|
| |
| Volume 1 [A - ANA]: Agriculture Farm Labourers to Alcala La Real | |
MenuContact & About
|
Agriculture Farm LabourersAGRICULTURE FARM LABOURERS The agriculture of a country must ever be largely affected by the condition and character of the peasantry by whom its labours are performed. An acute observer has shown that in England a poor style of farming and low wages - that good farming and high wages, usually go together ; and that a low rate of wages is significantly associated with a high poor-rate. The worst p… Agriculture Farm Management Of CattleAGRICULTURE FARM MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE We shall now endeavour to describe the farm management of this valuable class of animals, under the heads of breeding, rearing, fattening, and dairy management. The proceedings of those engaged in the breeding and rearing of cattle for the production of beef are, however, largely determined by the character of the soil and climate of particular districts and f… Agriculture Feeding And General Management Of Farm HorsesAGRICULTURE FEEDING AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES As there is true economy in employing only the best quality of horses, and these in their prime, so also is there in feeding them uniformly well, and looking to their comfort in all respects. The following quotation from the Transactions (for October 1850) of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, describes the practice of some … Agriculture First Act Of ParliamentAGRICULTURE FIRST ACT OF PARLIAMENT The first Act of Parliament for collecting tolls on the highway in Scotland was passed in 1750, for repairing the road from Dunglass bridge to Haddington. In ten years after, several Acts followed for the counties of Edinburgh and Lanark, and for making the roads between Edinburgh and Glasgow. The benefit which agriculture has derived from good roads it would no… Agriculture First StatuteAGRICULTURE FIRST STATUTE The first statute for levying tolls at turnpikes, to make or repair roads in England, passed in 1662. Of the state of agriculture in Scotland in the 16th and the greater part of the 17th century very little is known ; no professed treatise on the subject appeared till after the Revolution. The south-eastern counties were the earliest improved, and yet in 1660 their condit… Agriculture From All Nations ItAGRICULTURE FROM ALL NATIONS IT would be interesting to know how the nations of antiquity tilled, and sowed, and reaped ; what crops they cultivated, and by what methods they converted them into food and raiment. But it is to be regretted, that the records which have come down to us are all but silent upon these homely topics. In Mr Hoskyn's admirable treatises we have an excellent specimen of wha… Agriculture General ObservationsAGRICULTURE GENERAL OBSERVATIONS According to the method proposed at the outset, we now offer a few observations on several topics connected with our subject. Agriculture General Observations Of The Tenure Of LandAGRICULTURE GENERAL OBSERVATIONS OF THE TENURE OF LAND The extent of land in Great Britain occupied by its owners for agricultural purposes bears a very small proportion to the whole area. The yeoman class is still numerous in several parts of England, but must have diminished greatly from that continuous amalgamation of small estates into large ones which has formed a marked feature in our social… Agriculture GorseAGRICULTURE GORSE Notwithstanding its formidable spines, the young shoots of this hardy evergreen yield a palatable and nutritious winter forage for horses and cattle. To fit it for this purpose it must be chopped' and bruised to destroy the spines. This is sometimes done in a primitive and laborious way by laying the gorse upon a block of wood and beating It with a mallet, flat at one end and arm… Agriculture GreeceAGRICULTURE GREECE The unrivalled literature of Greece affords us little information regarding the practical details of her husbandry. The people who by what remains to us of their poetry, philosophy, history, and fine arts, still exert such an influence in guiding our intellectual efforts, in regulating taste, and in moulding our institutions, were originally the invaders and conquerors of the te… Agriculture GrubbersAGRICULTURE GRUBBERS Next in importance to the plough is the class of implements variously called grubbers, cultivators, drags, or scarifiers. To prepare the soil for the crops of the husbandman, it is necessary to pulverise it to a sufficient depth, and to rid it of weeds. The appropriate function of the plough is to penetrate, break up, and reverse the firm surface of the field. This, however, i… Agriculture GuanoAGRICULTURE GUANO Next to farm-yard manure, which must ever be looked to as the chief means of maintaining the fertility of a farm, guano claims our notice. This substance is the dung of seafowl, and is found on rocky islets in parts of the world where rain seldom falls. The droppings of the myriads of birds by which such places are frequented have in many cases been permitted to accumulate during… Agriculture GypsumAGRICULTURE GYPSUM Sulphate of lime or gypsum is considered an excellent top-dressing for clover and kindred plants. Agriculture HarrowingAGRICULTURE HARROWING The harrow, cultivator, and roller, are all more simple in their action and more easily managed than the plough. Harrowing is most effective when the horses step briskly along. The tines are then not merely drawn through the soil, but, in their combined swinging and forward movement, strike into it with considerable force. It is with reference to this that a single applicatio… Agriculture HarrowsAGRICULTURE HARROWS When a field has been broken up by the plough, it is usuallynext operated upon by the harrow, whether the object be to prepare it for and to cover in seeds, or to bring clods and roots to the surface. This is virtually a rake dragged by horses. In its most ordinary form, the framework is of wood with iron tines, of which each harrow contains twenty. Formerly each horse dragged … Agriculture Harvesting ImplementationsAGRICULTURE HARVESTING IMPLEMENTATIONS These, till little more than twenty years ago, comprised only the reaping-hook and scythe. An implement by means of which horse-power could be made available for this important operation has long been eagerlydesired by farmers. Repeatedly during the first half of the present century their hopes had been excited, only to be disappointed, by the announcement of… Agriculture HaymakersAGRICULTURE HAYMAKERS Haymakers are valuable implements, and well deserving of more general use. Agriculture HaymakingAGRICULTURE HAYMAKING Having spoken of the cultivation and use in a green state of herbage and forage crops, it remains to describe the process by which they are preserved for use in a dry state, or niade into hay. On every farm a supply of good hay, adequate to the wants of its own live stock, is, or at least ought to be, statedly provided. This is no doubt an expensive kind of food, but on the o… Agriculture HopsAGRICULTURE HOPS The hop is an important crop in several of the southern counties of England. Although an indigenous plant, it was originally brought into England for cultivation from Flanders in 1525. It is cultivated to a considerable extent in Belgium, Bavaria, in the United States of America, and more recently in Australia. Hops, as is well known, are chiefly used for preserving and imparting … Agriculture Horse HoesAGRICULTURE HORSE HOES It has already been remarked that the great inducement to sow grain and green crops in rows is that hoeing may be resorted to, for the double purpose of ridding them of weeds and stimulating their growth by frequent stirring of the soil. It is now upwards of a century since Jethro Tull demonstrated, in his books and on his fields, the facility with which horse-power could be… Agriculture Horse RakesAGRICULTURE HORSE RAKES Horse-rakes are in frequent use for gathering together the stalks of corn which are scattered during the process of reaping, for facilitating the process of haymaking, and also for collecting weeds from fallows. Agriculture Implements For SowingAGRICULTURE IMPLEMENTS FOR SOWING A large portion of the grain annually sown in Great Britain is still distributed by hand from the primitive sowing-sheet. " The sower stalks With measured step, and liberal throws the grain Into the faithful bosom of the ground." In Scotland a decided preference is still given to broadcast sowing, for which purpose a machine is used that covers from 15 to 18 feet,… Agriculture Improvement Of High Lying Sheep PasturesAGRICULTURE IMPROVEMENT OF HIGH LYING SHEEP PASTURES The lands referred to under the first of these heads are of very great extent, embracing the whole of the mountainous parts of Scotland and Wales, and much of the high grounds in the north of England and south of Scotland. These high grounds afford pasturage for innumerable flocks of sheep of our valuable mountain breeds. The business of sheep-f… Agriculture Improvement Of Waste LandsAGRICULTURE IMPROVEMENT OF WASTE LANDS Notwithstanding the great progress which agriculture has made, and the immense amount of capital, energy, and skill which for generations has been brought to bear upon the improvement of our soil, there are still large portions of the surface of our country lying in their natural state, and usually classed under the head of Waste Lands, in contradistinction t… Agriculture Increase And Diffusion Of Agricultural KnowledgeAGRICULTURE INCREASE AND DIFFUSION OF AGRICULTURAL KNOWLEDGE Let us look now at the means by which, during this period, agricultural knowledge has at once been increased ' and diffused. Notice has already been taken of the institution of the Highland Society and the National Board of Agriculture. These patriotic societies were the means of collecting a vast amount of statistical and general inform… Agriculture Influence Of ClimateAGRICULTURE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE But if diversity of soil necessarily modifies the practice of the husbandman, that of climate does so far more powerfully. The soils of the different parts of the globe do not very materially differ from each other, and yet their vegetable products vary in the extreme. This is chiefly owing to difference of temperature, which decreases more or less regularly as we … Agriculture Influence Of PopulationAGRICULTURE INFLUENCE OF POPULATION Besides those variations in the agricultural practice of this country which arise from diversities of soil and climate, there are others which are due to the distribution of the population. The proximity of cities and towns, or of populous villages, inhabited by a manufacturing or mining population, implies a demand for dairy produce and vegetables, as well as f… Agriculture Italian RyegrassAGRICULTURE ITALIAN RYEGRASS Italian ryegrass can be cultivated over as wide a range of soils and