at Florence on 3d December 1431 and died in 1487. Pulgar, Fernando De PULGAR, FERNANDO DE, Spanish prose-writer of the latter part of the 15th century, born probably at Pulgar near Toledo, was brought up at the court of John IL Henry IV. made him one of his secretaries, and under Isabella he became a councillor of state, was charged with at least one mission to France, and in 1482 was appointed historiographer-royal. His official Chronicle of the reign of the Cathol… Pulteney, William, Earl Of Bath PULTENEY, WILLIAM, EARL OF BATH (1684-1764), a politician elevated by a living historian 5 into the important position in history of the first leader of the opposition, was descended from an ancient family with a pedigree duly recorded in Nichols's History of Leicestershire (iv. 320). His father, William Pulteney, died in 1715, and the future statesman was the offspring of his first wife, Mary Flo… Pultowa PULTOWA. See POLTAVA. inches, the tail being rather more than half that length. The head is rather small compared with that of other cats and has no mane. The ears are large and rounded. The tail is cylindrical, with some bushy elongation of the hairs near the end, but not forming a distinct tuft as in the lion. The general colour of all the upper parts and sides of the adult is a tawny yellowish… Pumice PUMICE, a highly porous light mineral substance of volcanic origin, resulting from the solidification of foam or scum formed by the escape of steam or gas on the surface of molten lava. It is principally found of a whitish or clear grey colour, more rarely of a slaty blue or reddish tint. In composition it is allied to the obsidians, containing in every 100 parts about 72 of silica, 17 of alumina,… Punchinello PUNCHINELLO (It. Policinella, Pulcinella), the most popular of the puppets, is of Italian origin, though its history is by no means free from obscurity. The earlier etymologists sought to trace the name to various mythical individuals, by whom, it was alleged, the type was first furnished. Galiani adopts the theory which derives it from the name of Puccio d'Aniello, a vintager of Acerra near Naple… Punjab PUNJAB,1 the most northern province of British India. Geographically the region called by this name is the triangular tract of country of which the Indus and the Sutlej (Satlaj) to their confluence form two of the sides, the third being the lower Himalaya hills between these two rivers. The British province now includes a large extent of country outside these boundaries, on all three sides - beyon… Purcell, Henry PURCELL, HENRY (1658-1695), English musical composer, was born in 1658 in St Ann's Lane, Old Pye Street, Westminster. His father, Henry Purcell, was a gentleman of the chapel-royal, and in that capacity sang at the coronation of Charles II. After his father's death in 1664 the boy was placed under the guardianship of his uncle, Thomas Purcell, a man of extraordinary probity and kindness. Through t… Purchas, Samuel PURCHAS, SAMUEL (1577-1626), compiler of works on travel and discovery, was born at Thaxted, Essex, in 1577. He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge, where he graduated M.A. in 1600, and some time afterwards B.D., with which degree he was also admitted at Oxford in 1615. In 1604 he was presented by James I. to the vicarage of Eastwood, Essex, and in 1615 was collated to the rectory of St M… Purgatory PURGATORY (Purgatorium). The Roman Catholic Church has no more than two declarations of supreme authority on the subject of its distinctive doctrine of purgatory. The first is that of the council of Ferrara-Florence, in which it was defined, as regards the truly penitent who have departed this life in the love of God before they have made satisfaction for their sins of commission and omission by f… Purim PURIM (bsip), a feast of the later Jews, celebrated in honour of the deliverance of the nation from the schemes of Haman recorded in the book of Esther. The historical value of this record has been discussed in the article ESTHER, where also mention is made of the now very prevalent opinion that the feast is an adaptation of a Persian festival. The derivation of the name "Purim," as well as the th… Puri Or Pooree PURI or POOREE, chief town of the above district, and commonly known as Jagannath, is situated on the Orissa coast in 19? 48' N. lat. and 85? 51' E. long. Puri Or Pooree PURI or POOREE, a district of British India in the Orissa division of the lieutenant-governorship of Bengal, lying between 19? 28' and 20? 16' N. lat. and 85? 0' and 86? 28' E. long., with an area of 2472 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the native states of Banki and Athgarh, on the E. and N.E. by Cuttack district, on the S. by the Bay of Bengal, and on the W. by the Ganjam district of th… Purniah PURNIAH, chief town and administrative headquarters of the above district, is situated on the east bank of the river Saura, in 25? 46' N. lat. and 87? 30' E. long. Purnla PURNLA.H, a district of British India in the Bhagalpur division of the lieutenant-governorship of Bengal, occupying an area of 4956 square miles, is situated between 25? 15' and 26? 37' N. lat. and 87? and 88? 33' E. long. On the N. it is bounded by the state of Nepal and the district of Darjiling, on the E. by the Jalpaiguri, Dinajpur, and Maldah districts, on the W. by Bhagalpur, and on the S. b… Purple PURPLE (ropclApa), the name given by the ancients to a dye derived from various species of Murex and Purpura. (See MOLLUSCA, vol. xvi. p. 648 sq. ; DYEING, vol. vii. p. 571 ; and PHCENICIA, vol. xviii. p. 804.) For the modern sources of the various shades of this colour, see DYEING, vol. vii. p. 579. Purpura PURPURA, a disease characterized by the occurrence of purple-coloured spots upon the surface of the body, due to extravasations of blood in the skin, accompanied occasionally with hxmorrhages from mucous membranes. Difference of opinion has prevailed among physicians as to whether these symptoms are to be regarded as constituting a disease per se, since they are frequently seen in connexion with v… Purslane PURSLANE, the vernacular equivalent of the botanical genus Portulaca. The species are fleshy annuals of small dimensions, with prostrate stems and entire leaves ; the flowers are small and inconspicuous, or in some species brilliantly coloured, regular, with two sepals, five petals, seven to twenty stamens, an inferior ovary, with a style divided into from three to eight branches and ripening into… Pusey, Edward Bouverie PUSEY, EDWARD BOUVERIE (1800-1882), originally Edward Bouverie, was born near Oxford in 1800. His family, which was of Huguenot origin, became through a marriage connexion lords of the manor of Pusey, a small Berkshire village near Oxford, and from it took their name a few years after Edward Bouverie's birth. In 1818 he became a commoner of Christ Church, Oxford, and after gaining high university … Pustule, Malignant PUSTULE, MALIGNANT, a contagious disease communicated to man from certain animals (especially cattle, sheep, and horses) suffering from splenic fever. Putney PUTNEY, a suburb of London in the county of Surrey, is situated on the right bank of the Thames, about 8 miles above London Bridge by the river and 4i miles west of Hyde Park Corner by road. The picturesque old timber bridge connecting it with Fulham on the left bank of the river, and erected in 1729, is superseded by a structure of iron and granite. Putney is the headquarters of London rowing and… Putty PUTTY is a kind of cement composed of fine powdered chalk intimately mixed with linseed oil, either boiled or raw, to the consistency of a tough dough. Puy De Dome PUY DE DOME, a department of central France, four-fifths of which belonged to Basse-Auvergne, one-sixth to Bourbonnais, and the remainder to Forez (Lyonnais), lies between 45? 17' and 46? 16' N. lat. and 2? 23' and 4? E. long. It is bounded on the N. by Allier, on the E. by Loire, on the S. by Haute-Loire and Cantal, and on the W. by Correze and Creuse. The chief town, Clermont-Ferrand, is 217 mil… Puy, Le PUY, LE, or more precisely LE PUY EN VELAY, chief town of the department of Haute-Loire, France, 352 miles from Paris by rail and 270 in a direct line, rises in the form of an amphitheatre at a height of 2050 feet above sea-level upon Mont Anis, the hill that divides the left bank of the Dolezon from the right bank of the Borne (a rapid stream which joins the Loire 3 miles below). From the new tow… Pyatigorsk PYATIGORSK, a district town and watering-place of Caucasus, Russia, in the government of Terek, 124 miles by rail to the north-west of Vladikavkaz. It owes its origin to its mineral waters, which had long been known to the inhabitants of Caucasus, and even at the beginning of the present century attracted many Russians, who used to stay at the Konstantinogorsk fort, 2 miles off. The first building… Pygmalion PYGMALION is the Greek form of a Phoenician name probably derived from the name of a god, CM (C.LS., par. i. t. i. p. 133). Pygmies PYGMIES. The name " pygmy " (Greek 7,-vvatos, from 7rvyt4) means one whose height is measured by the distance between the elbow and the knuckles of an ordinary man, pr rather less than an ell. The pygmies appear in Homer (It., iii. 6) as a tiny folk who dwelt by the streams of Ocean in the far southern land whither the cranes fly at the approach of our northern winter. The cranes made war on them … Pym, John PYM, JOHN (1584-1643), was born at Brymore in Somerset in 1584. In 1509 he entered Broadgates Hall, now Pembroke College, Oxford, as a gentleman commoner. He is said by Clarendon to have held at a later date an office in the exchequer, in which he no doubt acquired that familiarity with financial business which afterwards distinguished him. His wife, Anna Hooker, died in 1620, and in the following… Pyramid PYRAMID. This name for a class of buildings, though first taken from a part of the structure,' and mistakenly applied to the whole of it by the Greeks, has now so far acquired a more definite meaning in its geometrical sense that it is desirable to employ it in that sense alone. A pyramid therefore should be understood as meaning a building bounded by a polygonal base and plane triangular sides wh… Pyrenees PYRENEES, a range of mountains stretching with a general trend 18? to the north of west between France and Spain, from Cape Creus, or more properly Cape Cerbera, on the Mediterranean to the Bay of Biscay. The length of the range is about 240 miles, the greatest breadth little more than 50 miles (exclusive of the lower parallel ranges on the Spanish side), and the area covered by it about 13,000 sq… Pyrenees PYRENEES, the name of three departments in the south of France. Orhy alone, in the south of the valley of Mauleon, reaches 6618 feet. But beyond that of Anie (8215 feet), on the meridian of Orthez, which marks the boundary of Beam, much loftier elevations appear, - Mourrous (9760 feet), on the border of Hautes-Pyrenees, and the southern peak of Ossau (9465 feet). The frontier between France and Sp… Pyrites PYRITES (from rilp, fire), a name applied to the native bisulphide of iron, which occurs as a yellow metallic mineral, sufficiently hard to emit sparks when struck with either flint or steel. Nodules of pyrites are common in the lower beds of Chalk, and fragments of these nodules have occasionally been found on prehistoric sites under circumstances which suggest that the mineral was used as a fire… Pyrometer PYROMETER, an instrument for measuring high temperatures. As long ago as 1701, in a paper 1 published anonymously in the Philosophical Transactions, Newton gave the results of attempts to estimate the temperature of red-hot iron by noting the time it took to cool to an observed temperature, assuming what has since been called Newton's Law of Cooling. The numerical results are given in terms of the… Pyrotechny PYROTECHNY is the art of producing pleasing scenic effects by means of fire. It is not held to include the manufacture of inflammable and explosive substances for other purposes. The use of fireworks for purposes of display is not a modern invention, for it appears to have existed in China in very ancient times ; but the secret of constructing them remained unknown in Europe till about the 13th ce… Pyrrhus PYRRHUS. The name of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, owes its chief fame in history to the fact that with his invasion of Italy in the early part of the 3d century B.C. Greece and Rome for the first time came definitely into contact. Born about the year 318, and claiming descent from Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles, connected also with the royal family of Macedonia through Olympias, the mother of Alexander … Pythagoras And Pythagoreans PYTHAGORAS AND PYTHAGOREANS. Pythagoras is one of those figures which have so impressed the imagination of succeeding times that their historical lineaments are difficult to discern through the mythical haze that envelops them. Animated, as it would appear, not merely by the philosophic thirst for knowledge but also by the enthusiasm of an ethico-religious reformer, he became, centuries after his … Pytheas PYTHEAS of Massilia was a celebrated Greek navigator and geographer, to whom the Greeks appear to have been indebted for the earliest information they possessed, of at all a definite character, concerning the western regions of Europe, and especially the British Islands. The period at which he lived cannot be accurately determined ; but it is certain that he wrote, not only before Eratosthenes, wh… Python PYTHON, a genus of gigantic snakes inhabiting the tropical parts of Africa and Asia, and known in some parts of the British possessions by the name of "rock-snakes." On account of their general appearance, beautifully-marked skin, large size, and similarity of habits they are frequently confounded with the true boas of the New World and misnamed " boa-constrictors." They differ from them, however,… Qijimper, Or Qiiimper-corentin QIJIMPER, or QIIIMPER-CORENTIN, a town of France, formerly the capital of the county of Cornouailles, and now the chief town of the department of Finistere, is situated 158 miles north-west of Nantes and 68 miles southeast of Brest on the railway between those towns. The delightful valley in which it lies is surrounded by high hills and traversed by the Stein and the Odet, which, meeting above the… Qltlnce QLTLNCE. Among botanists there is a difference of opinion whether or not the quince is entitled to take rank as a distinct genus or as a section of the genus Pyrus. It is not a matter of much importance whether we call the quince Pyrus Cydonia or Cydonia vulgaris. For practical purposes it is perhaps better to consider it as distinct from Pyrus, differing from that genus in the twisted manner in w… Quadrtlateral QUADRTLATERAL, a military term applied to any combination of four fortresses mutually supporting each other, but especially to that of the four fortified towns of Mantua, Peschiera, Verona, and Legnago, the two former of which are situated on the Mincio and the two latter on the Adige. Quagga, Or Couagga QUAGGA, or COUAGGA, an animal of the genus Equus (see HORSE, vol. xii. p. 175), nearly allied to the zebra, which formerly was met with in vast herds on the great plains of South Africa between the Cape Colony and the Vaal river, but now, in common with most of the larger wild animals of that region, becoming extremely scarce, owing to the encroachments of European civilization. In length of ears … Quail QUAIL (Old French Quaille, Mod. French Caille, Italian Quaglia, Low Latin Quaquita, Dutch Kwakkel, and Kwartel, German Wachtel, Danish Yagtel), a very well-known bird throughout almost all countries of Europe, Asia, and Africa, - in modern ornithology the Coturnix communis or C. dactylisonans. This last epithet was given from the peculiar three?syllabled call-note of the cock, which has been grote… Quakers QUAKERS. The Quakers, or, as they call themselves, the Society of Friends, are a body of Christians small in number but presenting several features of interest. To the student of ecclesiastical history they are curious as exhibiting a form of Christianity widely aberraut from the prevalent types, and as a body of worshippers without a creed, a liturgy, a priesthood, or a sacrament ; to the student… Quantampoh, Or Kuntampoh QUANTAMPOH, or KUNTAMPOH, a town of the Gold Coast region of western Africa, situated about 80 miles north-east of Coomassie, in 7? 36' N. lat. and 1? 4' W. long. Quarantine QUARANTINE (Fr. quarantaine, a period of forty days) is, in the original sense of the term, a thing of the past in the United Kingdom and in several of the other states of Europe, as well as in America. Its interest is therefore largely historical, and a sketch of the history will be given at the end of this article. But, in common usage, the same word is applied to the modern substitutes for quar… Quarantine QUARANTINE, WiDow's, is the right of a widow to remain in the principal house belonging to her husband for forty days after his death. Quarantine, Cattle QUARANTINE, CATTLE. The importation of foreign cattle into England was forbidden at a comparatively early period. Thus 18 Car. II. c. 2 made such importation a-common nuisance. In 1869 previous legislation was consolidated by the Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act, 1869, which applied to the United Kingdom. In 1878 this Act was repealed and new provisions made by the Contagious Diseases (Animals) A… Quare Impedit QUARE IMPEDIT, in English law, is a form of action by which the right of presentation to a benefice is tried. It is so called from the words of the writ formerly in use which directed the sheriff to command the person disturbing the possession to permit the plaintiff to present a fit person, or to show cause "why he hinders" the plaintiff in his right. The action is one of the few surviving real a… Quarles, Fra Ncis QUARLES, FRA NCIS (1592-1644), a sacred poet of the 17th century, enjoyed considerable celebrity in his own day, and some of his works have shared in the recent revival of interest in our older literature. The work by which he is best known, his Emblemes, was originally published in 1635, with grotesque illustrations, engraved by Marshall, and borrowed from the Pia Desideria of Hermann Hugo. The p… Quarter Sessions QUARTER SESSIONS (in full, GENERAL QUARTER SESSIONS OF THE PEACE) is the name given to a local court with civil and criminal jurisdiction. In England the court consists in counties of two or more justices of the peace, one of whom must be of the quorum (see JUSTICE OF THE PEACE), in cities and boroughs of the recorder alone. The quarter sessions are a court of record. The records in a county are n… Quartz QUARTZ, the name of a mineralogical species which includes nearly all the native forms of silica. Quassia QUASSIA, the generic name given by Linneeus to a small tree of Surinam in honour of the negro Quassi or Coissi, who employed the intensely bitter bark of the tree as a remedy for fever. This bark was introduced into European medicine about the middle of the last century, and was officially recognized in the London Pharmacopaia of 1788. In 1809 it was replaced by the bitter wood or bitter ash of Ja… Quaternions QUATERNIONS. The word quaternion properly means "a set of four." In employing such a word to denote a new mathematical method, Sir W. R. HAMILTON (q.v.) was probably influenced by the recollection of its Greek equivalent, the Pythagorean Tetractys, the mystic source of all things. Quaternions (as a mathematical method) is an extension, or improvement, of Cartesian geometry, in which the artifices … Quatremere, Etienne Marc QUATREMERE, ETIENNE MARC (1782-1857), one of the most learned of modern Orientalists, came of an eminent family of Parisian merchants. His father was a victim of the Revolution, his mother a pious woman devoted to works of charity and venerated after her death almost as a saint. The son retained much of what was best in the old spirit of the Parisian bourgeoisie - its industry, sobriety, and indep… Quebec QUEBEC, the ancient capital of Canada, and present capital of the province of Quebec, is situated on the northwest bank of the river St Lawrence at its junction with the St Charles, about 300 miles from the Gulf of St Lawrence and 180 miles below Montreal, in 46? 49' 6" N. lat. and 71? 13' 45" W. long. It is the most picturesque and most strongly fortified city on the continent. Quebec is built o… Quebec QUEBEC, a province of Canada in British North America, lying between 52? 30' and 45? N. lat., and between 57? 7' and 79? 