Volume 24 [URA - ZYM]: Ageneral to Walsall


Tweet 9th Edition of Encyclopedia Britannica - free ninth edition online encyclopedia Britannica Volume 24 [URA - ZYM]: Ageneral to Walsall Ageneral AGENERAL statement of the principles of the undulatory theory, with elementary explanations, has already been given under LIGHT, and in the article on ETHER the arguments which point to the existence of an all-pervading medium, susceptible in its various parts of an alternating change of state, have been traced by a master hand ; but the subject is of such great importance, and is so intimately in… Antonio Vivarini ANTONIO VIVARINI was probably the earliest of this family. He came from the school of Andrea da Murano, and his works show the influence of Gentile da Fabriano. The earliest known date of a picture of his, an altar-piece in the Venetian academy, is 1440 ; the latest, in the Lateran museum, 1464. He, worked in company with a certain " Joannes de Alemania." By some writers Joannes has been regarded … Architectural Styles ARCHITECTURAL STYLES - OWING. To its isolated position on the verge of Italy, and its constant intercourse with the eastern shores and islands of the Mediterranean, Venetian architecture was an independent development, though with many Oriental characteristics, having a character of its own quite unlike the styles employed in other Western countries. It was a very complex growth, in which the most… Architecture ARCHITECTURE. For some centuries Venice must have consisted mainly of a few groups of wooden huts scattered among the many small grassy islets that lay off the coast of Venetia. At first the main occupations of the inhabitants were fishing and preparing salt by evaporation. But, as they grew richer, especially through the possession of large numbers of coasting vessels, in which they transported t… Atacinus ATACINUS, a Roman poet whose life extended from 82 to about 37 B.C. The name Atacinus, given to distinguish him from the more famous Varro of Reate, is drawn from Atax, the name of a small district or river in .Narbonensian Gaul, near to which he was born. He was perhaps the first Roman born beyond the Alps who reached to eminence in literature. He seems to have taken at first Ennius and Lucilius … Bartolommeo Vivaiiini BARTOLOMMEO VIVAIIINI is known to have worked from 1450 to 1199. He learned oil-painting from Antonello da Messina, and is said to have produced, in 1473, the first oil picture done in Venice. This is in the church of Sts John and Paul,--a large altar-piece in nine divisions, representing Augustine and other saints. Most of his works, however, including one in the National Gallery, are in tempera.… Boxing BOXING. - This, though perhaps hardly as popular as wrestling, is closely identified with it in the gymnasium, if not outside it. In the United Kingdom prize fighting is an illegal sport, but it is hardly likely that glove boxing will ever fall into the same disrepute. Its present comparative popularity is principally due to the efforts of the late Mr John G. Chambers, who in 1866 founded the Amat… Censis CENSIS (c. 1190 - c. 1264), the encyclopedist of the Middle monastery founded at Beauvais in 1228-29. There is no evidence to show that the Vincent who was sub-prior of this foundation in 1246 is the encyclopedist; nor indeed is it likely that a man of such abnormally studious habits could have found time to attend to the daily business routine of a monastic establishment. It is certain, however, … Charles CHARLES (1708-1788), brother of the preceding, was born prematurely at Epworth, 18th December 1708. He entered Westminster school in 1716, was admitted a king's scholar in 1721, and entered Christ Church, Oxford, in 1726. He accompanied his brother John to Georgia in 1735 as secretary to the managing committee, having been ordained priest a few days before leaving England ; but on account of a str… Christian Wilhelm Franz Walch CHRISTIAN WILHELM FRANZ WALCH (1726-1784), younger brother of J. E. I. Walch, was born at Jena December 25, 1726. He was educated at Jena under his father's direction, and as early as 1745-1747 lectured in the university in branches of exegesis, philosophy, and history. He then travelled with his brother J. E. I. Walch for a year through the Continent, making the acquaintance of the learned men of… Ciletognatha CILETOGNATHA. (.S'agitta, Spacldlri.) Phyhun 5. ACANTHOCEPHALA. (Genus : Echinorhynehas.) Phylum 6. GASTROTRICHA. (Genera : Clactonotas, lehthipl ill &e.) Phylum 7. PLATYHELMIA. Branch A. Ciliata. Class I. Rummoc(m.a. Orders.-1. Acce/a. 2. Orthoccela. 3. Allceoccela. D EN D ROCCELA Orders.-1. Triclada. 2. Polyclacla. NEI] mcri NA. Orders.-1. Palccononertina. 2. Schizmentertert. 3. 1I, 1, [The arcs… Class CLASS 1. FILICINE. - The Filicinx are characterized by having relatively large and few leaves. The spore-bearing or fertile leaves (sporophylls) are generally similar to the foliage leaves, and are not aggregated on special shoots, so as to form flowers. The embryo sporophyte has no suspensor ; but it has generally (except in Sal. vinia) a primary root. Series A. Homosporous Filicinm. - This serie… Class Il Fungi CLASS IL FUNGI. - In view of the description of these plants given in the article FUNGUS (q.v.), it is unnecessary to define them here further than as Thallophytes which are devoid of chlorophyll. The classification followed here differs in detail from that given in the previous article. It is as follows: - Sub-Class I. Myxomycetes. ? II. Schizomycetes. ? III. Phycomycetes. a. Zygomyeetes. b. Oomy… Colours Of Crystalline Plates COLOURS OF CRYSTALLINE PLATES. When polarized light is transmitted through a moderately thin plate of doubly refracting crystal, and is then analysed, e.g., with a Nicol, brilliant colours are often exhibited, analogous in their character to the tints of Newton's scale. With his usual acuteness, Young at once attributed these colours to interference between the ordinary and extraordinary waves, an… Congo Groiip CONGO GROIIP. - Vaa-Nyamezi, Vua-Tuzi, Yna-Fipa, Vua--Vinza, Ba-Regga, Ba-Ngala, Wa-Buma, 13a-Bemba, Wa-Biza, Vua-Rua, Ma-Rungn, Ba-Songo, Ka-Lunda, Mboshi, Ba-Mbu, Bioko. Constitution CONSTITUTION. Conveyance Of Supply CONVEYANCE OF SUPPLY. A reservoir in a mountain