climate as any forage crop which we possess, and its value for soiling is every day getting to be more generally appreciated. When first introduced, and indeed until very recently, it was chiefly sown in mixture with other grasses and clovers for pasturage, a purpose to which it is well adapted from i… Agriculture John NordenAGRICULTURE JOHN NORDEN Sir John Norden's Surveyor's Dialogue, printed in 1607, and reprinted with additions in 1618, is a work of considerable merit.. The first three books of it relate to the rights of the lord of the manor and the various tenures by which landed property was then held, with the obligations which they imposed. Among others, we find the singular custom, so humorously described in… Agriculture LabourAGRICULTURE LABOUR The labour of agriculture has been greatly lightened, and its cost curtailed, by moans of improved implements and machines. The steam-engine has taken the place of the jaded horses as a thrashing power. This was first done in East Lothian by Mr Aitchison of Drumore, who about 1803 had his thrashing-machinery, at his distillery and farm of Clement's Wells, attached to a steam-eng… Agriculture LevellingAGRICULTURE LEVELLING Land, when subjected to the plough for the first time, abounds not unfrequently with abrupt hollows and protuberances, which impede tillage operations. These can be readily levelled by means of a box shaped like a huge dust-pan, the front part being shod with iron, and a pair of handles attached behind. This levelling-box is drawn by a pair of horses. Being directed against a… Agriculture LimeAGRICULTURE LIME Besides manures of an animal and vegetable origin, various mineral substances are used for this purpose. The most important and extensively used of these is lime. In the drier parts of England it is not held in much esteem, whereas in the western and northern counties, and in Scotland, its use is considered indispensable to good farming. Experienced farmers in Berwickshire conside… Agriculture Liquid ManuresAGRICULTURE LIQUID MANURES We have spoken of the importance of carefully retaining the urine of the housed live stock, by having it absorbed in the solid matter of the dung-heap, and of collecting the surplus into a suitable tank, where it may be available for moistening the heap from time to time, and especially when about to be applied to the land. A system has, however, lately attracted much no… Agriculture Live Stock Cattle BreedsAGRICULTURE LIVE STOCK CATTLE BREEDS It appears that from an early date the valley of the Tees possessed a breed of cattle which, in appearance and general qualities, were probably not unlike those quasi short-horns which abound in various parts of the country at the present day. By the time that the Messrs Coiling came upon the field it is evident that there were many herds around them in which c… Agriculture Live Stock Cattle Breeds Heavy BreedsAGRICULTURE LIVE STOCK CATTLE BREEDS HEAVY BREEDS As our limits do not admit of even a brief notice of all those breeds of cattle for which Great Britain is so famous, we shall restrict our remarks to some of the most important of them. Agriculture Live Stock Coats And GoatsAGRICULTURE LIVE STOCK COATS AND GOATS Goats never occupied an important place among the domesticated animals of the British Islands, and, with the exception of Ireland, their numbers have been constantly diminishing. By the sthtistical returns it appears that in 1871 there were 232,892 goats in Ireland, which in 1872 had increased to 242,310. The value of goat's milk, as a source of household eco… Agriculture Live Stock HorsesAGRICULTURE LIVE STOCK HORSES The breeding and rearing of domesticated animals has ever been a favourite pursuit in Great Britain, and has been carried to greater perfection than any other department of rural affairs. Agriculture Live Stock SheepAGRICULTURE LIVE STOCK SHEEP When Fitzherbert so long ago said, " Sheep is the most profitablest cattle that a roan can have," he expressed an opinion in which agriculturists of the present day fully concur. Agriculture Live Stock Sheep BreedsAGRICULTURE LIVE STOCK SHEEP BREEDS The distinct breeds and sub-varieties of sheep found in Great Britain are very numerous. Agriculture Live Stock Sheep Heavy BreedsAGRICULTURE LIVE STOCK SHEEP HEAVY BREEDS Of the first class, the improved Leicesters are still the most important to the country. They are more widely diffused in the kingdom than any of their congeners. Although, from the altered taste of the community, their mutton is less esteemed than formerly, they still constitute the staple breed of the midland counties of England. Leicester rams are also … Agriculture LucerneAGRICULTURE LUCERNE Lucerne is much cultivated as a forage crop in France and other parts of the continent of Europe, but has never come into general use in Britain. It is, however, frequently met with in small patches in districts where the soil is very light, with a dry subsoil. Its thick tap-roots penetrate very deeply into the soil ; and if a good cover is once obtained, the plants will contin… Agriculture Machines And Implements Of HusbandryAGRICULTURE MACHINES AND IMPLEMENTS OF HUSBANDRY That the cultivation of the soil may be carried on to the best advantage, it is necessary that the farmer be provided with a sufficient stock nf minbinne and irrinlpmontq nf the best construction. Very great improvement has of late years taken place in this department of mechanics. The great agricultural societies of the kingdom have devoted much o… Agriculture Management Of Lowland SheepAGRICULTURE MANAGEMENT OF LOWLAND SHEEP As the management of sheep is influenced mainly by tha nature of the lands upon which they are kept, we shall first describe the practice of Lowland flockmasters, and afterwards that pursued on Highland sheep-walks. On amble farms, where turnips are grown and a breeding stock of sheep regularly kept, it is usual to wean the lambs about the middle of July. Wh… Agriculture Management Of Mountain SheepAGRICULTURE MANAGEMENT OF MOUNTAIN SHEEP We have already taken notice of the extent to which Cheviot sheep have of late years been introduced in the Highlands of Scotland. Many of the immense grazings there are rented by farmers resident in the south of Scotland, who only visit their Highland farms from time to time, and intrust the management of their flocks and shepherds, which rival in numbers … Agriculture Mangel WurzelAGRICULTURE MANGEL WURZEL This root has been steadily rising in estimation of late years. It is peculiarly adapted for those southern parts of England where the climate is too hot and dry for the successful cultivation of the turnip. A competent authority declares that it is there easier to obtain 30 tons of mangold than 20 tons of swedes, and that it is not at all unusual to find individual roots… Agriculture Manure CropsAGRICULTURE MANURE CROPS Crops of Buckwheat, Rape,Yetches, and Mustard are sometimes ploughed in, while in a green, succulent state, to enrich the land. Agriculture Manure DistributorsAGRICULTURE MANURE DISTRIBUTORS The practice of top-dressing wheat, vetches, clover, or meadows, with guano and various light manures, has now so much increased, and the inconvenience of scattering them over the surface by hand is so great, that various machines have recently been invented for distributing them, which can also be used for sowing such manures over turnip drills, covering three at o… Agriculture Manures Farm Yard DungAGRICULTURE MANURES FARM YARD DUNG In our remarks on tillage operations and on the succession of crops, we have seen how much the practice of the husbandman is modified by the kinds and amount of 'manures at his disposaL In describing the crops of the farm and their culture, frequent reference will also necessarily be made to the use of various fertilising substances ; and we shall, therefore, bef… Agriculture Many WorksAGRICULTURE MANY WORKS A great many works on agriculture appeared during the I time of the Commonwealth, of which Blythe's Improvcr1 Improved and Hartlib's Legacy are the most valuable. The first edition of the former was published in 1649, and of the latter in 1650; and both of them were enlarged in subsequent editions. In the first edition of the Improver Improved, no mention is made of clover, … Agriculture Marketing And GardeningAGRICULTURE MARKETING AND GARDENING In Essex and Kent no inconsiderable extent of land is annually occupied in growing the seeds of the staple crops of our kitchen and flower gardens. Wholesale seedsmen contract with farmers to grow these seeds for them at a stipulated price. The growth of fruits and of culinary vegetables is in various parts of Great Britain an important department of farming - f… Agriculture Messrs CulleyAGRICULTURE MESSRS CULLEY A few years after this the Messrs Culley - one of them also a pupil of Bakewell - left their paternal property on the banks of the Tees, and settled on the Northumbrian side of the Tweed, bringing with them the valuable breeds of live stock and improved husbandry of their native district. The improvements introduced by these energetic and skilful farmers spread rapidly, a… Agriculture Middle AgesAGRICULTURE MIDDLE AGES Under the Goths, Vandals, and other barbarian conquerors, agriculture in Europe, during the middle ages, seems to have sunk into the lowest condition of neglect and contempt. We owe its revival, like that of other arts and sciences, to the Saracens of Spain, who devoted themselves to the cultivation of that conquered territory, with hereditary love for the occupation, and w… Agriculture Mountain BreedsAGRICULTURE MOUNTAIN BREEDS The mountainous parts of Great Britain are not less favoured than the lowlands in possessing breeds of cattle peculiarly adapted to the exigencies of the climate. The Kyloes or West Highland cattle are the most prominent of this group. They are widely diffused ov... the Highlands of Scotland, but are found in the greatest perfection in the larger Hebrides. Well-bred oxe… Agriculture Mowing MachinesAGRICULTURE MOWING MACHINES Another class of labour-saving machines, closely allied to those we have just described, for which we are indebted to our American cousins, is mowing-machines. Several different forms cf these were introduced and brought into somewhat general use during the years 1858 and 1859. Having used such machines for the past fourteen years we can testify to their thorough effici… Agriculture MustardAGRICULTURE MUSTARD After a crop of vetches has been consumed, if the season is too far advanced to admit of turnips being sown, it is not unusual to take a crop of white mustard or crimson clover. Agriculture Natural Meadow GrassAGRICULTURE NATURAL MEADOW GRASS In proceeding to notice the crops most usually cultivated in Britain for green forage we shall begin with natural meadow grass. In the south-western parts of England abundant crops of grass are obtained by irrigation with water alone. Our