33' 20" W. long., and bounded on the N. by Labrador and Hudson's Bay, on the E. by Labrador and the Gulf of St Lawrence, on the S. by the Bay of Chalcurs, New Brunswick, and the States of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York, and on the S.W. and W. by the river Ottawa and… Quedlinburg QUEDLINBURG, an ancient town of Prussian Saxony, in the district of Magdeburg, is pleasantly situated on the Bode, near the north-west ? base of the Harz Mountains. It is still partly surrounded by a turreted wall. On the west it is commanded by the old chateau of the imperial abbesses of Quedlinburg, with the interesting abbey church, the body of which was erected in the 1 lth century. In the cry… Queen Anne's Bounty QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY is the name applied to a perpetual fund of first-fruits and tenths granted by a charter of Queen Anne, and confirmed by statute in 1703 (2 & 3 Anne, c. 11), for the augmentation of the livings of the poorer Anglican clergy. First-fruits (annates) and tenths (decimm) formed originally part of the revenue paid by the clergy to the papal exchequer. The former consist of the first … Queen Charlotte Islands QUEEN CHARLOTTE ISLANDS, a group of islands lying off the west coast of British Columbia, to which they belong. They were so called by Captain Dixon, who visited them in the " Queen Charlotte" in 1787, and spent more than a month on their coasts. They are composed of two chief islands, Graham Island to the north and Moresby Island to the south, separated by a very narrow channel; but around these,… Queensberry, James Douglas QUEENSBERRY, JAMES DOUGLAS, SECOND DUKE OF (1662-1711), was the eldest son of William, third earl and first duke, high treasurer of Scotland, and Isabel Douglas, sixth daughter of William, first marquis of Douglas. He was born at Sanquhar Castle 18th December 1662, and educated at the university of Glasgow, after which he spent some time in foreign travel. He sided with the prince of Orange at the… Queen's County QUEEN'S COUNTY, an inland county in the province of Leinster, Ireland, is bounded N.W. and N. by King's County, E. by Kildare and a detached portion of King's County, S. by Carlow and Kilkenny, and W. by Tipperary. Its greatest length from east to west is about 35 miles, and its greatest breadth from north to south about 30 miles. The area is 424,854 acres, or about 663 square miles. The surface i… Queensland QUEENSLAND, a British colony, the north-eastern portion of Australia, is situated between New South Wales and Torres Strait, and between the Pacific Ocean and the Northern Territory of South Australia. Its southern boundary is about 29? S. lat. ; its western is 141? E. long. from 29? to 26? S. lat., and 138? E. thence to the Gulf of Carpentaria ; its northern is about 9? S. including the Torres St… Queenstown QUEENSTOWN, formerly COVE OF CORK, a market town and seaport in the county of Cork, Ireland, is picturesquely situated, 13 miles east-south-east of Cork, on the south side of Great Island, on the slope of an eminence rising somewhat abruptly above the inner Cork harbour. It consists chiefly of terraces, rising above each other, and inhabited by the wealthier classes. On account of the mildness of … Queretaro QUERETARO, a city of Mexico, capital of the state of the same name, lies on a plateau 5900 feet above the sea, 152i- miles north-west of Mexico by the Central Mexican Railway. It is a well-built place with a beautiful tree-planted alameda, a cathedral, and several handsome churches and convents (Santa Clara, worthy of special note), a hospital, and other public buildings ; and it is supplied with … Quesnay QUESNAY, FRANcois (1694-1774), was one of the most eminent economists of the 18th century. He was born at Mercy, near the village of Montfort l'Amaury, about 28 miles from Paris, on the 4th of June, 1694, a year memorable also for the birth of Voltaire. He was the son of a worthy advocate, who had the reputation of ruining his own practice by reconciling the parties who came to consult him about t… Quesnel, Pasquier QUESNEL, PASQUIER (1634-1719), Roman Catholic theologian, was born in Paris on July 14, 1634, and, after graduating in the Sorbonne with distinction in 1653, joined the Congregation of the Fathers of the Oratory in 1657, receiving priest's orders in 1659. In 1675 he published an edition of the works of Leo the Great, in the notes to which the Gallican liberties were defended. The work was conseque… Quetelet, Lambert Adolphe Jacques QUETELET, LAMBERT ADOLPHE JACQUES (1796-1874), astronomer, meteorologist, and statistician, was born at Ghent, February 22, 1796, and educated at the lyceum of that town. In 1819 he was appointed professor of mathematics at the athenaeum of Brussels ; in 1828 he became lecturer at the newly created museum of science and literature, and he continued to hold that post until the museum was absorbed i… Quetta QUETTA, a valley in Baluchistan, and the most northern district in the province. It embraces an area of about 90 square miles, and is situated near the Afghan frontier between 30? 2' and 30? 14' N. lat. and between 66? 55' and 67? E. long. The general aspect of the country is hilly, rocky, and sterile, particularly towards the north ; but in many parts the soil is rich and good, yielding wheat, ri… Quevedo Villegas, Francisco QUEVEDO VILLEGAS, FRANCISCO (1580-1645), the greatest satiric writer of Spain, was born in 1580 at Madrid, where his father, who came from the mountains of Burgos, was secretary to Anne of Austria, fourth wife of Philip II. Early left an orphan and without other protection than that of his guardian, D. Agustin de Villanueva, protonotary of Aragon, the young man educated himself and chose his own c… Quezal, Or Quesal QUEZAL, or QUESAL, the Spanish-American name for one of the most beautiful of birds, abbreviated from the Aztec or Maya Quetzal-tototl, the last part of the compound word meaning fowl, and the first, also written Cuetzal, the long feathers of rich green with which it is adorned.1 The Quezal is one of the TROGONS (q.v.), and was originally described by Hernandez (Ilistoria, p. 13), whose account wa… Quezaltenango QUEZALTENANGO, a city of Guatemala, capital of the province of its own name, lies on the Siguila in a fertile district about 25 or 30 miles to the west of Lake Atitlan, on the high road between the city of Guatemala and the Mexican province of Chiapas. Quietism QUIETISM, a peculiar form of MYsTictsm (q.v.) within the modern Catholic Church, mainly associated with the names of Madame GUYON and MIGUEL DE MOLINOS See also FENELON. Quilimane, Or Kildiane QUILIMANE, or KILDIANE (the former being the Portuguese spelling), a Portuguese town on the east coast of Africa, at the head of a district of the province of Mozambique, lies 12 miles inland from the mouth of the river Quilimane or Qua Qua, which, an independent stream during the rest of the year, during the rainy season becomes a deltaic branch of the Zambesi, with which it is connected by Mutu,… Quillota QUILLOTA, a town of Chili, at the head of a district in the province of Valparaiso, lies 30 miles by rail northeast of Valparaiso, on the south or left bank of the Aconcagua, about 20 miles from its mouth. Quilon QUILON, a seaport town in Quilon district, Travancore state, Madras presidency, India, between the towns of Trevandrum and Aleppi, in 8? 54' N. lat. and 76? 37' E. long. It is a healthy town, and contained in 1881 a population of 13,588. It enjoys great facilities of water communication, and has an active export trade in timber, cocoa-nuts, ginger, pepper, cize. The outer point of the town (Tangac… Quinault, Piiii QUINAULT, PIIII;IPPE (1635-1688), a dramatist of merit, and the only European writer who has made the opera libretto a work of literature (so much so that the popularity of opera may be said to be not a little due to him), was born at Paris on June 3, 1635. He was educated by the liberality of Tristan, the author of Marianne. His first play was produced at the Hotel de Bourgogne in 1653 when Quina… Quincy QUINCY, a township and seaport of the United States, in Norfolk county, Massachusetts, on a small bay of its own name in the south of Massachusetts Bay and 7 miles south-south-east of Boston by rail. It is best known for its great granite quarries, in connexion with which was constructed in 1827 the first (horse) railway in the United States, and as the birthplace of Governor John Hancock and Pres… Quincy QUINCY, a city of the United States, the county seat of Adams county, Illinois, occupies a limestone bluff 125 feet above low-water mark on the east bank of the Mississippi at the extreme western point of the State. The river is crossed here by the great bridge of the Hannibal and St Joseph Railroad. Quincy Bay, an arm of the river, is the finest natural harbour for steamboats on the upper Mississ… Quincy, Josiah, Jr QUINCY, JOSIAH, JR. (1744-1775), born in Boston, Mass., 1744, is the most eminent of a well-known family whose founder emigrated to New England in 1633. At the time of his death, at the age of thirty-one, he had won distinction as a lawyer, and his place was secured in history as among the most eloquent, the most clear-sighted, and the most devoted of the men who led the American colonists in the … Quinet, Edgar QUINET, EDGAR (1803-1875), was born at Bourg-enBresse, in the department of the Ain, France, on February 17, 1803. His father, Jerome Quinet, had been a commissary in the army, but being a strong republican and disgusted with Napoleon's usurpation, he gave up his post and resided either at Bourg or at a country house which he possessed in the neighbourhood, devoting himself to scientific and mathe… Quinine QUININE, the most important of the active principles contained in cinchona bark (see CINCHONA, vol. v. p. 780). Although the value of this bark in the treatment of intermittent fevers became widely known in 1638 through the cure of the countess of Chinchon, it was not until 1810 that any attempt was made to determine definitely the active principles to which its properties were due. In that year G… Quintana, Manuel QUINTANA, MANUEL Jos (1772-1857), Spanish poet and man of letters, was born at Madrid on April 11, 1772, and after completing his studies at Salamanca was called to the bar. In 1801 he produced an unsuccessful tragedy El Duque de Vireo; his Pelayo (1805), appealing as it did to the spirit of resistance to foreign oppression, was much more successful. The first volume of his somewhat rhetorical and… Quintilian QUINTILIAN (M. FABIUS QIIINTILIANIIS) was born in the obscure Spanish town of Calagurris (Calahorra), on the Ebro, in the country of the Vascones, not later than 35 A.D. Concerning his family and his life but few facts remain. His father taught rhetoric, with no great success, at Rome, and Quintilian must have come there at an early age to reside, and must have there grown up to manhood. The years… Quintus Smyrnieus QUINTUS SMYRNIEUS, a late epic poet of Greece, sometimes called Quintus Calaber because his poem was discovered at Otranto in Calabria. Next to nothing is known of him. He appears to have lived in the latter part of the 4th century, shortly before Nonnus. He speaks of himself as having tended sheep in his youth at Smyrna (bk. xii. 308 sq.). His epic in fourteen books, known as Ta /ICC '0(07pov or … Quito QUITO, the capital of the republic of Ecuador, South America, an archbishopric, and the chief town of a department, lies 14' of latitude south of the equator, and in 79? 45' W. long., at a height of 9520 feet above the sea. In ancient times it was connected with Cuzco by a paved highway, portions of which still exist; but under Spanish rule it was allowed to relapse almost into the natural isolati… Quoits QUOITS. This pastime resembles the ancient discus-throwing which formed one of the five games of the Greek pentathlon (see Discus, vol. vii. p. 258). The modern quoit, however, is a far lighter missile,?and consists of a circular iron ring to be thrown or pitched in play at a fixed object. This ring is flattened, having a thick inner edge and thin outer one. The latter is slightly indented at a gi… Quo Warranto QUO WARRANTO, in English law, is the name given to an ancient prerogative writ calling upon any person usurping any office, franchise, liberty, or privilege belonging to the crown to show "by what warrant" he maintained his claim. It lay also for non-user or misuser of an office, &c. If the crown succeeded, judgment of forfeiture or ouster was given against the defendant. The procedure was regulat… Quyestor QUYESTOR was the title of a Roman magistrate whose functions, at least in the later times of the republic, were mainly financial. The origin of the qumstorship is somewhat obscure, but on the whole it was probably instituted simultaneously with the consulship in 509 B.c.1 The number of the qumstors was originally two, but this was successively increased to four (in 421 B.c.), eight (in 267 or 241 … Ra13, Rabbi, Rabban RA13, RABBI, RABBAN, RABBONI, RABBENU, Jewish titles of honour. Rab (11), "lord," "master," "teacher," is the title prefixed to the name of such a Babylonian teacher of the Law or expounder of the Mishnah as, though authorized to "judge" and to decide other religious questions, has not been ordained, or fully ordained, in Palestine.' Rabbi en, pa/313e1, Matt. xxiii. 