valley is at a sufficient elevation for the water to flow by gravitation to the locality to be supplied ; and it is only necessary to form a conduit by canals, tunnels, aqueducts, and pipes, of adequate size in relation to the gradient, to convey the daily supply required (see HYDROMECIIANICS). In olden times hills were contoured, and valleys were cr… Cornet, Cornet CORNET, CORNET a PISTONS. At present the names of cornet, cornet h pistons, and eornopean are given to an instrument that has no analogy whatever to the mediaeval cornet. It is a transformation of the old post-horu, with a shorter tube than that of the trumpet, and improved to such a degree that its quality of tone is intermediate between the brightness of the trumpet and the softness of the fiege… Diffraction When The Source Of Light Is Not Seen In Focus DIFFRACTION WHEN THE SOURCE OF LIGHT IS NOT SEEN IN FOCUS. The phenomena to be considered under this head are of less importance than those investigated by Fratinhofer, and will be treated in less detail ; but, in view of their historical interest and of the ease with which many of the experiments may be tried, some account of their theory could not be excluded from such a work as the present. One… Diseases Of Cattle DISEASES OF CATTLE. The diseases of the bovine species are not so numerous as those of the horse, and some of the more serious have been already alluded to (see MuRAIN). We will notice a few which have not been included among these. Tuberculosis is a most formidable and widespread disorder of cattle ; it is assuming greater proportions every year in those countries in which it is prevalent, in con… Diseases Of Domestic Animals DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Considerations of space forbid a complete or detailed description of all the diseases, medical and surgical, to which the domesticated animals are liable. This is to be found in the current veterinary text-books. Reference will be made here only to the more important disorders of animals which are of a communicable nature, and which were not included in the article Mu… Diseases Of Sheep DISEASES OF SHEEP. The contagious diseases of the sheep are comparatively few, and two of the more serious have been described under MuRRAIN. The formidable disorder of sheep-pox is confined chiefly to the continent of Europe. It is extremely contagious and fatal, and in these and some other characteristics resembles human smallpox. From three to twelve days after being exposed to infection the sh… Diseases Of The Dog DISEASES OF THE DOG. The contagious diseases of the dog are likewise very few, but the one which attracts most attention is common and generally serious. This is what is popularly known as distemper. It is peculiar to the canine species, for there is no evidence that it can be conveyed to other animals, though the different families of Carnivore. appear each to he liable to a similar disease. Dist… Diseases Of The Pig DISEASES OF THE PIG. The pig may become affected with foot-and-mouth disease (see ? MuttitAt x), and it also has its own particular variola. But the disease special to it, and which causes enormous losses, is swine plague. This scourge, known in America as hog cholera, is a specific contagions fever, or fevers, for it is extremely probable that two diseases are included under this designation. It … Diseases Of Vines DISEASES OF VINES. The organic diseases which affect the vine may be divided into two categories, those caused by insects and those caused by parasitic fungi. Diseases Caused by Inseets. - Kaltenbach in 1874 enumerated thirty-two species of insects which injure the vine ; and since then others have been added to the list. We here deal only with the most important. Amongst those which attack the le… Dom, Vol DOM, VOL xis, p. 489); he also excommunicated Theodotus of Byzantium on account of his doctrine as to the Person of Christ (see MONARCHIANISM). Double Refraction DOUBLE REFRACTION. The construction by which Huygens explained the ordinary and extraordinary refraction of Iceland spar has already been given (hewn., vol. xiv. p. 610). The wave-surface is in two sheets, composed of a sphere and of an ellipsoid of revolution, itecontact with one another at the extremities of the polar axis. In biaxal crystals the wave-su?face is of a more complicated character, … Dynamical Theory Of Diffraction DYNAMICAL THEORY OF DIFFRACTION. The explanation of diffraction phenomena given by Fresnel and his followers is independent of special views as to the nature of the ether, at least in its main features ; for in the absence of a more complete foundation it is impossible to treat rigorously the mode of action of a solid obstacle such as a screen. The full solution of problems of this kind is scarcel… Equatorial EQUATORIAL LakEs). - Chobi, Ma-Kwakwa, Ma-Gwanza, .M a-Longwa, Ba-Hlengwe, Bila-Kulu, Ma-Ndonda, Gwa-Tevi, Ma-Kna, MaNgwangwara, Ma-Tambwe, Ma-Wa, Wa-Hiyao (Yao or Ajawa), Ma-Ganya, Wa-Swaheli, Wa-Segua, Wa-Sambara, WaZaramo, Wa-Kamba, Wa-Nika, Wa-Pokomo. The pedigree and affinity of the Zulus, that is, the northern branch of the Zulu-Kaffre group, are given under KAFFRARIA. Here it will suffice t… Etiquette Of ETIQUETTE OF Winn. Extension Of Supply EXTENSION OF SUPPLY. A supply obtained from wells may be increased by reaching the water flowing through undrained fissures or lying in untouched cavities, either by sinking fresh wells, or by driving headings from the bottom of existing wells in various directions, both of which courses were adopted for extending the Brighton water-supply. Continued pumping sometimes improves the supply when the … Gomis GOMIS Balmnoptera. - The rorquals or fin whales have the plicated skin of the throat like that of Megaptera, the furrows being more numerous and close-set ; but the pectoral fin is comparatively small and the dorsal fin distinct and falcate. The head is comparatively small and flat, and pointed in front, the baleen short and coarse, the body long and slender, and the tail very much compressed befo… Ha Ploannel HA PLOANNEL I DA. (Genera : Polygordius, Protodrilus, Branch C. Arthropoda (=Gnalhopocla). Grade 1. Ceratophora. Class I. PERIPATIDEA (Genus : Pcripaius.) Orders. -1. Diplopocda. 2. Chilopoda. Orders.