remarks will here, however, be restricted to those situations where sewage from towns or villages is available. Wherever a few s… Agriculture Nitrate Of SodaAGRICULTURE NITRATE OF SODA Cubic saltpetre, or nitrate of soda, has now become one of our staple manures. The fertilising power of common saltpetre or nitrate of potass has been known from the earliest times, but its high price has hitherto hindered its use as a manure, except in the form in which it is obtained as refuse from the gunpowder mills. The cubic nitre is brought from Peru, where there… Agriculture Oil Yielding PlantsAGRICULTURE OIL YIELDING PLANTS Various plants are occasionally cultivated in Britain for the sake of the oil which is expressed from their ripened seeds. We have already noticed the value of flax-seed for this purpose, although the fibre is the product which is chiefly had in view in cultivating it. The plants most commonly sown expressly as oil-yielding crops are - rape (Brassica Kapus), colza (… Agriculture Other CropsAGRICULTURE OTHER CROPS The cereals and legumes now enumerated constitute the staple grain-crops of Great Britain. Others are grown occasionally, but more for curiosity than profit. Zealous attempts were made by the late William Cobbet to introduce maize or Indian corn as one of our regular crops. It has been conclusively proved that none of its varieties yet tried can be ripened in the ordinary s… Agriculture Other WritersAGRICULTURE OTHER WRITERS Among the other writers previous to the Revolution, we shall only mention Ray the botanist, and Evelyn, both men of great talent and research, whose works are still in high estimation. A new edition of Evelyn's Silva and Terra was published in 1777 by Dr Hunter, with large notes and elegant engravings, and reprinted in 1812. The preceding review commences with a period of… Agriculture Paring And BurningAGRICULTURE PARING AND BURNING Paring and burning have, from an early period, been resorted to for the more speedy subduing of a rough uncultured surface. This is still the most approved method of dealing with such cases, as well as with any tough old sward which is again to be subjected to tillage. In setting about the operation, which is usually done in March or April, a turf, not exceeding an i… Agriculture PeaseAGRICULTURE PEASE Pease are sown in circumstances similar to those just detailed, hut they are better adapted than beans to light. soils. Agriculture PloughAGRICULTURE PLOUGH We begin our brief notice of the implements of the farm with those used for the tillage of the soil. Of these the first place is unquestionably due to the plough. A history 3f this implement, tracing its gradual progress from the ancient Sarcle to its most improved form at the present day, is necessarily a history of agriculture. So much is this the case, that a tolerably correc… Agriculture PotashAGRICULTURE POTASH Crude potash, or kainite, has of recent years been largely imported from Germany, and has been somewhat extensively used in combination with other manures for potatoes and other root crops - two cwt. per acre being a common rate for the potash. Agriculture PoultryAGRICULTURE POULTRY is a class of stock deserving more attention than farmers generally give it. There are, indeed, few farm-yards untenanted by fowls of some sort, and few homesteads without a poultry-house. It is rare, however, to meet with an instance where the breeding and management of poultry is conducted with the care and intelligence so frequently bestowed on other kinds of live stock. Now… Agriculture Preparation Of The Land For Tillage OperationsAGRICULTURE PREPARATION OF THE LAND FOR TILLAGE OPERATIONS Before those simple tillage operations which are necessary in every instance of committing seeds to the earth can be gone about, there are more costly and elaborate processes of preparation which must be encountered in certain circumstances, in order to fit the soil for bearing cultivated crops. It is now only in exceptional eases that the… Agriculture Principles Of ArrangementAGRICULTURE PRINCIPLES OF ARRANGEMENT The barn, with its thrashing-machinery, and other appurtenances, naturally forms the nucleus of the home- stead, and regulates the distribution of the other buildings. The command of water-power will often determine the exact site of the barn, and indeed of the whole buildings. The cheapness and safety of this motive-power render it well worth while to make co… Agriculture Rape CakeAGRICULTURE RAPE CAKE Rape-cake reduced to powder forms an excellent manure for wheat and other crops. It is usually applied at the rate of from four to eight cwt. per acre. The cakes resulting after oil has been expressed from camelina, hemp, and cotton seeds, and from pistachio and castor-oil nuts, from beech and other mast, all possess considerable value as manure, and were at one time availabl… Agriculture Reclaiming Of Fen LandsAGRICULTURE RECLAIMING OF FEN LANDS We next notice the fen lands of England. " In popular language, the word fen, designates all low wet lands, whether peat-bog, river alluvium, or salt marsh ; but in the great Bedford level, which, extending itself in Cambridgeshire and five adjoining counties, is the largest tract of fen land in the kingdom, the farmer always distinguishes, and it is thought con… Agriculture Reclaiming Of Moor LandsAGRICULTURE RECLAIMING OF MOOR LANDS The improvement of the second class of these unreclaimed lands is now much facilitated by the readiness with which portable manures can be obtained for them. Draining and enclosing here necessarily demand the first attention. In some cases the land is so encumbered with stones that careful trenching of the whole surface is the only way of getting rid of them. I… Agriculture Red CloverAGRICULTURE RED CLOVER This plant, either sown alone or in mixture with ryegrass, has for a long time formed the staple crop for soiling; and so long as it grew freely, its power of shooting up again after repeated mowings, the bulk of crop thus obtained, its palatableness to stock and feeding qualities, the great range of soils and climate in which it grows, and its fitness either for pasturage o… Agriculture Remarkable Progress PartAGRICULTURE REMARKABLE PROGRESS PART 2 FROM 1795 to 1815. The agriculture of the country was thus steadily improving, when suddenly the whole of Europe became involved in the wars of the French Revolution. In 1795, under the joint operation of a deficient harvest, and the cutting off of foreign supplies of grain by the policy of Napoleon, the price of wheat, which, for the twenty preceding years, … Agriculture Removal Of Earthfast StonesAGRICULTURE REMOVAL OF EARTHFAST STONES Newly reclaimed lands, and even those that have long been under tillage, are frequently much encumbered with earth-fast stones. This is particularly the case in many parts of Scotland. Their removal is always desirable, though necessarily accompanied with much trouble and expense. In our personal practice we have proceeded in this way. In giving the autumn f… Agriculture Restrictive Clauses In Leases HurtfulAGRICULTURE RESTRICTIVE CLAUSES IN LEASES HURTFUL It is common enough for landlords, or their agents, to tie down the tenantry over large estates to the rigid observance of some pet rotation of their own. In an unimproved state of agriculture, and for a tenantry deficient both in capital and intelligence, such trammels, kindly enforced, may be as beneficial to them as to their landlord. But when t… Agriculture Road EnginesAGRICULTURE ROAD ENGINES Although many attempts have been made to adapt the locomotive steam-engine for the conveyance both of passengers and goods on common roads, the results hitherto have not been altogether satisfactory. Agriculture Rods Of DrainAGRICULTURE RODS OF DRAIN the number of rods of drain per acre at given distances apart, and the number of pipes of given lengths required per acre. Various attempts have from time to time been made to lower the cost of draining land by the direct application of animal or steam power to the work of excavation. The called Fowler's draining plough. A six-horse portable steam-engine is anchored in o… Agriculture RollersAGRICULTURE ROLLERS Those formerly used were solid cylinders of timber or stone attached to a frame and shafts, for which hollow ones of cast-iron are now generally substituted. The simplest form of these has a smooth surface, and is cast in.seetions to admit of more easy turning. They are made of diverse weights, so as to be adapted for the draught of one or two horses as required. Those of the f… Agriculture RyeAGRICULTURE RYE The extensive cultivation of this grain in any country being alike indicative of a low state of agriculture, and of a poor style of living among its peasantry, it must be regarded as a happy circumstance that it has become neatly obsolete in Great Britain. Agriculture SainfoinAGRICULTURE SAINFOIN This very important forage plant would be well entitled to a more prominent place in our list but for the circumstance that it is only on dry calcareous soils that its excellences are fully developed ; and to these, accordingly, its culture may be said to be confined. In all the chalk districts of England sainfoin occupies an important place in the rotation of crops. Referring… Agriculture SaltAGRICULTURE SALT Common salt has often been commended as a valuable manure, but has never been used in this way with such uniform success as to induce a general recourse to it. We have already spoken of it as forming a useful compound with lime and earth. It can also be used beneficially for the destruction of slugs, for which purpose it must be sown over the surface, at the rate of four or five b… Agriculture Sea WeedAGRICULTURE SEA WEED Along our sea-board large supplies of useful manure are obtained in the shape of drifted sea-weed. Agriculture Seeds Of Agricultural CropsAGRICULTURE SEEDS OF AGRICULTURAL CROPS In the case of seed-corn it is customary for farmers either to select from the best of their own growth, to exchange with or purchase from neighbours, or, if they wish a change from a different locality, to employ a commission-agent to buy for them. In all districts there arc careful farmers who, by occupying land that produces grain of good appearance, and … Agriculture SheepAGRICULTURE SHEEP There is a good deal in this little treatise about sheep, and other branches of husbandry ; and, if the writer was well informed, as in most instances he appears to have been, his account of prices, of wages, and generally of the practices of that period, is very interesting. The next work on the husbandry of Scotland is, Time Countryman's Rudiments, or an advice to time Farmers … Agriculture Shell Sand And Limestone GravelAGRICULTURE SHELL SAND AND LIMESTONE GRAVEL On the western shores of Great Britain and Ireland are found great quantities of sand mixed with sea-shells in minute fragments. Agriculture SootAGRICULTURE SOOT Soot