7, &c.), "my teacher," is the t… Raab RAAB (Hungarian Gy6r), the capital of a Hungarian province of the same name, lies at the influx of the Raab into a branch of the Danube, 70 miles to the south-east of Vienna. It is a well-built town, with a pleasant promenade laid out on the site of the old fortifications, and is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop. The cathedral dates from the 12th century, but has recently been modernized ; the … Raba RABA (R5B5) - i.e., RAB ABA B. YOSEPH B. HAMA (Homo) - was, like his teacher Rabbah and his fellow-pupil Abayye, a scion of the house of Eli, on whom rested the double curse of poverty and that none of them should reach old age (1 Sam. ii. 31-36). According to T. B., Rosh, Hasshanah, 18a,1 he sought to remove this curse, if not by sacrifices and offering then by the study of the Law, while Abayye … Rabad RABAD (Tun). Under this abbreviation five Jewish scholars are known, all of whom, singularly enough, lived during the 12th century. I. RAB AB-BETH-DIN, i.e., the chief rabbi par excellence. His real name was R. Abraham b. Yishak of Narbonne. He was the teacher of the most distinguished rabbis of Provence, including his famous son-in-law (Rabad III.) and Rabbenu Zerahyah Hallevi, the author of the … Raban RABAN (1"21�– 11) - i.e., RABBENU ELfEZER B. NATHAN of Mainz - was one of the most famous Halakhic teachers of the 12th century. He lived at Mainz and corresponded with Rashi's son-in-law, Rabbenu Meir b. Shemuel, and his three distinguished sons, RASHHAM (q.v.), Ribam (R. Yishak b. Meir, who died young and left seven orphans), and Rabbenu Tham (R. Ydakob). His great Halakhic work, ri)vm nmv, or "… Rabanus Maurus RABANUS MAURUS. See HRABANIIS MAURUS. RAB.A.T (RIBAT), RBIT, or ARBIT, also known as NEW SALLEE, a city of Morocco, on the coast of the Atlantic, and the interior of Morocco, with the neighbouring coast-towns and Gibraltar, and with Marseilles, Manchester, and London. The principal articles of export are wool, hides, and wax, and the products of that local manuof the exports in the ten years 1872 … Rabba RABBA, a town of Nupi or Nufi, on the bank of the Kworra (Niger), opposite the island of Zagozhi, in 9? 6' N. lat., and 200 miles above the confluence of the Kworra and the Binue. Rabbah RABBAH - i.e., RAB ABBA IT BAR NAIIMANI - was of the house of Eli, on whom the curse rested that none of them should reach a high age (1 Sam. ii. 33). Rabbenii Shimshon Ben Abraham RABBENII SHIMSHON BEN ABRAHAM of Sens wrote commentaries on various Mishnic treatises (see MISHNAH, VOL xvi. p. 506). R. SHELOM011 BEN ABRAHAM (or Ben (Ibn] Ad-dereth) was a disciple of Nachmanides, upon whom his master's mantle had fallen (see RAMBAN). He became chief rabbi of Barcelona. Here so many disciples from the neighbouring provinces flocked to him as to excite emulation among the Jews in… Rabbenit RABBENIT signifies "our teacher" par excellence, and means in Palestine R. Rabbi RABBI, when the title is not followed by a proper name, denotes par excellence Rabbi Yehudah Hannasi, the principal editor of the Mishnah (see vol. xvi. p. 504). Rabbit RABBIT. This animal, one of the best known and most frequently seen of all wild British mammals, is, with the hare, a member of the Rodent genus Lepus, which contains about twenty-five other species spread over the greater part of the world, and whose more important characters have already been referred to (see HARE, vol. xi. p. 476, and MAMMALIA, vol. xv. p. 421). The rabbit (Lepus cuniculus), sp… Rabelais RABELAIS, FRANcors (c. 1490-1553), the greatest of French humourists and one of the few great humourists of the world, was born at Chinon on the Vienne in the province of Touraine. The date of his birth is wholly uncertain : it has been put by tradition and by authorities long subsequent to his death as 1483, 1490, and 1495. There is nothing in the positive facts of his life which would not suit t… Rabener, Gottlieb Wilhelm RABENER, GOTTLIEB WILHELM (1714-1771), German satirist, was born in 1714 near Leipsic, and after studying law at that city entered the civil service, in which he continued for many years. Rabies RABIES, a virulent disease, developed primarily in and peculiar to the canine species. Its occurrence in the same manner in other carnivorous animals, as the fox, wolf, hyaena, jackal, raccoon, badger, and skunk, has been asserted ; but there is every probability that it is originally a disease of the dog. It is communicated by inoculation to nearly all, if not all, warm-blooded creatures. The tra… Rabutin, Roger De RABUTIN, ROGER DE, COSITE DE Buss (1618-1693), commonly known as BIISSY-RABUTIN (and for shortness Bussy), is perhaps the most characteristic figure among the lesser noblesse of France in the 17th century, as La Rochefoucauld is among the greater. Bussy, however, except in point of gallantry and literary power, chiefly illustrated the evil sides of the character. He represented a family of distinc… Raccoon RACCOON. This name,1 familiar to all readers of works on American natural history, is borne by a small carnivore belonging to that section of the order which contains the bears, weasels, badgers, &c. (see MAMMALIA, vol. xv. p. 440). The raccoon resembles in many respects a diminutive bear, both in its general build and in the proportions of its skull and teeth, which last are broad, blunt, and rou… Rachel RACHEL (1820 or 1821-1858), the stage name of a French actress, whose true name was ELIZABETH Max, and who was the daughter of Jacob Felix and Esther Haya, Alsatian Jews, who travelled on foot through France as pedlars. She was born according to one account on 24th March 1820, according to another on 28th February of the following year, in a small inn in Mumpf in the canton of Aargau, Switzerland.… Racine RACINE, a city of the United States, the county seat of Racine county, Wisconsin, lies 23 miles by rail south of Milwaukee, and occupies a plateau projecting for about 6 miles into Lake Michigan, 40 feet above its level. Racine, Jean RACINE, JEAN (1639-1699), the most equal and accomplished, if not the greatest, tragic dramatist of France, was born at La Ferte Milon in the old duchy of Valois in the month of December 1639. The 20th and the two following days of the month are variously given as his birthday ; all that is certain is that he was christened on the 22d. The ceremony was at that time often, though not invariably, pe… Rackets RACKETS. Like tennis, this game of ball is of French origin, and its name is derived from " raquette," the French term for the bat used in the pastime. In the United Kingdom it is not so universally pursued as cricket and football, and is essentially an indoor game, which is played only in prepared and covered courts. Such buildings have been erected at many of the large public schools, at the uni… Radautz RADAUTZ, a town in the Austrian duchy of Bukowina, is situated on the Suczava, about 15 miles from the frontier of Moldavia. Radbertus RADBERTUS, head of the Benedictine abbey of Corbie, near Amiens, from 844 to 851, and one of the most prominent theological writers of his age, was born at or near Soissons towards the close of the 8th century, and became a monk of Corbie in 814, when he assumed the cloister name of PASCHASIIIS. He soon gained recognition as a learned and successful teacher, and Adalhard, St Anskar the apostle of … Radcliffe RADCLIFFE, a town of Lancashire, is situated on of Manchester and 2 south-west of Bury. The church The tower was rebuilt in 1665, the north transept added in 1846, 'and the whole building restored in 1870-73. It possesses some good windows and several ancient menu ments. Radcliffe Tower, dating from the 13th century, and formerly an extensive manorial residence, is now a complete ruin. Cotton-weav… Radcliffe, Ann Ward RADCLIFFE, ANN WARD (1764-1823), novelist, was born in London on 9th July 1764. She was the author of three novels unsurpassed of their kind in English literature, The Romance of the Forest (1791), The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794), The Italian (1797). The interval of three years between the successive publications is noticeable ; works so elaborate, intricate, and closely interwoven could not be wr… Radetzky, Johann RADETZKY, JOHANN J. W. A. F. C., COUNT OF RADETZ (1766-1858), field-marshal of Austria, was born at Trzebnitz in Bohemia in 1766, to the nobility of which province his family belonged. He entered a cavalry regiment in 1784 and served under Joseph II. and Laudon against the Turks in 1788 and 1789. In 1793 his regiment was sent to the lower Rhine, and from this time onwards Radetzky was engaged in t… Radhanpur RADHANPUR, a petty state of India, within the group of states under the supervision of the political superintendent of Palanpur ; it is situated in the north-western corner of Gujarat, close to the Runn of Cutch, Bombay presidency, and lies between 23? 26' and 23? 58' N. lat. and between 71? 28' and 72? 3' E. long. The country is an open plain without hills and with few trees, square in shape, and… Radhanpur RADHANPUR, chief town of the state and the seat of the nawab, had a population of 14,722 in 1881. Radiata RADIATA. This term was introduced by Cuvier in 1812 to denote the lowest of his four great animal groups or " embranchements." He defined them as possessing radial instead of bilateral symmetry, and as apparently destitute of nervous system and sense organs, as having the circulatory system rudimentary or absent, and the respiratory organs on or coextensive with the surface of the body ; he includ… Radiation And Convection RADIATION AND CONVECTION. 1. When a red-hot cannon ball is taken out of a furnace and suspended in the air it is observed to cool, i.e., to part with heat, and it continues to do so at a gradually diminishing rate till it finally reaches the temperature of the room.? But the process by which this effect is produced is a very complex one. If the hand be held at a distance of a few inches from the h… Radnor RADNOR, an inland county of South Wales, is situated between 52? 5' and 52? 25' N. lat. and between 2? 57' and 3? 