-1. Orthoptcra (Sub- Orders : Thysanura, Auta?thoptcra, Pseucioneuroptcra). 2. Neuroptera (Sub-Orders : Planipcnnia, Trieleoptena). 3. Strepsiptcra. 4. Bleyncota (Sub-Orders : Pcdicularia, ilphidaria,… Historical Sketch HISTORICAL SKETCH. Galen, following Erasistratus and Aristotle, clearly disnguished arteries from veins, and was the first to overthrow the old theory of Erasistratus that the arteries contained air. Accordinc, to him, the vein arose from the liver in two great trunks, According vena porta and vena caeca. The first was formed by the union of all the abdominal veins, which absorbed the chyle prepar… History HISTORY. The coast of Venezuela was the first part of the American mainland sighted by Columbus, who, during his third voyage in 1498, entered the Gulf of Paria and sailed along the coast of the delta of the Orinoco. In the following year a much greater extent of coast was traced out by Alonzo de Ojeda, who was accompanied by the more celebrated Amerigo Vespucci. In 1550 the territory was erected … Influence Of Aberration INFLUENCE OF ABERRATION, OPTICAL POWER OF INSTRUMENT. Our investigations and estimates of resolving power have thus far proceeded upon the supposition that there are no optical imperfections, whether of the nature of a regular aberration or dependent upon irregularities of material and workmanship. In practice there will always be a certain aberration or error of phase, which we may also regard as… Insects INSECTS, &C., INJURIOUS TO WHEAT. It will be convenient to arrange the insects injurious to wheat under the natural orders to which they belong, and afterwards to describe one or two other forms of animal life, such as tire myriapod, Polydesmus, and the nematode worm which causes the ear-cockle, for, although these are not insects, they must be taken into account in any description of the animal p… Intensity INTENSITY. The intensity of light of given wave-length must depend upon the amplitude, but the precise nature of the relation is not at once apparent. We are not able to appreciate by simple inspection the relative intensities of two unequal lights; and, when we say, for example, that one candle is twice as bright as another, we mean that two of the latter burning independently would give us the s… Lake Van LAKE VAN.Lake Van, called Arsissa Pains by the ancients, and also Mos-from its Armenian name Tosp, is 80 miles long and 30 broad, with a total area of 1500 square miles. Although of smaller extent than Lake Urmia, it contains a much larger volume of water owing to its much greater depth, which is at least 80 feet near Van and still more along the south side. The lake stands about 5400 feet above s… Law Relating To Wages LAW RELATING TO WAGES. The legislature has often dealt with wages in a manner which modern political economy would not endorse. The amount was fixed by the Statute of Labourers in 1349, and by many succeeding statutes (see Lanoun). The policy of these Acts is now obsolete, although the British parliament has never gone as far as the constitution of Louisiana, and expressly provided that no law is … Literatere LITERATERE. - (1) General WOrks. - Sabelliens, DC Venetx treble Situ, Venice, 1492 ; Bunko, Mist. Veneta?, 1551 ; Sansovino, Venezia Descritta, Venice, 1604 ; Dam, IRA. de Fen., Brussels, 153S; Galliciolli, Delle Mem. Fen., Venice, 1795; Midden, Origine della Peale Fen., Milan, 1829 ; Zendrini, Le Isole di Fen., Venice, 1829 ; Id., Mew. Stor. sells State delle Laguna., Venice, 1811 ; Fougasses, Go… Maaie Group MAAIE GROUP. - Mame proper (Mem, Zakloh-pakap), throughout south-western Guatemala ; lxil, Cotzal district, Guatemala ; Aguacateeas Xinca), throughout south-eastern Guatemala ; Alagietkic San Cristobal, Chiapas. Yucatan is still almost entirely inhabited by the same Maya race that was found in possession of the land at the time of the discovery. About five-sixths of the population are of nearly on… Maya Grottp MAYA GROTTP. - Huasteca, Vera Cruz and Tamaulipas ; Tolonac(?),1 north part of Vera Cruz ; Maya proper, throughout Yucatan ; Chol (Cholti, Colelli), between the Salinas and Mondaguas rivers, Guatemala ; Hopom? north of the Chols ; Chontca, Tabasco, distinct from the Nicaraguan Chontales ; Tzental (Cendal), Ocosingo district, Chiapas ; Tzotxal (Zotzil, Zotzlem), San Cristobal, Chiapas ; Chanabal, Comitan district, Chiapas. Military, Artillery MILITARY, ARTILLERY. Here the first point it is necessary to insist on is that the tendency to a divorce between firing practice and drill manoeuvre has been inherited by the artillery from the past as it has been by the infantry. Napoleon's formation for the battle of Austerlitz placed his artillery guns between his infantry brigades and on their flank. The artillery advanced nearly in line with … Military, Cavalry MILITARY, CAVALRY. Of all tactical facts, the one which needs most study for practical purposes is the relation of the size of men, on foot, mounted, in mass, and in different formations, to the undulations and features of ground. There is nothing which the untrained eye so little realizes as the extent to which concealment and cover for men, even for mounted men, exists on the apparently most lev… Military, Infantry MILITARY, INFANTRY. This much at least we know, that from the moment that infantry are actually involved in a modern breechloader fight all manoeuvring has ceased to be possible. The natural and the necessary deduction from this is that the only influence which can be exercised upon such a fight by any but very subordinate leaders is to throw into it fresh bodies of men who till then have been ret… Military Strategy MILITARY STRATEGY. The character of all military operations, whether those of strategy or tactics, is mainly determined by the nature of the armies engaged in them. An army as it exists in the field owes its constitution largely to those military institutions which have been fully described for each of the armies of our time under ARMY. But an army in the field differs considerably in each case fr… Military Tactics MILITARY TACTICS. In speaking of the changes which have affected strategy, we declared our belief that the weapons of strategy have changed since the Napoleonic era even more completely than those of tactics. It now becomes necessary to