has long been in estimation as an excelle nt top dressing for cereal crops in the early stage of their growth, and for grasses and forage plants. Agriculture Steam EnginesAGRICULTURE STEAM ENGINES The extent to which steam-power is now employed for the purposes of the farm is another marked feature in the recent when it can be had in sufficient and regular supply. As it is only in exceptional cases that farms are thus favoured, the steam-engine is the power that must generally be reckoned upon, and accordingly its use is now so common that a tall chimney has become… Agriculture Steaming Apparatus For Cooking Cattle FoodAGRICULTURE STEAMING APPARATUS FOR COOKING CATTLE FOOD We have several times alluded to the cooking of food for cattle. Agriculture Steam Power Tillage ImplementsAGRICULTURE STEAM POWER TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS Such are the most important of those implements by which the tilling of the soil has hitherto been accomplished, and upon which the farmer must continue, to rely so long as he uses the muscular force of animals as his motive power. But the progress of invention has at last made the steam-engine practically available for this purpose, and accordingly we h… Agriculture Sugar BeetAGRICULTURE SUGAR BEET The Silesian white beet has long been cultivated in various states of continental Europe for the- production of sugar, and in several of them is now a staple product of very great value and importance. After several abortive attempts to introduce this industry into our own country, it seems at last to have obtained a firm footing in England, through the enterprise and persev… Agriculture The NomadesAGRICULTURE THE NOMADES The nomades of the patriarchal ages, like the Tartar, and perhaps some of the Moorish tribes of our own, whilst mainly dependent upon their flocks and herds, practised also agriculture proper. The vast tracts over which they roamed were in ordinary circumstances common to all shepherds alike. During the summer they frequented the mountainous districts and retired to the val… Agriculture Thrashing MachinesAGRICULTURE THRASHING MACHINES It is now sixty-five years since an ingenious Scotch mechanist, Andrew Meikle, produced a thrashing-machine so perfect that its essential features are retained unaltered to the present day. Indeed, it is frequently asserted that, after all the modifications and supposed improvements of the thrashing-machine which have been introduced by various parties, the mills mad… Agriculture Tillage Operations PloughingAGRICULTURE TILLAGE OPERATIONS PLOUGHING When the natural green sward, or ground that has been cleared of a cultivated crop, is to be prepared for the sowing or planting of further crops, the plough leads the way in breaking up the compact surface, by cutting from it successive slices, averaging about ten inches in breadth by seven in depth, which it turns half over upon each other to the right-ha… Agriculture TrenchingAGRICULTURE TRENCHING But for its tediousness and costliness, trenching two or three spits deep by spade or fork is certainly the most effectual means for at once removing obstructions, levellingthe surface, and perfecting the drainage by thoroughly loosening the subsoil. Agriculture Tulls DoctrinesAGRICULTURE TULLS DOCTRINES Tull's doctrines and practices being quite in advance of his own times, were, as is usual in such cases, vehemently opposed by his contemporaries. He was, in consequence, involved in frequent controversy, iu conducting which he occasionally showed an asperity of temper which excites our regret, but which is not to be wondered at, when we consider the trials of patience … Agriculture Turnip CuttersAGRICULTURE TURNIP CUTTERS Cattle and sheep which have arrived at maturity are able to scoop turnips rapidly with their sharp, gouge-like front teeth, and so can be fattened on this kind of food without an absolute necessity of slicing it for them. Even for adult animals there is, however, an advantage in reducing turnips to pieces which they can easily take into their mouths, and at once get betw… Agriculture Turnip PulpersAGRICULTURE TURNIP PULPERS An opinion now obtains, and is on the increase, that it is advantageous to rasp roots into minute fragments and mix them with chaff before giving them to cattle, _as this not only facilitates mastication, but in wintry weather prevents the chilling effects of a bellyful of such watery food as turnips are when eaten alone. This system is peculiarly appropriate when it is … Agriculture TurnipsAGRICULTURE TURNIPS The introduction of turnips as a field crop constitutes one of the most marked epochs in British agriculture. To the present day no better criterion exists by which to estimate its state in any district, or the skill of individual farmers, than the measure of success with which this or other root crops are cultivated. We have already, in our section upon fallowing, described in… Agriculture Turnip ThinnersAGRICULTURE TURNIP THINNERS It sometimes happens, as when drought prevails while the earlier sowings of turnips or mangold are made, and this is followed by copious rains and forcing weather, that the farmer finds it impracticable to get the thinning-out of the seedlings overtaken as fast as is needful. To aid him in such emergencies, a class of machines has been brought out, of which Huckvale's t… Agriculture Tussca GrassAGRICULTURE TUSSCA GRASS The tussac grass of the Falkland Islands has of late years attracted considerable attention as a forage plant. From its gigantic growth, even in those ungenial regions, and the extraordinary relish manifested for it by horses and cattle, sanguine hopes were entertained that it was to prove a truly valuable addition to our precept list of forage plants ; but the attempts hi… Agriculture Varieties Of FencesAGRICULTURE VARIETIES OF FENCES When the soil and climate are favourable to the growth of the common white thorn, hedges formed of it combine efficiency, economy, and ornament, in a greater degree than any other fence. But to have a really efficient thorn hedge, much attention must be paid to its planting, rearing, and after management. In proceeding to run a new line of thorn hedge, care must be … Agriculture VetchesAGRICULTURE VETCHES Vetches are another very valuable forage crop. Being indigenous to Britain, and not fastidious in regard to soil, they can be cultivated successfully under a great diversity of circumstances, and are well adapted for poor soils. By combining the winter and spring varieties, and making several sowings of each in its season at intervals of two or three weeks, it is practicable to… Agriculture Weighing MachinesAGRICULTURE WEIGHING MACHINES It is of course indispensable for every farm to be provided with beam and scales, or other apparatus, for ascertaining the weight of grain, wool, and other commodities, in quantities varying from 1 lb. to 3 cwt. But, besides this, it is very desirable to have a machine by which not only turnips, hay, manures, &c., can be weighed in cart-loads, but by which also the li… Agriculture What The Legislature Should Do For AgricultureAGRICULTURE WHAT THE LEGISLATURE SHOULD DO FOR AGRICULTURE The further progress of our national agriculture is undoubtedly to be looked for from the independent exertions of those immediately engaged in it ; but important assistance might be, and ought to be, afforded to them by the legislature, chiefly in the way of removing obstructions. What we desiderate in this respect is the repeal, or at le… Agriculture WheatAGRICULTURE WHEAT It is unnecessary to dwell upon the value of this grain to the farmer and to the community. It constitutes emphatically our bread-corn - our staff of life. While its increased consumption is, on the one hand, an indication of an improved style of living among the general population, its extended culture points, on the other, to an improving agriculture, as it is only on soils nat… Agriculture WheatAGRICULTURE WHEAT In the culture of wheat, he began with ridges six feet broad, or eleven on a breadth of 66 feet ; but on this he afterwards had fourteen ridges. After trying different numbers of rows on a ridge, he at last preferred two, with an intervening space of about 10 inches. He allowed only three pecks of seed for an acre. The first hoeing was performed by turning a furrow from the row, … Agriculture Wheel CarriagesAGRICULTURE WHEEL CARRIAGES The cartage of crops, manure, &c., upon an arable farm, is such an important part of the whole labour performed upon it (equal, as shown by a recent estimate, to one-half),' that it is a matter of the utmost consequence to have the work performed by carriages of the most suitable kind. It was for a long time keenly debated by agriculturists, whether waggons or carts are… Agriculture White And Brown MustardAGRICULTURE WHITE AND BROWN MUSTARD Both the white and brown mustard is cultivated to some extent in various parts of England. The former is to be found in every garden as a salad plant ; but it has of late been coming into increasing favour as a forage crop for sheep, and as a green manure, for which purpose it is ploughed down when about to come into flower. The brown mustard is grown solely for… Agriculture Winnowing MachinesAGRICULTURE WINNOWING MACHINES We have already referred to the fanners, which, except in portable machines, are almost invariably found in combination with thrashing-machinery, so as to deliver the grain into the corn-chamber in a comparatively clean state ; and we have also noticed the further contrivances by which, when there is a sufficient motive power at command, the complete dressing of the … Agriculture WoolAGRICULTURE WOOL Wool is such an important part of the produce of our flocks that it seems proper to offer a few remarks upon it before leaving this subject, although it will fall to be considered under its proper heading. We here insert with much pleasure the following communication received from the late John Barff, Esq., of Wakefield : - "I willingly give you a reply to your various inquiries r… Agrippa, Henry CorneliusAGRIPPA, HENRY CORNELIUS (YON NETTESIIEIM), knight, doctor, and by common reputation a magician, was born of a noble family at Cologne on the 14th Sept. 1486. Educated at the university of Cologne, he entered when still very young into the service of the Emperor Maximilian, who sent him on a diplomatic mission to Paris in 1506. During the next three years he was engaged in a military expedition to… Agrippa, Herod, IlAGRIPPA, HEROD, IL, son of the preceding, born about 27 A.D., was made king of Chalcis on the death of his uncle Herod, 48 A.D. ; but three or four years after he was deprived of that kingdom by Claudius, who gave him other provinces instead of it. Agrippa, Marcus VipsaniusAGRIPPA, MARCUS VIPSANIUS, according to Tacitus, was born of humble parents about G3 B.C. At the age of eighteen he was the chosen companion of Octavius (afterwards