25' W. long., and is bounded E. by Hereford and Shropshire, N. by Montgomery, W. by Cardigan, and S. by Brecknock. Its greatest length from north to south is about 30 miles, and its greatest breadth from east to west about 33 miles. The area is 276,552 acres, or 432 square miles. The g… Radom RADOM, a government of Poland, occupying a triangular space between the Vistula and the Pilica and bounded on the N. by Warsaw and Siedlce, on the E. by Lublin, on the S. by Austrian Galicia and Kielce, and on the W. by Piotrkow. The area is 4765 square miles. Its southern part stretches over the hilly plateau of Poland, which consists of short ridges of hills from 800 to 2000 feet in height, inte… Radom RADOM, capital of the above government, situated on the Mleczna, a tributary of the Radomka, 65 miles south from Warsaw, is one of the best-built provincial towns of Poland. Lublin Street has a number of fine shops, and there are two well-kept public gardens. The permanent population in 1882 was 12,970, half of whom were Jews, and the town is rapidly growing towards the south-east. Though an old t… Raeburn, Sir Henry RAEBURN, SIR HENRY (1756-1823), portrait-painter, was born at Stockbridge, a suburb of Edinburgh, on the 4th of March 1756, the son of a manufacturer of the city. He was early left an orphan. Being placed in Heriot's Hospital, he received there the elements of a sound education, and at the age of fifteen was apprenticed to a goldsmith in Edinburgh. Here he had some little opportunity for the pract… Raff, Joseph Joachim RAFF, JOSEPH JOACHIM (1822-1882), composer and orchestral conductor, was born near Zurich on 27th May 1822 and educated chiefly at Schwyz. Here, under the care of the Jesuit fathers, he soon became an excellent classical and mathematical scholar, but received scarcely any instruction in his favourite art, in which, nevertheless, he made extraordinary progress through sheer force of natural genius,… Raffles RAFFLES, Sin THOMAS STAMFORD (1781-1826), the son of a captain in the West India trade, was born at sea off the coast of Jamaica on 5th July 1781. Returning with his mother to England, he was placed in a boarding-school at Hammersmith, where he remained till the age of fourteen, when be entered the East India House as an extra clerk. While employed there he occupied his leisure hours in particular… Rafn, Carl Christian RAFN, CARL CHRISTIAN (1795-1864), Danish archaeologist, was born in Brahesborg, Fiinen, on 16th January 1795 and died at Copenhagen on 20th October 1864. Ragatz, Or Ragaz RAGATZ, or RAGAZ, a watering-place in Switzerland, in the canton of St Gall, with a station on the railway to Coire, 64 miles south-east of Zurich, stands 1700 feet above the sea at the mouth of the magnificent gorge through which the impetuous Tamina forces its way to the Rhine ; its baths are supplied with mineral water from the hot springs of Pfaffers, which issue from the right side of the rav… Raglan, Fitzroy James Henry Somerset RAGLAN, FITZROY JAMES HENRY SOMERSET, BARON (1788-1855), English general, was the eighth and youngest son of the fifth duke of Beaufort by Elizabeth, daughter of Admiral the Hon. Edward Boscawen, and was born on 30th September 1788. He entered the army in 1804. In 1807 he was attached to the Hon. Sir Arthur Paget's embassy to Turkey, and the same year he was selected to serve on the staff of Sir A… Ragman Rolls RAGMAN ROLLS, the name given to the collection of instruments by which the nobility and gentry of Scotland were compelled to subscribe allegiance to Edward I. of England between the conference of Norham in May 1291 and the final award in favour of Baliol in November 1292, and again, in 1296. Of the former of these records two copies were preserved in the chapter-house at Westminster (now in the Re… Ragusa RAGUSA (Slavonic Dubrovnik, Turkish Paprovnik), a city on the east coast of the Adriatic, for many centuries an independent republic, now at the head of a district in the province of Dalmatia in Austria-Hungary. It is built close to the sea at the foot of the bare limestone mass of Monte Sergio, on which stands an unfinished Fort Imperial erected by the French. In front lies the island of Lacroma,… Ragusa RAGUSA, a city of Italy in the province of Syracuse (Sicily), 16 miles east of Vittoria and 10 north-northwest of Modica, lies on the right side of the valley of the Ragusa or Erminio (Herminius). It consists of an upper town with 24,183 inhabitants and a lower town with 6260 (1881), the two communes having a total population of 30,720. The church of Santa Maria della Scala is in part modern, but … Rahway RAHWAY, a city of the United States in Union county, New Jersey, 19 miles by rail south-west of New York, lies on Rahway river at the head of schooner navigation, about 4 miles above its mouth in Staten Island Sound. Rai Bareli RAI BARELI or Roy BAREILLY, a district of British India, in the Rai Bareli division I of Oudh, under the jurisdiction of the lieutenant-governor of the North-Western Provinces, has an area of 1738 square miles. It lies between 25? 49' and 26? 35' N. lat. and between 80? 45' and 81? 40' E. long., and is bounded on the N. by the districts of Lucknow and Bara Banki, on the E. by Sultanpur, on the S. … Railway Accidents RAILWAY ACCIDENTS - Accidents on railways arise from three causes, - inattention of servants, defective material either in the works or the rolling stock, and excessive speed. But the adoption of the absolute block system, with the use of interlocked points and signals and continuous brakes, has led to an absolute diminution of the number of accidents, whilst the amount of traffic has been greatly… Railway Carrieages And Wagons RAILWAY CARRIEAGES AND WAGONS - The common varieties of vehicle employed in railway traffic are as follows : - (1) Passenger-train stock : first-class carriage, second-class carriage, third-class carriage, composite carriage, luggage brake-van, horse-box, carriage-truck. To these may be added the mail-carriage or travelling post-office. (2) Goods-train stock : platform-waggon, open or box waggon, … Railway Construction RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION - The selection of lines of railway is mainly governed by the same principles as hold good for roads, but the cost of the rails renders it of greater importance to shorten the length of the route than to make slight savings in embankments and cuttings. The first step in the survey is to ascertain the positions of the watercourse and watershed-lines of the district to be passed… Railway Electricity RAILWAY ELECTRICITY - The employment of electricity in the working of railways has already been referred to in the application of block-signalling to the direction of the traffic, in the working of junctions, the protec-tion of stations and sidings, and the repetition of signals. The first attempt to apply electric power for propulsion on rail-ways was made by Mr R. Davidson, who in September 1842… Railway Foreign And Continental RAILWAY FOREIGN AND CONTINENTAL - Europe. - A few unimportant tramways were opened in France in 1826-32. In 1833 the Government beg,an a comprehensive system of surveys, and laid down the general plan of railway development for the whole country ; and in 1842 Thiers devised a scheme by which the- state was to furnish half the cost (about .?10,000 per mile), while private companies were to lay the … Railway Law RAILWAY LAW - Parliament soon began to exercise control over railways by means LE of standing orders ; and in 1832 a passenger duty of id. per niile til for every four passengers carried was levied on railway companies. su In 1842 a Government department was instituted whereby the Board of Trade was empowered to appoint inspectors of railways, to postpone the opening of railways, to disallow bye-l… Railways RAILWAYS had their origin in the tramways which were laid more than two hundred years ago in the mineral districts of England for the conveyance of coal to the sea. In those days, before Macadam, roads bearing heavy traffic were with difficulty kept in repair. This led to the plan of laying planks or timbers at the bottom of the ruts as a better contrivance than filling in with stones, and then to… Railway Statistics RAILWAY STATISTICS - Length, of .Railways in the United Kingdom. - The length of rail-ways open for traffic at the end of the year 1854, twenty-five years after the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, was 8053 miles (of which nearly one-fourth was single line of way), cost-ing about X35,500 per mile. In 1874 that mileage was doubled (16,449 miles, nearly one-half being only single lin… Raimbach, Abraham RAIMBACH, ABRAHAM (1776 -1843), line-engraver, a Swiss by descent, was born in London in 1776. Educated at Archbishop Tenison's Library School, he was an appren-tice to J. Hall the engraver from 1789 to 1796. For nine years part of his working-time was devoted to the study of drawing in the Royal Academy and to executing occasional engravings for the booksellers, whilst his leisure hours were empl… Rainband RAINBAND. Every transparent substance is perfectly opaque to some particular kinds of light. A certain shade of orange light is absorbed by the vapour of water, and, when sunlight which has traversed a stratum containing this vapour is decomposed in a spectroscope, the blank caused by the missing rays appears as a black band or group of fine lines. This is called the rainband, because from its int… Raingauge RAINGAUGE (PLIIVIOMETER, HYETOMETER, UDOMETER). The value of the measurement of rainfall (see METEOROLOGY) has long been understood, although it is only within the last hundred years that trustworthy results have been obtained. Marriotte is claimed as the originator of the raingauge in 1677. The simplest form is an open vessel of uniform diameter exposed to the rain, in which the depth of water co… Raipur RAIPUR, chief town of the above district and head-quarters of the Chhatisgarh division of the Central Pro-vinces, is situated in 2r 15' N. lat. and 81? 41' E. long., on a plateau 950 feet above sea-level. Raipur RAIPUR, a district of India, in the Chhatisgarh division of the Central Provinces, lying between 19? 48' and 21? Mahanadi. Geologically the country consists in the hilly tracts of gneiss and quartzite; the sandstone rocks in the west are intersected with trap dykes. Iron ore is abun-dant, and red ochre of high repute is found. In the interior the principal strata are a soft sandstone slate (covere… Raisins RAISINS are the dried fruits of certain varieties of the grape vine, Vitis rinifera, which grow principally in the warm climate of the Mediterranean coasts and are com-paratively rich in sugar. The use of dried grapes or raisins as food is of great antiquity (Numb. vi. 3 ; 1 Sam. xxv. 18, xxx. 12). In medixval times raisins imported from Spain were a prized luxury in England, and to the pre-sent d… Rais, Raiz, Or Retz RAIS, RAIZ, or RETZ, GILLES DE (d. 1440), marshal of France, seigneur of Hautpart and of many other lordships, who was hanged and burned at Nantes in 1440, has left a name connected directly with one of the most horrible stories in history, and indirectly- with other curious matter. Not much is known of Rais before the trial which made his name infamous. He was of the noblest blood of the marches … Raja RAJA (English form RAJ AH), Sanskrit nom. sing. of the stein rdjan (in modern Indian vernaculars rcijci,rdjah, raja, rdjan, rdru, irdsen, also the forms rdi, rcio, rcind are trace-able to the same stem)= king, prince, chief, from the root raj, to be resplendent. In the oldest times the headman of any petty tribe was called raja from the fact of his being conspicuous for the number of golden orname… Rajamahendri RAJAMAHENDRI (Rajamahendravaram, Rajahmun-dry), a town of India, in the Godavari district, Madras presidency, situated on high ground on the left bank of the Godavari river in 17? N. lat. and 81? 