define the limits of what this statement implies. We have shown how, even in questions of strategy, the spirit of subordination and the nature and kind of co-opera… Mutual Affinities And Phylogeny Of Pteridophyta MUTUAL AFFINITIES AND PHYLOGENY OF PTERIDOPHYTA. Beyond the characteristics which they possess in common, and which have caused them to be collected into one class, there are no special points of contact between the three sub-classes of the Pteridophyta. The classes have each its own well-marked habit ; and it therefore appears probable that they are to be regarded as equivalent branches of the Pt… Mutual Affinities And Phylogeny Of Sub-classes Of Fungi MUTUAL AFFINITIES AND PHYLOGENY OF SUB-CLASSES OF FUNGI. The Myxomycetes and the Schizomyeetes are so peculiar that they cannot be connected in any way with the other sub-classes of Fungi. Beginning, then, with the Zygomyeetes, there can be no doubt that the Chytridiacem are closely connected with the Mucorini by such forms as Polyphagees and Zygochytrium, and with the Ancylistew among the Oomycet… Myriapoda MYRIAPODA. Orders : Chi/og-natha and Chi/opo(las ARACIINIDs. Orders : Pub/tow/rift and Trachearia. Class IV. CRUSTACEA. Section 1. Podophatalmia. Orders : Dee( T00% and Stomopodm Section 2. Bdriophthalmi. Orders: Amphipoda, Lcemodipoda, and isopoda. Section 3. Branchiopoda. Orders : Ostraeoda, Phyllopoda, and Tidobate. Section 4. Entomostraea. Orders : Copepod?, Cladoccra, Siphonostoma, Lernxida, … Naval Strategy And Tactics NAVAL STRATEGY AND TACTICS. The introduction of steam, armour, the torpedo, and other modern changes must necessarily have produced modifications in naval strategy and tactics since the days of the last great naval war. In the course of the last eighty years wars on land, both in Europe and elsewhere, have been frequent, and soldiers have thus been enabled to keep pace with modern inventions; and … North-west Group NORTH-WEST GROUP (CAMEBOONS AND OGOWAY-GABOON BASINS). Objects Of The Science OBJECTS OF THE SCIENCE. One of the chief objects of the science is the treatment of disease in animals. Veterinary medicine has been far less exposed to the vagaries of theoretical doctrines and systems than human medicine. The explanation may perhaps be that the successful practice of this branch of medicine more clearly than in any other depends upon the careful observation of facts and the rati… Ophiuroilea OPHIUROILEA. Origin Of Supply ORIGIN OF SUPPLY. Rainfall. - All supplies of fresh water come primarily from the clouds, though portions may eventually be drawn from the bowels of the earth. Water when distilled is obtained in its purest form ; and the heat of the sun is continually drawing up large quantities of moisture from sea and land, forming clouds which return it as rain to the earth. Some of the rain is quickly evapora… Painting PAINTING. For an account of Venetian painting the reader is referred to the separate articles on the various painters and to ScnooLs ur PaisrINfl. Sculpture. Till the 14th century Venice continued to adhere to the old Byzantine style of sculpture,' which, though often delicate in execution and decorative in effect, slowly lost spirit and vigour, and from continually copying older forms gradually d… Part PART ill. - MODERN CITY. feet between lowest and highest water. The name "gondola" given to the passenger boats does not occur earlier than the lith century. As shown in Carpaecio's and Gentile Bellini's pictures (L.. 1500), the gondola of that date was quite unlike the present boat with its heavy black cabin and absence of any colouring : the older form had an awning of rich stuffs or gold embroi… Phenomena Of Gereral Circulation PHENOMENA OF GERERAL CIRCULATION. Having described the structure and functions of the organs concerned in the eirenlation, - namely, heart, arteries, capillaries, and veins, - we are in a position to consider the phenomena of the circulation as a whole. Consider the organs of the circulation as a closed system of tubes, over-filled with blood ; when the tubes are in a state of rest, it is evident … Philip Wharton PHILIP WHARTON (1699-1731), the son of Thomas, succeeded to title and fortune at the age of sixteen, and quickly earned for himself, by his wild and profligate frolics and reckless playing at politics, Pope's satire of him as " the scorn and wonder of our days " (Moral Essays, i. 179). Phylogeny Of The Angiosperm PHYLOGENY OF THE ANGIOSPERM. There can be no doubt that the Angiospermx, have been derived from the Pteridophyta ; but it is a question whether they have had an independent origin from that group or whether they are to be traced back to it through the Gymnosperms. In view of the wide gulf which separates the Angiosperms from even the highest Pteridophyta, and of the affinities of the Gymnosperms t… Physiology Of Circulation PHYSIOLOGY OF CIRCULATION. The blood is contained during life in a continuous system of more or less elastic and contractile vessels. These are (1) the arteries, terminating in (2) the capillaries, from which originate (3) the veins, whilst a special contractile organ, (4) the heart, is placed at the commencement of the arteries and the termination of the veins (see fig. 1). The heart may be rega… Plane Waves Of Simple Type PLANE WAVES OF SIMPLE TYPE. Whatever may be the character of the medium and of its vibration, the analytical expression for an infinite train of plane waves is ? A cos -21(Vt a2) + a 1 (1), in which x represents the wave-length, and V the corresponding velocity of propagation. The coefficient A is called the amplitude, and its nature depends upon the medium and must therefore here be left an open … Principal Parasites Of Domestic Animals PRINCIPAL PARASITES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Perhaps the commonest worm infesting the horse is A searis megolocephala or coinnion buithricoid. The males are from 6 to 8 inches long, females 7 to 17 inches. It is found in almost every part of the intestinal canal, but generally in the small intestines. The symptoms produced in the horse by this worm are colicky pains, which occur intermittently, an unh… Principles Of Study PRINCIPLES OF STUDY. - (1) Limits Of Variation in Different Copies, Places, and Times. - Unfortunately, so very