Octavianus), the nephew and successor of Julius Caesar, many of whose successes were mainly due to the courage and military talents of Agrippa. On the assassination of Caesar, 44 no., _Agrippa accompanied his friend to Italy, and rende… AgrippinaAGRIPPINA (TIIE ELDER), the virtuous and heroic but unfortunate offspring of M. Agrippa by a very abandoned4 mother, and herself the parent of a still more profligate? and guilty daughter of the same name. She was early married to Germanicus, the son of Drusus and Antonia, the niece of Augustus. On the death of Augustus she joined her husband in his German campaigns, where she had several opportun… AgrippinaAGRIPPINA, daughter of Germanicus and Agrippina the elder, sister of Caligula, and mother of Nero, was born about 15 A.D., at Oppidum Ubiorum, which was at that time the headquarters of her father's legions, and which was after her named Colonia Agrippina Ubiorum (now Cologrre). She wrote memoirs of her times, which Tacitus quotes and Pliny commends ; but her life is notorious for intrigue and per… Agroteras ThusiaAGROTERAS THUSIA, an annual festival at Athens in honour of Artemis or Diana, in fulfilment of a vow made by the city before the battle of Marathon to offer in sacrifice a number of goats equal to that of the Persians slain in the conflict. AgtelekAGTELEK, a village of Hungary, in the county of Mar, near the road from Pesth to Kaschau. Aguado, Alexander MariaAGUADO, ALEXANDER MARIA, one of the most famous bankers of modern times, was born of Jewish parentage at Seville in 1784. He commenced life as a soldier, fighting with distinction in the Spanish war of independence on the side of Joseph. After the battle of Baylen (1808) he entered the French army, in which he had risen to be colonel and aide-de-camp to Marshal Soult, when he took his discharge in… Aguas CalientesAGUAS CALIENTES, a town in Mexico, capital of the state of the same name, situated 270 miles N.W. of the city of Mexico, in 22? N. lat., and 101? 45' W. long. AguilarAGUILAR., GRACE (1816-47), an admired English authoress, was the daughter of a Jewish merchant in London. Aguilar De La FronteraAGUILAR DE LA FRONTERA, a town of Spain, stands near the river Calm, 22 miles S.S.E. of Cordova. Aguillon, FranqoisAGUILLON, FRANqOIS D', an eminent mathematician, born at Brussels in 1566. He entered the Society of Jesus in 1586, and was successively professor of philosophy at Douay and rector of the Jesuit College at Antwerp. Eminent for his skill in mathematics, he was the first to introduce the study of that science among the Jesuits in the Low Countries. He wrote a treatise on Optics in six books (Antwerp… Agulhas, CapeAGULHAS, CAPE, the most southern point of Africa, 100 miles E.S.E of the Cape of Good Hope, in 34? 51' 30" S. lat., and 19? 56' 30" E. long. AhalaAHALA, a noble Roman family of the gens Servilia, which produced many distinguished men. AhantaAHANTA, a territory on the Gold Coast of Africa, tinent. AhasuerusAHASUERUS, the Latinised form of the Hebrew Aliashverosh, (iu the LX X. 'Acrcrampos, once in Tobit be set aside as quite inapplicable to the facts ; and it becomes necessary to glance at the particular places. In Dan. ix. 1, Ahasuerus appears as the father of Darius the Mede, who "was made king over the realm of the Chaldeans " after the conquest of Babylon and death of Belshazzar. Who this Darius… AhazAHAZ (literally Possessor), son of Jotham, and the eleventh king of Judah, reigned 16 years, from 741 to 725 B.C. He was the most weak-minded and corrupt of all the kings that had hitherto reigned over Judah. About the time of his accession, Pekah, king of Israel, and Rezin, king of Syria, had formed an alliance with the view of acquiring the kingdom of Judah by conquest. They invaded the country,… AhaziahAHAZIAH (lit. AhenobarbusAHENOBARBUS, the name of a plebeian Roman family of the gens Domitia, which rose in?the course of time to considerable distinction. AhithophelAHITHOPHEL (lit. Brother of Foolishness, the very singular name of one of the sagest politicians in Old Testament history. In regard to his family relationships it is almost beyond doubt that he was the grandfather of Bathsheba, and it has been suggested as probable that he was first introduced at court through this connection. He was one of David's most trusted counsellors, and his defection to t… AhmadaAHMADA.B..kD, a district and city of British India, in the province of Gujrat, within the jurisdiction of the governor of Bombay. The DISTRICT lies between 21? 4' and 23? 5' N. lat., and between 71? 2' and 73? 25' E. long. It is bounded by the province of Katiwar on the N. and W., by the Mahi Kanta on the N. and E., by the Kaira collectorate on the E. and S., and by the gulf of Cambay on the S. Th… Ahmadabad CityAHMADABAD CITY, the capital of the district, is situated on the east or left bank of the river Sabarmati, in 23? N. lat., and 72? 36' E. long. It was formerly one of the largest towns in India, celebrated for its commerce and manufactures of gold and silver, silk and cotton fabrics, articles of gold, silver, steel, enamel, mother of pearl, lacquered ware, and fine wood-work. Excellent paper was al… AhmadnagarAHMADNAGAR, a district and city in British India, in the province of Gujrat, within the jurisdiction of the Governor of the Presidency of Bombay. The COLLECTORATE extends from 18? 6' to 19? 50' N. lat., and from 73? 40' to 75? 37' E. long., and contains the following eleven talukas or sub-districts: - Nagar, Jamkhair, Parnair, Srfgonda, Karjat, Newasa, Kopargam, Sangamnair, Rahuri, Siogam, and Ank… Ahmadnagar CityAHMADNAGAR CITY, the capital of the district of the same name, is situated in 19? 6' N. lat., and 74? 46' E. long. It is a town of considerable antiquity, having been founded, in 1494, by Ahmad Nizam Shah, on the site of more ancient city, Bhingar. This Ahmad established a new monarchy, which lasted until its overthrow by Shah Jahan in 1636. In 1759 the Peshwa obtained possession of the place by b… Ahmed ShahAHMED SHAH, founder of the Durani dynasty in Afghanistan, born about 1724, was the son of SammaunKhan, hereditary chief of the Abdali tribe. While still a boy Ahmed fell into the hands of the hostile tribe of Ghilzais, by whom he was kept prisoner at Kandahar. In March 1738 he was rescued by Nadir Shah, who soon afterwards gave him the command of a body of cavalry composed chiefly of Abdalis. On t… Ahriman Or ArimanesAHRIMAN or ARIMANES (Angra-1Iirainyus, Hostile or Destroying Spirit), in the Zend-Avesta, the principle of evil, opposed to Ormuzd, the principle of good, the one being symbolised by darkness and the other by light. AhwazAHWAZ, a town in Persia, on the left bank of the river Karoon, about 100 miles N.E. of -Bassorah. Though now an insignificant place, it occupies the site of what was once an extensive and important city. Of this ancient city vast remains are left, extending 12 miles along the bank of the river. Among the most remarkable are the ruins of a bridge and a palace, besides vestiges of canals and water-m… AidanAIDAN, a king of Scottish Dalriada, who reigned about the close of the 6th century. Aidan, StAIDAN, ST, first bishop of Lindisfarne or Holy Island, embraced a religious life in the monastery of Iona. Aide-de-campAIDE-DE-CAMP, a confidential officer attached to the " personal " or private staff of a general. In the field he is the bearer of his chief's written or verbal orders, and when employed as the general's mouthpiece, must be implicitly obeyed. In garrison and quarters his duties are more of a social character - he superintends the general's household, writes and answers invitations, &c. To increase … AidinAIDIN, or GuzEL-HissAP,,, a town of Turkey in Asia, in the pashalic of Anatolia, about 70 miles S.E. of Smyrna. AidsAIDS (Auxilia), a pecuniary tribute under the feudal system, paid by a vassal to his lord on particular occasions; originally a voluntary grant which in process of time became exigible as a right. AiiaziahAIIAZIAH, son of Jehoram and Athaliah, daughter of Ahab, and sixth king of Judah, reigned one year, 885 B.C. A'iieckett, Gilbert AbbottA'IIECKETT, GILBERT ABBOTT, a successful cultivator of light literature, was born in London in 1811, and educated at Westminster School. He wrote burlesque dramas with success from his boyhood, took an active share in the establishment of different comic periodicals, particularly Figaro in London and Punch, and was a constant contributor to the columns of the latter from its commencement till the … AikinAIKIN, JoaN, M.D. (1747-1822), was born at KibworthHarcourt, received his elementary education at the dissenting academy of Warrington, where his father was tutor, and prosecuted his medical studies in the university of Edinburgh, and in London under the celebrated Dr William Hunter. He commenced his professional career as a surgeon at Chester; but being unsuccessful, he removed to Warrington. Fin… Aikin, LucyAIKIN, LUCY, daughter of the preceding, a well-known historical writer, was born at Warrington on Gth Nov. 1781. After rendering valuable assistance to her father in several of his later works, she commenced her own career as an authoress by the publication of several books for the young, the most important of which were the Adventures of Rolando, a translation, and Lorimer, a tale. In 1818 she pu… Aikman, WilliamAIKMAN, WILLIAM, a celebrated portrait-painter, born at Cairney, Forfarshire, on the 24th Oct. 1682. He was intended by his father for the bar, but followed his natural bent by becoming a pupil under Sir John Medina,. the leading painter of the day in Scotland. In 1707 he went to Italy, resided in Rome for three years, afterwards travelled to Constantinople and Smyrna, and in 1712 returned home. I… Ailred, Ealred, EthelredusAILRED, EALRED, ETHELREDUS, ALUREDLTS, an English ecclesiastic and historian, born at Hexham in 1109. He was educated at the Scotch court with Henry the son of King David. The king is said to have offered him a. bishopric, which he refused, preferring to become a monk in the Cistercian abbey of Rievaulx, Yorkshire. In 1146. he was chosen abbot, and he held that position till his death in 1166, - t… Ailsa CraigAILSA CRAIG, a remarkable island-rock at the mouth of the Firth of Clyde, off the coast of Ayrshire, Scotland. It is of a conoidal form, with an irregular elliptic base, and rises abruptly from the sea to the height of 1139 feet. The only side from which the rock can be ascended is the east; the other sides being for the most part perpendicular, and generally presenting lofty columnar forms, thoug… AinadAINAD, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hadramaut, about 207 miles N.E. of Aden. Ainmuller, Maximilian EmmanuelAINMULLER, MAXIMILIAN EMMANUEL, founder of a -new school of glass - painting, was born at Munich on the 14th February 1807. He was induced, by the advice of Gartner, director of the royal porcelain manu factory, to devote himself to the studv of glass-painting, both as a mechanical process and as an art, and he made such progress that in 1828 he was appointed director of the newly-founded royal pa… AinosAINOS, the name of a small but remarkable tribe in Japan, found chiefly in the island of Yesso. They are different in race and character from the ordinary Japanese, and seem to have been the earliest inhabitants of the country. Since the invasion of the islands by the Japanese, however, the Ainos have been gradually supplanted by the invaders, and arc now completely subject to them, although they … Ainsworth, HenryAINSWORTH, HENRY, divine and scholar, was born " about 1560" at Pleasington, near Blackburn, Lancashire, having been second son of Laiyrence Ainsworth of Pleasington Hall. Young Henry Ainsworth is believed to have received his education at Queen Elizabeth's Grammar School in Blackburn, of which his father was an original founder. According to tradition, he was a Roman Catholic, and a younger broth… Ainsworth, RobertAINSWORTH, ROBERT (1660-1743), author of a well-known Latin dictionary, was born at Woodvale, near Manchester. AintabAINTAB, a large garrison town on the northern frontier of Syria, 65 miles N.N.E. of Aleppo, in 36? 