49' E. long., and 365 miles north-east of Madras. Its population in 1881 numbered 24,555 (males 12,290, females 12,265). Rajamahendri was formerly the headquarters of a separate district of the same name,… Rajsha RAJSHA.Hf or RAJESFIAYE, a district of India, in the lieutenant-governorship of Bengal, forming the south-western corner of the Rajshahf with Kuch Behar division.1 It lies between 24? 3' and 24? 59' N. lat. and between 88? 21' and 89? 24' E. long., and is bounded on the N. by the districts of Dinajpur and Bogra, on the E. by Bogra and Pabna, on the S. by the Ganges and Nuddea district, and on the … Raleigh RALEIGH, a city of the United States, the capital of North Carolina and the seat of justice of Wake county, is situated in 35? 47' N. lat. and 78? 48' W. long., a little to the north-east of the geographical centre of the State, and occupies a kind of high ground in the upper valley of the Neuse, a, river flowing south-east towards Pamlico Sound. It is the meeting-place of three railways - the Ral… Raleigh RALEIGH, Sift WALTER (1552 -1618), admiral and courtier, was born at Hayes in Devonshire in 1552. After a short residence at Oriel College, Oxford, he took service in the autumn of 1569 with a body of volunteers serving in the French Huguenot army, and he probably did not return to England till 1576. During the course of these years he appears to have made himself master of seaman-ship, though no … Ramba N RAMBA_N. R. MOSHEH BEN NAkIMAN, or NACHMAN-mEs, was t)orn before 1200 at Gerona, where he was rabbi and physician, and died between 1268 and 1270 in Palesgrea,test Provencal rabbis, and became the most celebrated Talmudist and cabbalist of his age in his own country. Of his extant commentaries on the Bible that on the Penta-teuch is the most valuable. Three editions may be named. (1) Ed. prin., s.… Rambouillet RAMBOUILLET, chief town of an arrondissement in the department of Seine-et-Oise, France, 30 miles south-west of Paris on the line to Brest, is a small place of 5186 inhabitants, and derives its whole interest from the associa-tions connected with the ancient chateau, which stands surrounded by a beautiful park of 2965 acres and a wide forest dating from the 14th century. A great machicolated tower… Rambouillet, Catherine De Vivonne RAMBOUILLET, CATHERINE DE VIVONNE, MARQUISE DE (1588-1665), a lady famous in the literary history of France, was born in 1588. She was the daughter and heiress of Jean de Vivonne, marquis of Pisani, and her mother Giulia was of the noble Roman family of Savelli. She was married at twelve years old to Charles d'Angennes, vidame of Le Mans, and afterwards marquis of Rambouillet. Her celebrity is due… Rameau, Jean Philippe RAMEAU, JEAN PHILIPPE 1 (1683 -1764), musical theorist and composer, was born at Dijon, 25th September 1683. His musical education, partly in consequence of his father's desire to prepare him for the magistracy, still more through his own wayward disposition, was of a very desultory character ; but his talent manifested itself at a, very early age. In 1701 his father sent him to Milan to break off… Rameses RAMESES (Gen. xlvii. 11 Exod. xii. 37; Num. xxxiii. 3), or, with a slight change in the vowel points, RAAMSES (Exod. i. 11), the name of a district and town in Lower Egypt, is notable as affording the mainstay of the current theory that King Rameses II. was the pharaoh of the oppression and his successor Menptah the pharaoh of the exodus. The actual facts, however, hardly justify so large an infer… Rameswaram RAMESWARAM, a small island situated between Ceylon and India, at the entrance of Palk Strait in the Gulf of Manaa,r, in 9? 18' N. lat. and 79? 22' E. long. It is about 14 miles long by 5 wide, is low and sandy, and for the most part uncultivated. The estimated population of the island is about 14,000. It contains one of the most venerated Hindu shrines, founded, according to tradition, by Rama him… Rampur RAMPUR, capital of the above state, stands on the left bank of the Kosila in 28? 48' N. lat. and. 79? 4' E. long. ; it is surrounded by a belt of bamboo trees and brushwood, with a low ruined parapet, and is the resi-dence of the nawab, who represents the Rohilla chieftains of Rohilkhand. Rampur RAMPUR, a native state of India, in the Rohilkhand division of the North-Western Provinces, lying between 28?26' and 29?10' N. lat. and between 78?54' and 79?33' E. long. It is bounded on the N. and.1-1r. by the British district of 3Iuradabad, and on the N.E. and S.E. by the district of Bareli. The country is level and generally fertile ; it is well watered in the north by the rivers Kosila hnd Na… Rampur Beuleah RAMPUR BEULEAH. See Rissn.kiii, supra, p. 261. R AMSAY, ALLAN (1686 -1758), author of the Gentle Shepherd, a pastoral drama in the Lowland Scotch dialect, was born in Lanarkshire in 1686. An Edinburgh barber set agoing the literary movement in Scotland that cul-minated in the poetry of Burns. This peasant-poetry is often spoken of as if it were a spontaneous indigenous product, but the harvest tha… Ramsay, Allan RAMSAY, ALLAN. (1713-1784), portrait- painter, the eldest son of the author of The Gentle Shepherd, wa,s born at Edinburgh about 1713.1 Ramsay manifested an aptitude for art from an early period, and at the age of twenty we find him in London studying under the Swedish painter Hans Huyssing, and at the St Martin's Lane Academy ; and in 1736 he left for Rome, where he worked for three years under S… Ramsay, Andrew Michael RAMSAY, ANDREW MICHAEL (1686 -1743), commonly called the " Chevalier Ramsay," who was born at Ayr, Scotland, on 9th January 1686, is noteworthy as having been among the few writers not of French birth who are admitted by French criticism to have written in French with purity and scholarship. Ramsay visited France com-paratively early and came under the influence of Fenelon, which made him a conver… Ramsay, David RAMSAY, DAVID (1749-1815), American physician and historian, was the son of an Irish emigrant, and was born in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, on 2d April 1749. After graduating M.D. at Princeton College in 1765 he settled as a physician at Charleston, where he obtained an extensive practice. During the revolutionary war he served as a field-surgeon, and in 1776 he became a mem-ber of the South Ca… Ramsgate RAMSGATE, a seaport and watering-place of England, in the Isle of Thanet, Kent, and a " vill " of the old Cinque Port of Sandwich, is finely situated between chalk cliffs at the northern extremity of Pegwell Bay, on the London, Chatha-m, and Dover Railway, 79 miles east-south-east of London. It possesses a fine stretch of sand, and is much frequented as a watering-place. It first rose into import-… Ramusio RAMUSIO. The noble family of Ramusio--the spelling adopted in the publication of the Navigationi, though it is also written Ramnusio, Rhamnusio, Rannusio, &c. - was one of note for literary and official ability during at le,ast four generations. Its original home was in Rimini, and the municipality of that city has within the last few years set up a tablet on the town-ball bearing an inscription w… Ramus, Peter RAMUS, PETER, Or PIERRE DE LA RAMEE (1515-1572), logician, was born at the village of Cuth in Picardy in the year 1515. He was descended from a noble family, which had fallen, however, into such poverty that his father earned his livelihood as a field-labourer. The early death of his father increased Ramus's difficulties in obtain-ing the education for which he thirsted. But at last his perseveran… Randers RANDERS, a town of Denmark, at the head of an amt in the province of North Jutland (Norrejylland), on the Gudenaa, about 8 miles above its junction with Randers Fjord, an inlet of the Cattegat. It is situated on the railway that runs south by Aarhuus to Fredericia, and has a branch line (1875) to Grenaa on the coast. Though a place of considerable autiquity - being mentioned in 1086 as the meeting… Randolph, John RANDOLPH, JOHN (1773-1833), of Roanoke, American statesman, was descended from an influential and wealthy Yirginian family, and was the third and youngest son of John Randolph of Cawsons, Chesterfield county, where he was born on 2d June 1773. His father having died in his infancy, his early years were passed under the care of his stepfather. He attended schools at Williamsb-arg and Princeton and … Randolph, Thomas RANDOLPH, THOMAS (1605-1634), an English poet, was born in Northamptonshire in 1605. Rangoon Town RANGOON TOWN, a district in. the Pegu division of the province of British Burmah, situated in 16? 47' N. lat. and 96? 13' E. long., on the left bank of the Hlaing or Rangoon river at its junction with the Pegu a,nd Pu-zwon-doung streams, 21 miles from the sea. In 1880 the town was detached from the surrounding area of the old district of Rangoon and constituted a separate district, the remainder o… Rangpur RANGPUR, a district of British India, in the lieu-tenant-governorship of Bengal, lying between 25? 3' and 26? 19' N. lat. and 88? 47' and 89? 56' E. long., is bounded and 3faimansinh, on the S. by Bogra, and on the W. by Dinajpur and Jalpaigurf. The district is one vast plain ; the greater part of it, particularly towards the east, is in-undated during the mins, and the remainder is traversed by a… Rangpur RANGPUR, principal town and administrative head-quarters of the above district, is situated on the north bank of the Ghaghat river in 25? 44' N. lat. and 89? 17' E. long., and contains a population (1881) of 13,320. Rankine, William John RANKINE, WILLIAM JOHN M ACQUORN (1820 -1872), a descendant of old Scottish families, the Rankines of was born at Edinburgh in 1820, and completed his educa-tion in its university. He was trained as a,n engineer under Sir J. 3facneill, working chiefly on surveys, harbours, and railroads, and was appointed in 1855 to the chair of civil e.ngineering in Glasgow, vacant by the resignation of Lewis Gord… Ranpur RANPUR, a native state of India, in the province of Orissa in the lieutenant-governorship of Bengal, situated on the western boundary of the British district of Puri, in about 20? N. la,t. and 85? 