little is known of the ages of weights and measures that this datum - most essential in considering their history - has been scarcely considered. In measure, Egyptians of Dynasty IV. at Gizeh on an average varied 1 in 350 between different buildings (27). Buildings at Persepolis, all of … Propagation Of Wares In General PROPAGATION OF WARES IN GENERAL. it has been shown under OPTICS that a system of rays, however many rellexions or refractions they may have undergone, arc always normal to a certain surface, or rather system of surfaces. From our present point of view these surfaces are to be regarded as wave-surfaces, that is, surfaces of constant phase. It is evident that, so long as the radius of curvature is v… Purification PURIFICATION. The water obtained for supply is frequently not sufficiently pure to be at once distributed for domestic purposes. The impurities to which water is liable are of three kinds, namely, particles of matter in suspension, inorganic substances in solution, and organic matters in solution or of extreme minuteness. Suspended matters are readily removed by subsidence if the particles are hea… Quiche Ghoup QUICHE GHOUP. - Cakehipel Teepan to Sta Lucia and the Pacific ; Txutujil (Sotojil, Zutuhil), Aitlan district, Guatemala ; Quichd proper (Niche, Utatlica), Cullen and Rabinal districts, and thence south-west to the Pacific, Guatemala ; Uspanteca, San Miguel Uspantan, Guatemala. Reflexion And Refraction REFLEXION AND REFRACTION. So far as the directions of the rays are concerned, the laws of reflexion and refraction were satisfactorily explained by Huygens on the principles of the wave theory. The question of the amount of light reflected, as dependent upon the characters of the media and upon the angle of incidence, is a much more difficult one, and cannot be dealt with a priori without special … Reflextion On The Elastic Solid Theory REFLEXTION ON THE ELASTIC SOLID THEORY. On the theory which assimilates the father to an elastic solid, the investigation of reflexion and refraction presents no very serious difficulties, but the results do not harmonize very well with optical observation. It is, however, of some importance to understand that reflexiou and refraction can be explained, at least in their principal features, on a pe… Reservoir Dams RESERVOIR DAMS. The capacity of a reservoir depends upon the form and levels of the valley in which it is situated, and the height of the darn retaining it. As, however, the extent of the water surface is considerably increased by raising the water-level, an additional height of dam adds largely to the capacity of a reservoir. Thus Thirinaere, with an existing maximum depth of 108 feet, will have … Reservoirs RESERVOIRS. Lakes as Reservoirs. - A lake is a natural reservoir of water, caused by the influx of a stream into a depression of an impermeable stratum, which is barred to a certain height by a ridge across its outlet, over which the water has to rise before it can flow away (see LAKE). The water of lakes is generally of exceptional purity, owing to its being usually supplied by the drainage from … Rotatory Polarization ROTATORY POLARIZATION. In general a polarized ray travelling along the axis of a uniaxal crystal undergoes no change; but it was observed by Arago that, if quartz be used in this experiment, the plane of polarization is found to be rotated through an angle proportional to the thickness of crystal traversed. The subject was further studied by 13iot, who ascertained that the rotation due to a given … Samuel SAMUEL (1690-17:30) was born in Loudon 10th February 1690, and educated at Westminster school, where he was nominated king's scholar. In 1711 he entered Christ Church, Oxford, and on taking his M.A. degree returned to Westminster as tutor. He lived on intimate terms with Harley, earl of Oxford, Pope, Swift, and Prior, and wrote somewhat clever squibs against Sir Robert Walpole, the Whigs, and the … Samuel SAMUEL (1662-1735), son of the above John, was born 17th December 1662. lie was educated at an academy at Stepney, London, and in August 1683 entered Exeter College, Oxford, as a pauper scholaris, shortly after which he joined the Church of England, a step which so deeply offended his family that they left him henceforth to his own resources. While still an undergraduate he published Maggots, or P… Sources Of Supply SOURCES OF SUPPLY. Tanks. - The simplest method of procuring pure water is to collect the rain as it falls from the clouds ; and this method is a necessity where, as in tropical countries, there is an excessive rainfall during one period of the year, followed by a long drought, unless the rain sinks into a permeable stratum whence it can subsequently be drawn. These open tanks, however, excavated … South-west Group SOUTH-WEST GROUP (ANGOLA, DAMARALAND). - Mu-Sorongo, Mu-Shicongo, Kongo proper, (S. Standards Of Area STANDARDS OF AREA. - We cannot here describe these in detail. Standards Of Length STANDARDS OF LENGTH. -Most ancient measures have been derived from one of two great systems, that of the cubit of 20.63 inches, or the digit of .729 inch; and both these systems are found in the earliest remains. 20.63 ins.-First known in Dynasty IV. in Egypt, most accurately 20.620 in the Great Pyramid, varying 20'51 to 20.71 in Dyn. IV. to Vl. (27). Divided decimally in 100ths ; but usually mark… Standards Of Volum-e STANDARDS OF VOLUM-E. - There is great uncertainty as to the exact values of all ancient standards of volume, - the only precise data being those resulting from the theories of volumes derived from the cubes of feet and cubits. Such theories, as we have noticed, are extremely likely to be only approximations in ancient times, even if recognized then; and our data are quite inadequate for clearing … Standards Of 'Weight STANDARDS OF 'WEIGHT. - Fer these we have far more complete data than for volumes or even lengths, and can ascertain in many cases the nature of the variations, and their type in each place. The main series on which we shall rely here are those(1) from Assyria (38) about 800 D.C. ; (2) from the eastern Delta of Egypt (29) (Defenneh) ; (3) from western Delta (28) (Nancratis) ; (4) from Memphis (44)… Sub-kingdom SUB-KINGDOM I. THALLOPHYTA. This sub-kingdom