58' N. lat., 37? 13' E. long. It has a considerable trade, chiefly in hides and leather, and cotton of coarse quality is grown in the district. Population, about 20,000. AIR was the name formerly given to all gaseous substances. The gas now known as oxygen, for instance, was named by Priestley dephlo… AirdrieAIRDRIE, a parliamentary and municipal burgh and market-town of Scotland, in the parish of New Monkland, Lanarkshire, 11 miles E. of Glasgow and 32 W. of Edinburgh. The high road between these cities passes through Airdrie, forming its principal street, from which others diverge at right angles. It is well built, paved, and lighted with gas, but it contains little that is beautiful or attractive. … AireAIRE, a fortified town of France, on the river Lys, in the department of Pas-de-Calais, 10 miles S.E. of St Omer. AireAIRE, an English river which rises in the West Riding of Yorkshire and pursues a south-easterly course through the populous " clothing district " of which Leeds is the capital. AireAIRE, a town in the south of France, in the department of Landes, on the left bank of the Adour, 14 miles S.S.E. of St Sever. Air-gunAIR-GUN, a weapon like a common gun in shape, in which the force employed to propel the bullet is the elasticity of condensed atmospheric air. It has attached to it, or constructed in it, a strong metal chamber, into which air is forced by a condensing syringe (see PNEUMATICS). In this way a pressure may be obtained of several hundred atmospheres. When a trigger is touched, the condensed air rushe… Air-pumpAIR-PUMP, an apparatus by means of which a closed vessel can have the air it contains removed from it. It consists essentially of two parts - a receiver, from which the air is to be exhausted ; and a pump, to perform the work of exhaustion. The receiver is in general made of glass, in order that the condition of objects placed within it for the purpose of experiment may be readily seen by the oper… AisleAISLE, sometimes written ISLE, YIR, and ALLEY (Lat. and Ital. Ala, a wing ; Fr. Aile, Pas cute; Ger. Seitenschif, Seitenchor), in its primary sense, the wing of a house, but generally used to describe the alleys or passages at the sides of the naves and choirs of churches. In reckoning their number, the nave is usually counted. Thus a nave with an aisle on each side is generally called a threeaisl… AisneAISNE, a frontier department in the north-east of France, bounded on the N. by the department of Nord and the kingdom of Belgium, on the E. by the department of Ardennes, on the S.E. by that of Marne, on the S. by that of Seine-et-Marne, and on the W. by those of Oise and Somme; extending at the widest points 75 miles from N. to S., and 53 from E. to W., with an area of 2838 square miles. The surf… AitonAITON, IrViLmim (1731-1793), an eminent botanist and gardener, was born near Hamilton in Scotland. Having been regularly trained to the profession of a gardener, he travelled to England in the year 1754, where he became assistant to Philip Miller, then superintendent of the physic garden at Chelsea. In 1759 he was appointed director of the newly-established botanical garden at Kew, in which office… Aitzema, Leon VanAITZEMA, LEON VAN, Dutch historian and statesman, was born at Doccum, in Friesland, on the 19th November 1600, and died at the Hague on the 23d February 1669. In his youth he published a volume of Latin poems under the title of Poemata Juvenilia. He subsequently devoted himself almost entirely to political life, and held for a lengthened period the position of resident at the Hague for the towns o… Aix-la-chapelleAIX-LA-CHAPELLE, Congresses and Treaties of. Aix-la-chapelleAIX-LA-CHAPELLE, the German AACHEN, the capital of a district of the same name in Rhenish Prussia, situated near the Wurm, a tributary of the Meuse, in a pleasant and fertile valley about 40 miles west of Cologne, with which it is connected by railway. It is well built, and is enclosed by ramparts that have been converted into promenades, and its appearance is rather that of a prosperous modern to… Aix, Or Aix-les-11ainsAIX, or AIX-LES-11AINS, a town of France, in the department of Savoie, near Lake Bourget, 8 miles north of ChambCry. AjaccioAJACCIO, the chief town of Corsica, one of the departments of France. AjanAJAN (the ancient Azania), a tract which forms the eastern horn of Africa, with a coast-line of about 10? of latitude, from Cape Garclafui nearly to the equator. AjaxAJAX (Ar.a.$), the son of Telamon. In Greek legend Ajax represents throughout only physical qualities, like Hercules, with whom, indeed, a likeness must have been recognised, or there would have been no sufficient basis for the belief that the child Ajax was born at the prayer of Hercules in behalf of his friend Telamon (the.-name A'Ias - or Ai-as with digamma - being an allusion to the eagle, at'… Ajax OileusAJAX OILEUS, or the LESSER AJAX, was a son of the King of Locri, whose subjects he led before Troy, contributing a contingent of forty ships. In boldness he was in the first rank among the Greeks there, equal to make a stand against Hector, and swift of foot next to Achilles. But, compared with the other leaders, he is impatient and overbearing. Like the Telamonian Ajax, he appears as an enemy of … Ajmfr CityAJMfR CITY, the capital of Ajmfr district, is situated in a picturesque and fertile valley surrounded by mountains, in 26? 29' N. lat. and 74? 43' E. long. The town is partly built on the lower slope of the Taragarh hill, and is surrounded by a stone wall with five handsome gates. To the north of the city is a large artificial lake called the Anasagar, whence the water supply of the place is deriv… Ajm IrAJM IR, a district and town of British India, in Rajputank The DISTRICT lies between 25? 43' and 26? 42' N. lat., and 74? 22' and 75? 33' E. long., measuring 80 miles in length from north to south, by 50 miles in breadth, and comprising an area of 2057 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the states of Krishnagar and Jaipur, on the S. by Mewdr, on the W. by the British district of Mairwara, an… AjuruocaAJURUOCA, a town of Brazil, in the province of Minas Geraes, 117 miles N. of Rio de Janeiro. Akabah, The Gulf OfAKABAH, THE GULF OF, the Sinus Elanites of antiquity, is the eastmost of the two divisions into which the Red Sea bifurcates near its northern extremity. It penetrates into Arabia Petriea in a N.N.E. direction, from 2S? to 29? 32' N. lat., a distance of 100 miles, and its breadth varies from 12 to 17 miles. The entrance is contracted by Tiran and other islands, so that the passage is rendered some… Akbar, AkhbarAKBAR, AKHBAR, Or AKBER, JELLALADIN MOHAMMED, one of the greatest and wisest of the Moghul emperors, was born at Amerkote in Sindh on the 14th October 1542, his father, Humayun, having been driven from the throne a short time before by the usurper Sher Khan. After more than twelve years' exile, Humayun regained his sovereignty, which, however, he had held only for a few months when he died. Akbar … Aken, Or AckenAKEN, or ACKEN, a town in Prussian Saxony, situated on the Elbe, 25 miles E.S.E. of Magdeburg, close to the frontiers of Anhalt. Akenside, MarkAKENSIDE, MARK. Like young Henry Kirke White, the poet of the Pleasures of Imagination was the son of a butcher. He was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne on November 9th, 1721. His school was the free one founded by a former mayor of Newcastle, Thomas Horsley. Later, one of the ministers of the Presbyterians added to his school-acquired knowledge in private. In his sixteenth year he sent to the Gentleman'… Akerblad, Jan DavidAKERBLAD, JAN DAVID (1760-1819), a learned Swede, distinguished for his researches in Runic, Coptic, Phoenician, and ancient Egyptian literature. AkermanAKERMAN (perhaps the ancient Tyras or Julia Alba), a town of Russia in Europe, in the province of Bessarabia, on a tongue of land projecting into the estuary of the Dniester. Akerman, John YongeAKERMAN, JOHN YONGE, an antiquarian, distinguished chiefly in the department of numismatics, was born in Wiltshire on the 12th June 1806. He became early known in connection with his favourite study, having initiated the Numismatic Journal in 1836. In the following year he became the secretary of the newly-established Numismatic Society. In 1848 he was elected secretary to the Society of Antiquari… AkhalzikhAKHALZIKH, a city of Georgia, in Asiatic Russia, on an affluent of the Kur, 110 miles west of Tiflis, in 41? 40' N. lat., 43? 1' E. long. AkhtyrkaAKHTYRKA, a town of Russia in Europe, in the Ukraine, situated on a river of the same name, 45 miles N.W. of Kharkov. Akiba, Ben JosephAKIBA, BEN JOSEPH, a famous rabbi who flourished about the close of the first and the beginning of the second centuries. It is almost impossible to separate the true from the false in the numerous traditions respecting his life. He became the chief teacher in the rabbinical school of Jaffa, where, it is said, he had 24,000 scholars. Whatever their number, it seems certain that among them was the c… AkiiissarAKIIISSAR, the ancient Thyatira, a town of Turkey in Asia, in Anatolia, 58 miles N.E. of Smyrna. AkolaAKOLA. AkronAKRON, a town of the United States, capital of Summit county, Ohio, situated on the Atlantic and Great Western Railway, and on the Ohio and Erie Canal, at its junction with the Pennsylvania and Ohio Canal, 36 miles S. of Cleveland. Ak-suAK-SU, a town of Chinese Turkestan, is situated in 41? 7' N. lat., 79? E. long., 250 miles N.E. of Yarkand. it has a flourishing trade, and is resorted to for purposes of commerce by caravans from all parts of Central Asia. AkyabAKYAB, Tow-N and PORT, situated at the point of convergence of the three large rivers Myu, Kolaclyne, and Lemyu, 20? 