20' E. long. Ranunculus RANUNCULUS. Familiarly known as "buttercups," the species of this genus form the type of the order Ranunculace.r. The plants are herbs, sometimes with fleshy root-fibres, or with the base of the stem dilated into a kind of tuber (R. bulbosus). They have tufted or alternate leaves, dilated into a sheath at the base and very generally, but not universally, deeply divided above. The flowers are solit… Raoul Rochette, Desire RAOUL ROCHETTE, DESIRE (1783-1854), French archwologist, was born in 1783 at St Amand in the depart-ment of Cher, and received his education at Bourges. In 1813 he was called to the chair of history in the College de Louis-le-Grand at Paris. About four years afterwards he was translated to the similar chair in the Sorbonne. The first result of his labours, published in 1815 under the title of Hist… Raoux, Jean RAOUX, JEAN, French painter, was born at Montpellier in 1677 and died at Paris in 1734. After the usual course of training he became a member of the Academy in 1717 as art historical painter. His reputation had been previ-ously established by the credit of decorations executed during his three years in Italy on the palace of Giustiniani Solini at Venice and by some easel paintings the Four Ages of… Rapanui, Or Easter Island RAPANUI, or EASTER ISLAND (Paascheylandt, Oster-insel, de Paques, &c.), the WAniu or TEAPI of Cook, an island in the eastern part of the South Pacific, lying in 27? 8' S. lat. and 109? 25' W. long., 1000 miles east of Pitcairn. It is rudely triangular in shape, with its hypo-tenuse 12 miles long running north-east and south-west, and its three angles marked by three volcanic peaks. The coasts have… Rape Oil RAPE OIL. This important fatty oil, known also as " sweet oil," is obtained from seeds of cultivated varieties of the cruciferous genus Brassica, the parent form of the whole apparently being the wild navew, B. campestris (Lin.), the B. pr.wcox of De Candolle. From the same stock, it is generally assumed, have sprung the Swedish turnip and the common turnip ; but the oil-yielding plants have devel… Raphael RAPHAEL (510i, " God heals ") first appears in litera-ture in the book of Tobit, where in human disguise and under the name of Azarias (" God helps") he accompanies Tobias in his adventurous journey and conquers the demon enter into the presence of the glory of the FIoly One." In vexed the sons of Noah with plagues and sicknesses after earliest treatise on materia medica (Ronsch, Bach der Jubilaen, p. 385 sq.). Raphael RAPHAEL (1483-1520). RAPHAEL SANZIO was the son of Giovanni Santi, a painter of some repute in the ducal city of Urbino, situated among the Apennines on the borders of Tuscany and Umbria.' For many years both before and after the birth of Raphael the city of Urbino was one of the chief centres in Italy of intellectual and artistic activity, thanks to its highly cultured rulers, Duke Federigo artis… Rapin, Paul De RAPIN, PAUL DE (1661-1725), sieur of Thoyras, French historian, was the son of Jacques de Rapin, avocat at Castres (Tarn), where he was born on 25th March 1661. He was educated at the Protestant academy of Saurnur, and in 1679 he became an advocate, but soon afterwards entered the army. The revocation of the Edict England; but, unable to find employment there, he crossed to Holland and enlisted in… Rasfit RASFIT (also Rischt, Rescht, Rashd, and Resht), a town in northern Persia, situated in 37? 18' N. lat. and 49? 37' E. long., capital of the richly wooded maritime pro-vince of Gilan, contains from 15,000 to 20,000 inhabitants. Eastwick, who was there in 1861, a,ccepts the former estimate, but states that the place was four times as popu-lous before the plague of 1831. The distance from Enzelli, on… Rasgrad Or Hesargrad RASGRAD or HESARGRAD, a town of Bulgaria, with a station about 2 miles distant on the Varna and Rustchuk Railway, is situated on the Byaly Lom, 970 feet above sea-level. Rashbam RASHBAM. RABBENII SHEMIIEL BEN MEIR, commonly called, from his title and the initials of his own and his father's names, Rashbam, was born at Rameru (Ramerupt near Troyes, in France) about 1080. Ile was almost the greatest Talmudist of his time, the only two excelling him till 1105 being Rashi and later on his own younger brother, Rabbenu Ydalpb, better known as Rabbenu Tham. In Bible criticism an… Rask, Rasmus Christian RASK, RASMUS CHRISTIAN (1787-1832), an eminent scholar a,nd philologist, was born at Brandekilde in the Island of Fitnen or Fyen in Denmark in 1787. He studied at the university of Copenhagen, and early dis-tinguished himself by singular talent for the acquisition of languages. In the year 1808 he was appointed assistant keeper of the university library, and some ye,ars after wards made professor … Raspberry RASPBERRY. See HORTICULTURE, VOI. xii. p. 276. RASTATT, or RAsTADT, a small town in Baden, is situated on the Murg, 4 miles above its junction with the Rhine and 12 miles south-west of Carlsruhe. It is a fortress of great strength, commanding the passage through the Black Forest. The only notable building is purposes and containing a collection of pictures, antiquities, and trophies from the Turki… Rastrick RASTRICK, an urban sanitary district in the West Riding of Yorkshire is situated on an acclivity near the Calder, and on the 'Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway 5 miles south-east of Halifax and 3i north of Huddersfield. It possesses woollen and silk manufactures, and there are stone quarries in the neighbourhood. The ancient chapel of St Matthew was replaced in 1798 by a church in the Grecian style… Ratafia RATAFIA is a term applied to a flavouring essence, the basis of which is the essential oil of bitter alnionds. Ratel RATEL. The animals known as Ratels or Honey-badgers are small clumsy-looking creatures of about the size and appearance of the true badgers, and belong to the same natural group of the Carnivora, namely, the subfamily Meliw of the large family Mustelidx, which contains the otters, badgers, stoats, we,asels, (4,Tc. (see MAmmALIA, vol. xv. p.. 440). Of the ratels two species are generally recognized… Rathenow RATHENOW, a small town of Prussia in the province of Brandenburg, lies on the right bank of the Havel, 44 miles to the west of Berlin. Ratibor RATIBOR (Polish 1?aciborz), a town of Prussian Silesia in the department of Oppeln, is pleasantly situated on the left bank of the Oder at the point where the river becomes navigable, about 12 miles from the Austrian frontier. The most prominent buildings are the handsome court-house by Schinkel and the Modern Gothic church ; on the right bank of the Oder is the old chAteau of the dukes of Ratibor… Rationalism RATIONALISM. In modern usage the term " rational-ism " is employed almost exclusively to denote a theological tendency, method, or system, and is then applied in a narrower and. a wider sense. In its wider sense, which is most common in English theological literature, it is the name of that mode of thought generally which finds the final test of religious truth in the human understanding, conscien… Ratisbon RATISBON (German Regensburg), an ancient city of Bavaria, the seat of a bishop, and the capital of the Upper Palatinate, is pleasantly situated on the right bank of the Danube, opposite the influx of the Regen, from which it derives its German name. It lies almost exactly in the centre of the kingdom, about 65 miles to the north-east of Munich and 53 miles to the south-east of Nuremberg. On the ot… Ratla24 RATLA24 or Rumaisf, a native state of India, in the Western Malwa Agency (Central India Agency), lying be-tween 23? 2' and 23? 36' N. lat. and 74? 42' and 75? 17' E. long., with art area of 729 square miles, and a, popula-tion (1881) of 87,314 (males 45,779, females 41,535), - Hindus numbering 54,034, Mohammedans 9913, Jains 6038, Christians 19, and aboriginals 17,297. Its revenue from all sources… Ratnagiri Or Riitnagherry RATNAGIRI or RIITNAGHERRY, chief town of the above district, is situated on the Konkan coast in 16? 59' N. lat. and 73? 19' E. long., 136 miles south by east of Bombay. Ratnagiri Or Riitnagherry RATNAGIRI or RIITNAGHERRY, a British district of India, in the Konkan division of the Bombay presidency, with an area of 3922 square miles. It lies between 15? 40' and 18? 5' N. lat. and 73? 5' and 73? 55' E. long., and is bounded on the N. by- the Savitri river, separating it frona the Janjira Agency, and by Kolaba district ; on the E. by the 1-Vestern Ghats, dividing it from the districts of Sat… Ratramnus RATRAMNUS, a theological controversialist of some mark, who flourished in the 9th century, was a monk of the Benedictine abbey of Corbie near Amiens, but beyond this fact almost nothing of his personal history has been preserved. He is now best known by his treatise on the Eucharist (De eorpore et sanguine Domini liber), in which he controverted the doctrine of transubstantiation as taught in a si… Rattazzi, Ureano RATTAZZI, UREANO (1808-1873), Italian statesman, was born on 29th June 1808 at Alessandria, and from 1838 practised with great success at the bar. In 1848 he was sent to the chamber of deputies in Turin as representative of his native town. By his debating powers he contributed to the defeat of the Balbo ministry, and for a short time held the portfolio of minister of public instruction ; afterwar… Rattlesnake RATTLESNAKE. Rattlesnakes are a small group of the family of Pit-vipers (Crotalidx), characterized by a tail which terminates in a chain of horny, loosely con-nected rings, the so-called "rattle." The " pit " by which the family is distinguished from the ordinary vipers is a deep depression in the integument of the sides of the snout, between the nostrils and the eye ; its physiological function i… Rauch, Christian Daniel RAUCH, CHRISTIAN DANIEL (1777 -1857), one of the most celebrated sculptors of modern times, wa,s born at Arolsen in the principality. of Waldeck on the 2d of January 1777. The opening career of the young artist was attended with considerable difficulty, his parents being poor and unable to place him under efficient masters. His first instructor taught him little else than the art of sculpturing gi… Rau, Karl Heinbicic RAU, KARL HEINBICIC (1792-1870), German political economist, was born at Erlangen on 23d November 1792. He pursued his studies, devoting himself principally to the (so-called) cameralistic sciences, from 1808 to 1812 at the university of his native place, where he afterwards remained as a privat-docent. In 1814 he obtained the prize offered by the academy of Gottingen for the best treatment of the… Raumer RAUMER,FRIEDRICF1 LUDWIG GEORG VON (1781-1873), German historian, was born at Worlitz in Anhalt on 14th May 1781. His father (who died in 1822) was much esteemed in AnhaR, where, as " kammerdirector," he did excellent service to agriculture. Raumer was educated at the Joachimsthal Gymnasium, Berlin, and at the universi-ties of Halle and Gottingen. In 1801 he began to practise as a lawyer in the Br… Ravaillac, Francois RAVAILLAC, FRANcOIS (1578 -1610),- the assassin of Henry IV. of France, \vas born near AngoulOme in 1578. He was of humble origin, and began life as a valet de chambre, but afterwards became a petty solicitor and also teacher of a school. He was not able, however, to keep clea,r of debt, and after having been imprisoned for some time by his creditors he sought admission to the recently founded ord… Raven RAVEN (Anglo-Saxon Hrmfn,, Icelandic llrafn, Danish Ram Dutch Raaf, German Rabe), the largest of the Birds of the Order Passeres ; and, as already shewn (ORNI-THOLOGY, V01. xviii. p. 49), probably the most highly developed of all Birds. Quick-sighted, sagacious, and bold, it must have followed the prehistoric fisher and hunter, and generally without molestation from them, to prey on the refuse of … Ravenna RAVENNA, chief city of an Italian province of the same name, contained 18,571 inhabitants according to the census of 1881. It is situated in the north-east of Italy, in 44? 