includes the most lowly organized of plants. They are characterized by the total absence, or the imperfection, of that differentiation of the body into root, stem, and leaf which is so marked a feature in the higher plants, and by the simplicity of their internal structure, especially by the absence of woody vascular tissue. In those Tballophyta which p… Sub-kingdom Ii SUB-KINGDOM II. BRYOPHYTA. The Bryophyta may be characterized as plants which present a definite alternation of generations, the plant being the gametophyte and the fructification or sporogonium the sporophyte. The sporophyte is not independent, hut remains permanently attached to the gametophyte. The shoot of the gametophyte is sometimes thalloid ; but more frequently it is differentiated into st… Sub-kingdom Iv SUB-KINGDOM IV. PHANEROGAMIA. These plants are commonly known as "flowering plants"; but they are more correctly designated "seed-bearing plants," or Spermaphyta, for the production of a seed is the one feature which distinguishes the members of this sub-kingdom from those of the other sub-kingdoms. There is a definite alternation of generations in the life-history of these plants, but it is obscu… Subsidiary Group, Lichenes SUBSIDIARY GROUP, LICHENES. - As pointed out in the article Fuxcus, a Lichen is a compound organism consisting of a Fungus and an Alga living symbiotically. Swim SWIM great import- G4, ance in Cephala- '"?.s? chorda and Craniata, and perhaps pro- --ft. Talbot's Bands TALBOT'S BANDS. These very remarkable bands are seen under certain conditions when a tolerably pure spectrum is regarded with the naked eye, or with a telescope, half the aperture being covered by a thin plate, e.g., of glass or mica. The view of the matter taken by the discoverer 2 was that any ray which suffered in traversing the plate a retardation of an odd number of half wave-lengths would be… The Action Of The Blood Vessels THE ACTION OF THE BLOOD VESSELS. It is evident that a general study of the flow of fluids through ] tubes ought to precede that of the flow of the blood through the complicated system of tubes constituting the arteries, capillaries, and veins. In this place, however, it is necessary to allude only to those facts in hydraulics which have a special bearing on the phenomena of the circulation (comp. … The Action Of The Heart THE ACTION OF THE HEART. The form, position, and general arrangements of the heart are described under ANATOMY (vol. i. pp. 899-908), and it is only necessary here to allude to certain points of physiological importance. The substance of the heart is composed of a special variety of muscular tissue, along with connective tissue, blood-vessels, lymphatics, nerves, and ganglia. The muscular fibres a… The Combined Action Of The Three Arms THE COMBINED ACTION OF THE THREE ARMS. So far we have spoken of what may properly be called the minor tactics of the three arms, though that name is often applied in quite a different sense. There can be little doubt that it is in that portion of tactics that the complexity and difficulty of the present stage of the question lie. As regards the larger handling of armies, the tendency of recent war… The Diffraction Of Light By Small Particles THE DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT BY SMALL PARTICLES. The theory of the diffraction, dispersion, or scattering of light by small particles, as it has variously been called, is of importance, not only from its bearings upon fundamental optical hypotheses, but on account of its application to explain the origin and nature of the light from the sky. The view, suggested by Newton and advocated in more recent t… The Ducal Palace THE DUCAL PALACE. The original doge's palace, probably a small strongly fortified castle, was built early in the 9th century, soon after the transference of the seat of government from the island of Malamocco to that of Rialto. In the early troublous period of Venetian history the ducal palac.e was frequently destroyed and rebuilt. It was burnt in 970, and again in 1106 ; by 1116 it had been rebui… The Hemichorda THE HEMICHORDA. comprise the single genus Balanoglossus - formerly classified by Gegenbaur as Enteropneusta, an independent phylum of the animal kingdom. They are Vertebrata of worm-like form, the opercular epipleural folds of Cephalochorda and Craniata. This agreement is supported by the existence of a pair of collar pores opening into the ecelom of the collar, as the " brown funnels" of .Amphiox… The Innervation Of Blood-vessels THE INNERVATION OF BLOOD-VESSELS. This has already been described under PHYSIOLOGY (vol. xix. p. 30) ; but there are several points of interest that can only be thoroughly understood after studying the general conditions affecting, and the mode of measuring, the pressure of the blood. Stimulation of the pneumogastrie nerve in the neck slows the rate of the heart-heat, and, if the stimulation be st… Theories Of Variation THEORIES OF VARIATION. If we pass over the speculations of the earliest evolutionists - De Maillet, Maupertuis, Robinet, Bonnet, 6,17c. - as too vague for rapid summary, and note that Linnmus was not quite a consistent creationist, since he admitted that many species may be simply fertile hybrids, the Idstory of definite speculation as to the factors of variation may be fairly said to begin with B… Theory Of Corrugated Waves THEORY OF CORRUGATED WAVES. The theory of gratings is usually given in a form applicable only to the case where the alternate parts are transparent and opaque. Even then it is very improbable that the process of simply including the transparent parts and excluding the opaque parts in the integrations of ? 