9' N. lat., and 92? 5G' E. long., is the chief town of the district of the same name, and the most flourishing city of the Arakan division. AkyabAKYAB, a district and city within the Arakan division of British Burmah, and under tho jurisdiction of the chief commissioner of that province. The DISTRICT lies along the north-eastern shores of the Bay of Bengal, between 20? and 21i? N. lat., and 92? 12' and 94? E. long. It forms the northernmost district of British Burmah, and the largest of the three districts of the Arikan division. It is bou… Al3ensbergAl3ENSBERG, a small town of Bavaria, 18 miles S.W. of Regensburg, containing 1300 inhabitants. AlabasterALABASTER (said to be derived from the Arabic al batstraton, the whitish stone), a name properly restricted to the fine massive variety of gypsum, or sulphate of lime, which is used in the manufacture of ornamental vases, statuettes, clock-frames, &c. When pure, it is of a brilliant pearly-white lustre, so very soft as to be easily scratched by the nail, and is soluble to a slight extent in water.… Alabaster, WilliaALABASTER, WILLIA.m, D.D., poet and scholar. If to have been commemorated with golden words by Edmund Spenser in his Colin Clouts come Home Againe,11. 400-415, and by Herrick in his Hesperides; and to have been reckoned " foeman worthy of his steel " by Bishop Bedell ; and to have had his portrait painted by Cornelius Jansen, and engraved by Payne ; and to have been pronounced by Fuller " a most r… AlacranesALACRANES, a group of coral reefs and islands in the Gulf of Mexico, SO miles off the north coast of Yucatan, and extending 14 miles from north to south, and 11 from east to west. AlagoasALAGOAS, a maritime province of Brazil, formerly a district of Pernambuco, is situated between 9? and 10? 30' S. lat., and extends inland 150 miles. It is bounded on the N. and W. by Pernambuco, and is separated by the river San Francisco from the province of Sergipe on the S. It embraces an area of 12,000 square miles. The country, particularly in the north-west, is very mountainous, but at the s… AlaiALAI' (lit. a triumphant procession), a Turkish ceremony observed on the assembling of the forces at the outbreak of war. Alain De LilleALAIN DE LILLE (ALANUS AE DisuLis), theologian and ecclesiastic, born at Lille or Ryssel about the year 1114. The facts of his life are involved in uncertainty, owing to his having been frequently confounded by biographers with others, nearly contemporary, who bore the same name. Some have identified him with Alanus, bishop of Auxerres ; others confound him with an elder Alanus, also born at Lille… AlaisALAIS, a flourishing town of France, in the department of the Gard, on the right bank of the Gardon, at the foot of the Cevennes, 25 miles north-north-west of Nimes, with which it is united by rail. AlajuelaALAJUELA, a city in the state of Costa Rica, Central America, 23 miles W.N.W. from Cartago, and midway between it and the west coast. Alamanni, Or AlemanniALAMANNI, or ALEMANNI, LUIGI, an Italian statesman and poet, was born at Florence in 1495. His father was a devoted adherent of the Medici party, but Luigi, smarting under a supposed injustice, joined with others in an unsuccessful conspiracy against Giulio de' Medici, afterwards Pope Clement VII. He was obliged in consequence to take refuge in Venice, and, on the accession of Clement, to flee to … AlamosALAMOS, Los, a town of Mexico, in the state of Sinaloa, situated on a barren plain 140 miles N.N.W. of Sinaloa. Alamos De BarrientosALAMOS DE BARRIENTOS, DON BALTHAZAR, a Spanish philologist, born at Medina del Campo, in Castile, about 1550. Alan, Allen, Or AllynALAN, ALLEN, or ALLYN, WILLIAM (1532-94), cardinal, was born at Rossall in Lancashire. He studied at Oriel College, Oxford, and was appointed principal of St Mary's Hall in 1556. Two years later he was made a canon of York; but being opposed to the Reformation, was forced to flee to Louvain on the accession of Elizabeth. He returned to England after a time, and for some years resided chiefly at Ox… Aland IslandsALAND ISLANDS, an archipelago at the entrance to the Gulf of Bothnia, about 25 miles from the coast of Sweden, and 15 from that of Finland. The group consists of nearly 300 islands, of which about 80 are inhabited, the remainder being desolate rocks. These islands form a continuation of a dangerous granite reef extending along the south coast of Finland. They formerly belonged to Sweden; and in th… AlaniALANI, a number of nomadic tribes of eastern origin, who spread themselves over Europe during the decline of the Roman empire. The name was probably at first confined to one tribe of Tatar race, whose original seat was on the northern shores of the Caspian Sea, and was afterwards, as the power of that race extended, applied to other tribes. It is supposed that their first encounter with the Romans… AlarconALARCON, lIERNANDO DE, a Spanish navigator of the 16th century, known only in connection with the expedition to the coast of California, of which he was leader. AlarconALARCON Y MENDOZA, JUAN RUIZ DE, one of the most distinguished Spanish dramatists, born at Tasco in Mexico about the dose of the 16th century, was descended from a noble family belonging to Alarcon in Cuenca. Nothing is known with certainty of his early life, but it is probable that he was educated at one of the Spanish. universities. In 1622 he hacl taken up his residence at Madrid, and in 1628 h… AlaricALARIC (Al-rie, i.e., All rich), a chief, and afterwards king of the Visigoths, was born of the noble family of Balti (baltka, bold). He first appears in history (394 A.D.) as a commander in the army of subjugated Got!! s whom the Emperor Theodosius employed in his war with Eugenius. On the death of Theodosius in 395 the Goths asserted their independence, and under the leadership of Alaric made an… Alaric IiALARIC II., eighth king of the Goths in Spain, succeeded his father Euric or Evaric about 484. His dominions not only included the greater part of Spain (Hispania Tarraconensis and Btica), but extended into Gaul as far as the rivers Rhone and Loire. In religion Alaric was an Arian, but that he was tolerant of the orthodox Catholics is shown by the decrees of the Council of Agde, summoned by him in… Alasco, JohnALASCO, JOHN (in Polish, Laseki), a Polish nobleman, born in 1499, who travelled extensively in his youth, and during a residence in Zurich imbibed the doctrines of the Reformation from Zwingli. At Basel in 1525 he had frequent intercourse with Erasmus, who held him in great esteem, and bequeathed his library to him. On his return to his native country he was offered more than once ecclesiastical … Ala-shehrALA-SHEHR, a city of Asiatic Turkey, in the pashalic of Anatolia, 83 miles E. of Smyrna. Alaska, Or AliaskaALASKA, or ALIASKA, formerly RUSSIAN AMERICA, but now a territory of the United States, is a vast tract of country forming the north-west portion of North America, bounded on the N. by the Arctic Ocean, on the E. by British America, and on the S. and W. by the Pacific Ocean. The name was formerly confined to a long narrow peninsula stretching into the Pacific, but has been extended to the whole te… AlatriALATRI, the ancient Alatrium, a town of Italy, 6 miles N. of Frosinone, in the province of that name, which until 1870 formed part of the papal territory. AlavaALAVA, one of the Provincias Vascongadas, or Basque Provinces, in the north of Spain. It is of a triangular shape, and is bounded on the N. by Guipuzcoa and Biscay, on the E. by Navarre, on the S.W. by Logrono, and on the W. by Burgos ; with an area of about 1200 square miles. The surface of Alava is very mountainous, especially on the north, where a part of the Pyrenees forms its natural boundary… Alava, Don MiguelALAVA, DON MIGUEL Ric ADO D', a Spanish general and statesman, born at Vitoria in 1771. He served first in the navy, and had risen to be captain of a frigate when he exchanged into the army, receiving corresponding rank. In politics he followed a very devious course. At the assembly of Bayonne, in 18 )S, he was one of the most prominent of those who accepted the new constitution from Joseph Bonapa… AlbaALBA, the ancient Alba Pomnpeia, a town of Italy, in the province of Cline?, situated on the Tanaro, 30 miles S.E. of Turin. It is the scat of a bishop, and contains a cathedral, founded in 1486, as well as other churches and religious establishments. It has a large trade in cattle, and the surrounding district is very fertile, producing silk, wine, oil, grain, and fruits, and also marble and rock… AlbaceteALBACETE, a town of Spain, capital of the above province, is situated about 140 miles S.E. of Madrid, and is a station on the railway between Madrid and Valencia. AlbaceteALBACETE, one of the new provinces of Spain, was formed in 1833 out of districts taken from Murcia and New Castile. It is bounded on the N. by Cuenca, on the E. by Valencia and Alicant, on the S. by Murcia, and on the W. by Ciudad Real and Jaen. The area is 5971 square miles. The province is generally hilly, some of the peaks of the sierras rising to a height of 5000 feet ; but it contains rich pl… AlbaniaALBANIA, a country of considerable extent, which though frequently ruled by turbulent and nearly independent chiefs, ranks as one of the provinces of the Turkish empire. The tract of land to which this name is now applied extends from 39? to 43? N. lat., and from 18? 24' to 21? 