25' N. lat. and 12? 12' E. long., about 4 miles from the Adriatic, with which it is now connected by the Cor-sini Canal, the two small rivers Ronco and Montone no longer serving as means of communication between the city and th… Ravensburg RAVENSBURG, an industrial town of Wiirtemberg, is pleasantly situated amid vine-clad hills on the small river Schussen, 12 mile,s to the north of Friedrichshafen on the Lake of Constance. Ra Wal Pind1 Or Rawiil Pindee RA_WAL PIND1 or RAWIIL PINDEE, principal town and administrative headquarters of the above district, lies in 33? 37' N. lat. and 73? 6' E. long. Rawal Pind1 Or Rawiil Pindee RAWAL PIND1 or RAWIIL PINDEE, a district of British India, in the division of the same name,1 under the juris-diction of the lieutenant-governor of the Punjab, lying limits the district is traversed by hills more or less linked together, causing those peculiarities of surface and of climate by which it is distinguished. The eastern range, known locally as the Murree (Mani) Hills, from the sana-tor… Rawitsch RAWITSCH (Polish Ravicz), a small manufacturing town of Prussia in the province of Posen, lies near the Silesian frontier, 37 miles to the north of Breslau. Rawmarsh RAWMARSH, a large village and urban sanitary dis-trict in the West Riding of Yorkshire, is situated on the ridge of a, hill above the valley of the Don and on the :Midland Railway, 2 miles north of Rotherham and 12 south-west of Doncaster. Rawtenstall RAWTENSTALL, a town of east Lancashire, is situ-ated on the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway, 8 miles north of Bury and 12 south-east of Blackburn. At the beginning of the century it contained only a few houses, but since the rise of the manufacturing industry it has steadily increased, till it is now a considerable town. The cotton and woollen mills are very extensive, and in the neighbourhood th… Raymond Of Sabunde RAYMOND OF SABUNDE (Sebonde, Sebeyde, &c.) appears to have been born at Barcelona towards the end of the 14th century. He combined the training of a phy-sician and a theologian, and was professor of theology at Toulouse, seemingly from the year 1430 onwards. He published there in 1436 his chief work, Theologia Haturalis, sive liber creaturarum. This book was reprinted pretty frequently during the … Raynal, Guillaume Thomas Francois RAYNAL, GUILLAUME THOMAS FRANcOIS (1713 -1796), was born on 12th April 1713 in the province of Rouergue, and was-educated at Pezenas by the Jesuits. He took orders, and, going to Paris, did parish work ; but he left the priesthood (being indeed deprived for misconduct) and betaking himself to literature soon became one of the minor members of the philosoph,e coterie. He did not a little journalism… Ray Or Wray RAY or WRAY (as he wrote his name till 1670), JOHN (1628-1705), sometimes called the father of English natural history, was the son of the blacksmith of Black Notley near Braintree in Essex. There he was born on 29th November 1628, or, according to other authorities, some months earlier. From Braintree school he was sent at the ago of sixteen to Catherine Hall, Cambridge, whence he rernoved to Tri… Razorbill Or Razor-billed Auk RAZORBILL or RAZOR-BILLED AUK, known also on many parts of the British coasts as the Marrot, Murre, Scout, Tinker, or Willock - names which it, however, shares with the GUILLEMOT (V01. xi. p. 262), and to some extent with the PUFFIN (see above, p. 101) - a common sea-bird of the Northern Atlantic,1 resorting in vast numbers to certain stations on rocky cliffs for the purpose of breeding, and, its … Reade, Charles READE, CHARLES (1814-1884), holds a high and dis-tinctive place among the English novelists of the third quarter of the 19th century. The son of an Oxfordshire squire, he was born at Ipsden in 1814, and was educated for the bar. He entered Magdalen College, Oxford, pro-ceeded B.A. in 1835, with a third class in cla.ssics, was elected Vinerian Reader in 1842, and wa,s called to the bar (Lincoln's I… Reading READING, a city of the United States, capital of Berks county, Pennsylvania, on the east bank of the Schuylkill river, and on the Schuylkill and Union Canals, 58 miles north-west of Philadelphia at the intersection of some fourteen ra,ilway lines, representing eight different companies. It occupies an elevated and healthy position on a plain that gradually rises towards an amphitheatre of hills, i… Reading READING, a market-town and ancient borough of Berk-shire, is pleasantly situated on slightly elevated ground on the banks of the Kennet, a short distance above its junc-tion with the Thames, and on branches of the Great Western, South-Postern, and South-Western Railways, 28 miles south-south-east of Oxford and 35,1,, west of London by rail. Besides the facilities on the Thames there is water commu… Realejo REALEJO, a town and harbour on the Pacific coast of Nicaragua, situated in the neighbourhood of 12? 28' N. lat. Real Estate REAL ESTATE. The land law of England and of countries whose law is based upon that of England stands in a peculiar position, which can be understood only by an outline of its history. History. - Such terms as "fee" or " homage " carry us far back into feudal times. Rights of common and dis-tress are based upon still older institutions, forming the very basis of primitive law. The conception of ten… Reaumur, Rena An REAUMUR, RENA AN-rorNE FERCHAULT DE (1683- 1757), the eldest son of a French nobleman, was born on college at Poitiers, and in 1699, when " hardly seventeen, but already possessed of the pru.dence of a grown man," went to Bourges to study civil law and mathematics under the charge of an uncle, canon of La Sainte Chapelle. In age of twenty-four, was elected a member of the Academie to many practica… Rebus REBUS, an enigmatical representation of some narne or thing, by using figures or pictures instead of words or parts of words. Camden mentions an instance of this kind of wit in a gallant who expressed his love to a woman named Rose Hill by painting in the border of his gown a rose, a hill, an eye, a loaf, and a well ; this, in the style of the rebus, reads "Rose Hill I love well." This kind of wit… Recanati RECANATI, a city of Italy, in the province of Macerate, 171 miles from Loreto, on the highway between Ancona Ind Rome, is built on a hill 910 feet above the sea, and still retains portions of its 15th-century walls and gateways. It Ls now perhaps best known as the birthplace of the poet Leopardi, whose monument adorns the principal piazza and whose family has collected in the town a very interesti… Rechabites RECHABITES, 'or SONS OF RECHAB, in ancient Israel formed a sort of religious order in sonie respects analogous to the Nazarites, with whom they shared the rule of abstinence from wine. They went farther than the latter, however, in eschewing the luxuries and pursuits of settled life, living in tents and refusing to sow grain as well as to plant vineyards. Their origin must have been in northern Is… Recognizance RECOGNIZANCE, in law,. is, in the words of Black-stone, "an obligation of record, entered into before some court or magistrate duly authorized, whereby the party bound acknowledges that he owes to the king or a private plaintiff (as the case may be) a certain sum of money, with condition to be void if he shall do some particular act, - as if he shall appear at the assizes, keep the peace, pay a ce… Recorde RECORDE, RonEnT (c. 1500-1558), a physician and eminent mathematician, was descended from a respectable family at Tenby in "Wales and was born about 1500. He was entered of the university of Oxford about 1525, and was elected fellow of All Souls College in 1531. As he made physic his profession, he went to Cambridge, where he took the degree of M.D. in 1545. He afterwards re-turned to Oxford, wher… Records RECORDS, Pumic. According to the definition of the Record Commissioners appointed at the commencement of this century to report upon the nature of the archives, the national muniments of England constitute four great classes. The first class consists of independent documents relating to various subjects, persons, and places, but making altogether one whole, such as, for instance, Domesday Book, or… Redbreast REDBREAST, the name of a, bird which from its manners, no less familiar than engaging, has for a long while been so great a favourite among all classes in Great Britain as to have gained an almost sacred character. The plea,sing colour of its plumage - one striking feature of which is expressed by its ancient name - its sprightly air, full dark eye, enquiring and. sagacious demeanour, added to the… Redditch REDDITCH, a town of Worcestershire, is situated on an eminence near the Warwickshire border, 16 miles south-west of Birmingham by the Midland Railway. Red River RED RIVER. Three at least of the many Red Rivers of the world deserve to be mentioned, - (1) the Red River or Fleuve Rouge, the Songcoi or Thao of the Anamese, the Hoang-Kiang of the Chinese, which flows through the heart of TONG-KING (q.v.) ? (2) the Red River which rises in the Stake Plain in Texas (U.S.), passes through a magnificent calion 100 miles long, and from 200 to 1000 feet deep, and fu… Red River Settlement RED RIVER SETTLEMENT. - In 1811 the fifth earl of Selkirk (1771-1820), who had devoted special attention to emigration as a means of providing for the surplus population of the Scottish Highlands, obtained from the Hudson's Bay Company a grant of land in what was then called the district of Ossiniboia (Assiniboia). In 1813 a settlement was founded by his agent, Mr Miles Macdonell, on the banks of … Redruth REDRUTH, a market town of Cornwall, is pleasantly situated on the West Cornwall Railway, about 9 miles west of Truro. It is almost the centre of the mining district of West Cornwall, and, though many of the rich copper mines are now abandoned, others have proved rich in tin at greater depths, and new mines have also been opened, sufficient to render Redruth one of the most busy and important towns… Volume 21 [ROT - SIA]: All's Well That Ends Well to Schassbur [next] [back] Volume 19 [PHY - PRO] Copyright © 2013 Net Industries and its Licensors – All Rights Reserved – Terms of Use Share this page: Tweet More To Explore	Contact & About Privacy Policy