11 gives an accurate result. The condition of things in actual gratings is much more complic… Theory Of Natural Selection THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION. After mentioning that his first light upon the origin of species was derived from his early distributional studies' Darwin points out that "a naturalist, reflecting on the mutual affinities of organic beings, on their embryological relations, their geographical distribution, geological succession. and such other facts, might conic to the conclusion that species had not… The Urochorda THE UROCHORDA. Urochorda are Vertcbrata which, with the exception of the group Larvalia (,Appcndicularia, Fritalaria, Oilcoplcura), have receded very far indeed from the characteristic Vertebrate structure, showing neither notochord nor nerve-cord, and gill-slits only of the most highly modified and aberrant form ; some, however (certain Ascidians), pass through a larval condition in which these s… The Velocity Of Light THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT. According to the principles of the wave theory, the dispersion of refraction can only be explained as due to a variation of velocity with wave-length or period. In aerial vibrations, and in those propagated through an elastic solid, there is no such variation ; and so the existence of dispersion was at one time considered to be a serious objection to the wave theory. Dispers… Thomas Wai1ton THOMAS WAI1TON (1688-1745), satirized in Terrx rilizls (February 18, 1721) as "squinting Torn of Maudlin," was vicar of Basingstoke in Hampshire, and professor of poetry at Oxford. Thomas Wharton THOMAS WHARTON (1640-1715), a prominent Whig politician at the Revolution, is reputed by Dr Percy to have been the author of the famous political ballad Lillihurler?, which " sang James II. out of three kingdoms." Wharton was lord-lieutenant of Ireland in Anne's reign, and incurred the wrath of Swift, who attacked him as Verres in the Examiner (No. 14), and drew a separate " character " of him, which is one of Swift's masterpieces. Ural -Altaic Languages URAL -ALTAIC LANGUAGES. The Ural-Altaic, Finno-Tatar, or "Turanian" languages constitute one of the primary linguistic families (see PHILOLOGY, VOL xviii. p. 779) of the eastern hemisphere, occupying a vast domain, which extends with few interruptions from the Balkan Peninsula, Hungary, and Lapland eastwards to the Pacific Ocean, and from the Arctic Ocean southwards to China proper, Tibet, and the… Ural Mountains URAL MOUNTAINS. The girdle of mountains which extends from the Arctic Ocean southwards nearly to the Caspian Sea, and is now regarded as separating Europe from Asia, was anciently the subject of various myths. Even the Slavonians, who in the 1 1 th century frequently visited the region of the Urals for trade with the Ugrians (which people at that time lived there), described them as mountains reac… Uralsk URALSK, a province of south-eastern Russia, lying to the north of the Caspian Sea, with an area of 141,174 square miles. It is bounded by Astrakhan on the west, Samara and Orenburg on the north, Turgai and the Sea of Aral on the east, and the Transcaspian Region on the south. It is geographically situated mostly within the boundaries of Asia, i.e., to the east of the Ural river, and both its physi… Uralsk URALSK, capital of the above province, is situated on the upper Ural, at its confluence with the Tchagan, 1095 miles south-east from Moscow. Uranium -URANIUM, the name of a rather rare metallic element, already briefly referred to under CHEMISTRY (vol. v. p. 542). The credit of its discovery as an element must be assigned to Klaproth, who in 1789 isolated from pitchblende a yellow oxide which, while obviously metallic, was foreign to all the known metals. He accordingly viewed it as the oxide of a new metal, which he named uranium, after the n… Uranus URANUS (i.e., Heaven) is in Greek mythology the husband of Men, (Earth) and father of Cronus (Saturn) and other deities. Urban URBAN, St, first pope of that name, was bishop of Rome from 222 to 230. Urban URBAN V. (Guillaume de Grimoald), pope from 1362 to 1370, was a native of Grisac in Languedoc. He became a Benedictine and a doctor in canon law, teaching at Montpellier and Avignon. He held the office of abbot of St Victor in Marseilles ; and at Avignon, on his way back from Naples, whither lie had been sent as papal legate, he was elected pope (28th October 1362) in succession to Innocent VI. As… Urbana URBANA, a city of the United States, the county seat of Champaign county, Ohio. Urban Ii URBAN II. (Eudes or Odo), pope from 1088 to 1099, was born of knightly rank, at Lagery (near Chatillon-surMarne), and was educated for the church. He had already become archdeacon of Rheims when, under the influence of St Bruno, his teacher, he resigned his preferment and entered the cloister at Cluny, where he rose to be prior. In 1078 Gregory VII. summoned him to Italy, and made him cardinal-bis… Urban Iii URBAN III. (Uberto Crivelli), pope from 1185 to 1187, was by birth a Milanese, and was made cardinal and archbishop of Milan by Lucius III., whom he succeeded (25th November 1183). He vigorously took up his predecessor's quarrels with the emperor Frederick I., including the standing dispute about the succession to the territories of the countess Matilda. Even after his elevation to the popedom he … Urban Iv URBAN IV. (Jacques Pantaloon), pope from 1261 to 1264, was the son of a cobbler in Troyes, studied theology and common law in Paris, became bishop of Verdun, was employed in various missions by Innocent IV., and was made patriarch of Jerusalem by Alexander IV. Urban Vi URBAN VI. (Bartolommeo Prignani), pope from 1378 to 1389, was a native of Naples, born in 1318. A devout monk and learned casuist, he became archbishop of Bari in 1377, and, on the death of Gregory XI., the Roman populace clamorously demanding an Italian pope, was unanimously chosen (8th April 1378) by the French cardinals under this pressure to be his successor. The arrogant and imperious temper … Urban Vii URBAN VII. (Giovanni Battista Castagna), pope for twelve clays in September 1590, was of Genoese origin, and was born in Rome in 1521. Urban Viii URBAN VIII. (Maffeo Barberini), pope from 1623 to 1644, belonged to a Florentine family which had been greatly enriched by commerce, and was born in 1568. Through the influence of an uncle, who had become apostolic protonotary, he, while still a young man, received various promotions from Sixtus V. and Gregory XIV. By Clement VIII. he was himself made protonotary and nuncio to the French court ; P… Urbino URBINO, a mediwval walled city of Italy, on the site of the Roman Urbinvm Hortense, in the Marches of Ancona, stands in a commanding position on a spur of the Tuscan Apennines, near the valley of the Metaurus, about 20 miles from the Adriatic. It grew up, chiefly in the 14th century, around the stronghold of the Montefeltro family. Federigo da Montefeltro, lord of Urbino from 1444 to 1482, was one… Urea UREA is known chiefly as a component of urine. Referring to the article NUTRITION (vol, xvii. pp. 682-685) for its physiological relations, we consider it here only as a chemical substance. Urea, CO(NH2)2, was discovered by II. M. Rouelle in 1773 ; Foureroy and Vauquelin in 1799 published the first exact investigation on it. In 1828 Wohler showed that it can be obtained by the union in aqueous sol… Urga URGA, a city of Mongolia and the administrative centre of the Northern and Eastern Khalkha tribes, is situated in 48? 