48' E. long. ; from the Gulf of Cattaro in the north to the Gulf of Arta in the south, and from the coast of the Adriatic… AlbaniaALBANIA, in Ancient Geography, a country of Asia, bounded, according to Strabo, on the W. by Iberia, on the E. by the Caspian Sea, on the N. by Sarmatia, on the S. by Armenia and the river Cyrus (IsTour). Albani, Or AlbanoALBANI, or ALBANO, FRANCESCO (1578-1660), a celebrated Italian painter, was born at Bologna. His father was a silk merchant, and intended to bring up his son to the same occupation ; but Albani was already, at the age of twelve, filled with so strong an inclination for painting, that on the death of his father he devoted himself entirely to art. His first master was Denis Calvart, with whom Guido … AlbanoALBANO, a town and lake in the Campagna di Roma, Italy, about 14 miles S.E. of Rome. The town is much admired for the picturesque scenery around it. It is well built, and the Roman aqueduct and other monuments of antiquity are in tolerable preservation. It contains a cathedral, and there are many handsome villas of the Roman nobles in the vicinity'. Population, 6400. The lake of Albano, lying to t… Alban, StALBAN, ST, usually styled the protomartyr of Britain, was born at Verulamium, and flourished towards the end of the third century. In his youth he took a journey to Rome in company with Amphibalus, a monk of Caerleon, and served seven years as a soldier under the Emperor Diocletian. On his return home he settled at Verulamium, and, influenced by the example and instructions of Amphibalus, renounce… AlbanyALBANY, a city of the United States, capital of the state of New York and of the county of Albany, picturesquely situated in a beautiful and fertile country on the western bank of the Hudson, 145 miles from New York. It is, for an American city, irregularly laid out, and much of its architecture is poor, although it contains several very fine buildings, and many of its more recently made streets a… Albany, Louisa Maria CarolineALBANY, LOUISA MARIA CAROLINE, COUNTESS OF, daughter of Prince Gustavus Adolphus of Stolberg-Gedern, was born at Mons on the 27th Sept. 1753, and assumed the title of Albany in 1772, when she married the Pretender, Charles Edward, grandson of James II. of England. Her husband was much older than herself, and their union proved very unhappy. There were no children, and the Pretender, who was a conf… AlbategniALBATEGNI, an Arabian astronomer, whose proper name is Mohammed Ib,c Jdbir Ibn Se do derived this appellation from Batan in Mesopotamia, his native town, of which he is said to have been chief. His astronomical observations extended from 877 A.D. to his death in 929, and were principally conducted at Rakkah or Aracta, on the Euphrates, and at Antioch in Syria. His principal work, Zidje Sabi, the o… AlbatrossALBATROSS, a genus of aquatic birds (Diomedea), closely allied to the Petrels and Culls, belonging to the family of _Long ipennatce, or long-winged birds, in the order Natatores.. In the name Diomedea, assigned to them by Linnams, there is a reference to the mythical metamorphosis of the companions of the Greek warrior Diomedes into birds. They have the beak large, strong, and sharp-edged, the upp… AlbayALBAY, a town of Luzon, the chief of the Philippine Islands, in 13? 22' N. lat. and 123? 52' E. long. AlberoniALBERONI, Gfunto, cardinal and statesman, was born near Piacenza, probably at the village of Fiorenzuola, on the 31st May 1664. His father was a gardener, and he himself became first connected with the church in the humble position of verger in the cathedral of Piacenza. Having gained the favour of Bishop Barni, he took priest's orders, and afterwards accompanied the son of his patron to Rome. Dur… AlbertALBERT (ALBRECHT) I., Duke of Austria, and afterwards King of Germany, born in 1248, was the son of Rudolph of Habsburg, the founder of the imperial Austrian dynasty. Rudolph having acquired the duchy of Austria by conquest, Yosted it in his son, with consent of the electors, in 1282, and thus founded the dynasty which still reigns. He also endeavoured to secure for Albert the succession to the th… AlbertALBERT, Cardinal Archbishop of Magdeburg and Elector of Mentz, born 1489, was the youngest son of John, Elector of Brandenburg. In 1513 he was consecrated archbishop of Magdeburg, and about the same time he was chosen administrator of the diocese of Halberstadt. Next year he was raised to the still higher dignity of archbishop and elector of Mentz, and he continued to hold all three offices simult… AlbertALBERT, Margrave of Brandenburg and first Duke of Prussia, third son of the Margrave Friedrich of Anspach, was born on the 17th May 1490. Being intended for the church, he was educated by Archbishop Hermann of Cologne, and became a canon of Cologne cathedral. He seems, however, to have himself preferred a military life, as he accompanied his father in the train of the emperor on an expedition to V… AlbertALBERT I., margrave of Brandenburg, surnamed " The Bear," from the heraldic emblem he assumed, born in 1106, was the son of Otto the Rich, count of Ballenstadt, by his marriage with Eilica, eldest daughter of the duke of Saxony. In 1121 he received from the Emperor Lothario the marquisate of Lusatia, to be held in fief, and he served the empire faithfully in the war with Bohemia in 1126. In the fo… AlbertALBERT (PRINCE), FRANCIS CHARLES AUGUSTUS ALBERT EMMANUEL, Prince Consort of England, born at Rosenau on the 26th Aug. 1819, was the second son of the hereditary Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, by his first wife the Princess Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. He thus belonged to the Ernestine or elder branch of the royal family of Saxony, which, on account of its adherence to the doctrines of the Reformat… Alberti, Leon BattistaALBERTI, LEON BATTISTA, distinguished as a painter, poet, philosopher, musician, and especially as an architect, was descended from the noble family of the Alberti of Florence. The place and date of his birth are variously given, but it is most probable that he was born at Venice about the year 1404. He was so skilled in Latin verse that a comedy he wrote in his twentieth year, entitled Pit lodoxi… Albert NyanzaALBERT NYANZA, a large lake in East Central Africa, extending from 2? 45' N. lat. at least as far as 2? S. Albertrandy, Jan CiirzcicielALBERTRANDY, JAN CIIRZCICIEL, or JOHN CHRISTIAN, historian, was born at Warsaw in 1731, his father being an Italian. Educated in the public school of the Jesuits, he joined their order in his fifteenth year, and gave such proof of his ability that, at the early age of nineteen, he was appointed professor at the college of Pultusk. After having successively filled similar positions in Plock, Nieswi… Albertus MagnusALBERTUS MAGNUS, a celebrated scholastic philosopher, was born of the noble family Von Bollstiidt at Lauingen in Suabia. The date of his birth is most probably 1193. He was educated principally at Padua, where he received particular instruction in Aristotle's writings. In 1223 he became a member of the Dominican order, and studied theology under its rules at Bologna and elsewhere. Selected to fill… AlbiALBI, a city of France, capital of the department of the Tarn, is situated on the river Tarn, 41 miles N.E. of Toulouse. It is a place of great antiquity, and was a stronghold of the early French Protestants, giving its name to the Albigenses. It is the seat of an archbishop, and has a chamber of commerce and a public library of 12,000 volumes. The cathedral, dedicated to St Cecilia, is a magnific… AlbigensesALBIGENSES, a sect opposed to the Church of Rome, which derives its name from Albiga (the modern noticed above), either because its doctrines were expressly condemned at a council held there, or, more probably, because its adherents were to be found in great numbers in that town and its neighbourhood. The Albigenses were kindred in origin and more or less similar in doctrine to the sects known in … AlbinoALBINO. The name Albinism, or Leueopathia, is applied to a remarkable peculiarity in the physical constitution of certain individuals, which consists in the skin and hair being perfectly white. The earliest accounts we have of it refer to its being observed among the negroes of West Africa by the Portuguese, who called the persons so affected Albinoes. They have also been called Leuccethiopes, whi… AlbinusALBINUS (originally WEISS), BERNARD SIEGFRIED, medicine. In 1702 the latter was transferred to a professorship at Leyden, and it was there that Bernard Siegfried commenced his studies, having for his teachers such men as Barhaave, Bidloo, and Rau. His great ability, especially in surgery and anatomy, was early recognised, and Rau, so justly celebrated as a lithotomist, is said to have seldom perfo… AlboinALBOIN, a king of the. Alb, Or AlbsALB, or ALBS, a vestment of white linen, hanging down to the feet, worn by priests at all the more solemn services of the church. Albornoz, Gil Alvarez Carillo DeALBORNOZ, GIL ALVAREZ CARILLO DE, a cardinal of Spain, was born at Cuenca early in the 14th century, and was related to the royal families of Leon and Arragon. While still young he was appointed archbishop of Toledo by Alfonso XI. of Castile. Uniting, as many in that age did, the exercise of the military with that of the clerical profession, he was able to show his gratitude to his patron by savin… Albrechtsberger, Johann GeorgALBRECHTSBERGER, JOHANN GEORG, a celebrated musician, born at Kloster-Neuburg, near Vienna, on the 3d February 1736. He studied musical composition under the court organist, Mann, and became one of the most learned and skilful contrapuntists of his age. After being employed as organist at Raab and Maria-Taferl, he was appointed in 1772 organist to the court of Vienna, and in 1792 kapellmeister of … AlbueraALBUERA, a small village of Spain, in the province of Badajoz, 13 miles S.E. of the town of that name. Albufera De ValenciaALBUFERA DE VALENCIA, a lagoon, 7 miles south of Valencia in Spain, about 12 miles in length and 4 in breadth, 12 feet being its greatest depth. AlbumALBUM (albus, white), originally denoted a tablet on which decrees, edicts, and other public notices were inscribed in ancient Rome. AlbumazarALBUMAZAR (ABU-MAAscnAR), a celebrated Arabian astronomer, born at Balkh, in Turkestan, in 805 A.D., died at Wasid in 885. AlbumenALBUMEN, an organic substance of a very complicated structure. It is typical of a group of bodies that have the same chemical composition but very different properties. The principal varieties are named albumen, fibrin, and casein. They are sometimes called the histogenetic bodies, because they are essential to the building up of the animal organism. The vegetable kingdom is the original source of… AlbuquerqueALBUQUERQUE, a town of Spain, in the province of Badajoz, 9 miles from the frontiers of Portugal. Albuquerque, AlphonsoALBUQUERQUE, ALPHONSO n' (in Portuguese A fon so d' Albogwerque), surnamed " The Great," and " The Portuguese Mars," was born in 1453 at Alexandria, near Lisbon. Through his father, Gonzalvo, who held an important position at court, he was connected by illegitimate descent with the royal family of Portugal, and through his mother, Dona Leonora de Menezes, he could claim kindred with Zarco and othe… AlcaicsALCAICS, in Ancient Poetry, a name given to several kinds of verse, from Alcus, their reputed inventor. Alcaide, Or AlcaydeALCAIDE, or ALCAYDE, a word of Moorish origin, being derived from the Arabic kcida, to head, which was. applied by the Spanish, the Portuguese, and the Moors to the military officer appointed to take charge of a fortressor prison. Alcala De GuadairaALCALA DE GUADAIRA, a town of Spain, in time? province of Seville, Andalusia, situated on the Guadaira, 7 miles E. of Seville. Alcala De HenaresALCALA DE HENARES, an ancient Spanish city on the river Henares, 17 miles E.N.E. of Madrid. It has been identified with the Roman Complutum, which was destroyed about the year 1000, and was rebuilt by the Moors in 1083. In later times it was renowned for its richly-endowed university, founded by Cardinal Ximenes in 1510, which, at the height of its prosperity, numbered more than 10,000 students, a… Alcala La RealALCALA LA REAL, a town of the province of Jaen in -Spain, 18 miles S.W. of the town of that name.
More To Explore
|