20' N. lat. and 107? 30' E. long., on the Tola river. The Chinese and Mongolian towns which make up Hurce, as the Mongols call Urga, stand on the high road from Peking to Kiachta (Kiakhta), about 700 miles from the Chinese capital and 165 from Kiachta, and are separated from each o… Uric Acid URIC ACID, as explained fully in the article NUTRITION (vol. xvii. p. 683), is one of the penultimate products of the tissue waste in the human body. While the bulk of the nitrogen of the albuminoids passes oft' through the bladder as UREA. (q.v.), a small portion of it stops at the uric acid stage. Human urine contains only a fraction of a per cent. of the acid, chiefly as soda salt ; abundance o… Urmia, Or Urumiah URMIA, or URUMIAH, a town of Persia, in the province of Azerbijan (Adarbaijan), lies 112 miles south-west of Tabriz and 10 from the west side of Lake Urmia, in the midst of an extremely fertile, highly cultivated, and densely peopled plain. Within the enclosures, consisting of a wall and deep ditch that can be flooded, there is a mixed Mohammedan and Christian population of from 25,000 to 30,000, … Urquhart, Or Urchard URQUHART, or URCHARD,1 SIR THOMAS (C. 1605- 1660), one of the most original and raciest translators from any foreign language into English, was the son of Sir Thomas Urquhart of Cromarty, the representative of a very ancient family, and of Christian, daughter of the fourth Lord Elphinstone. His birth-year is uncertain, but it is guessed at 1605, and his birthplace was the old mansion-house of Crom… Ursinus, Zacharias URSINUS, ZACHARIAS (1534-1583), German theologian, and one of the authors of the Heidelberg Catechism (see vol. v. p. 219), was a native of Breslau, and became a disciple of Melanchthon at Wittenberg. Ursula URSULA, Si', and her companions, virgins and martyrs, are commemorated by the Roman Church on 21st October. The Breviary gives no legend; but in current works, such as Butler's Lives of the Saints, it is to the effect that " these holy martyrs seem . . . to have met a glorious death in defence of their virginity from the army of the Huns. . . . They came originally from Britain, and Ursula was the… Ursulines URSULINES, a religious order founded at Brescia by Angela de Merici l in 1537, primarily for the education of girls. Uruguay URUGUAY. The republic of Uruguay, officially known as the ORIENTAL REPUBLIC OF THE URUGUAY, and long locally called the BANDA ORIENTAL (meaning the land on the eastern side of the large river from which the country takes its modern name), is the smallest independent state in South America. It runs conterminous with the southern border of the empire of Brazil and lies between 30? and 35? S. lat. a… Ushant USHANT (Fr. Usher, James USHER, JAMES (1580-1656), prelate and scholar, was born in the parish of St Nicholas, Dublin, on 4th January 1580. He was the eldest son of Arnold Usher, one of the six clerks in Chancery, and descended from the house of Nevill, one of whose scions, accompanying John Plantagenet to Ireland in the capacity of usher in 1185, adopted his official title as a surname. James Usher was sent to a school i… Usury USURY. An ancient legal conception, it has been said, corresponds not to one but to several modern conceptions; and the proposition is equally true when economic is substituted for legal. Until quite recent times the term " usury " covered a number of essentially different social phenomena. " Thou shalt not lend upon usury to thy brother, usury of money, usury of victuals, usury of anything that i… Utah UTAH, a Territory of the United States, bounded on the N. by Idaho and Wyoming, on the E. by Colorado, on the S. by Arizona, and on the W. by Nevada. The eastern boundary coincides with 109? and the western with 114? W. long. The southern boundary is the 37th parallel of latitude ; the northern is on the 42d parallel between the meridians of 114? and 111?, while east of the latter meridian it foll… Utica UTICA ('ITIIK7/), an ancient Phoenician colony in Africa near the mouth of the Bagradas (Majerda), about 20 miles north-west of Carthage. The site, which is still covered with ruins, including those of a vast amphitheatre, lies on a hill which is now 8 or 10 miles from the coast, but in ancient times a bay ran close up to the city, and the remains of quays can still be traced. Founded 1101 B.C. (s… Utica UTICA, a city of Oneida county, New York, United States, about 180 miles north-north-west from New York City, is situated on the south bank of the Mohawk, about 400 feet above sea-level. The site of the city has a gentle slope towards the river. The surrounding country is thickly settled, the principal industries being the manufacture of cotton, woollen, and iron goods, the production of butter an… Utrecht UTRECHT, capital of the above province, 22 miles by rail south-south-east from Amsterdam, 38 north-east from Rotterdam, and 35 nearly west from Arnheim, is situated at the point where the Kromme Rijn bifurcates into the Vecht and the Oude Rijn. The town is traversed by two canals or arms of the river, which are crossed by numerous bridges ; it is surrounded by strong forts and strategically-covers… Utrecht UTRECHT, a province of Holland, bounded north by North Holland and the Zuyder Zee, east by Guelderland, south by Guelderland and South Holland, and west by South Holland, has an area of 534 square miles and a population (1886) of 212,454. It belongs chiefly to the basin of the Rhine : the Neder Rijn, which skirts its southern border, after sending off the Kromme Rijn at Wijk, becomes the Lek, and … Utrera UTRERA, a town of Spain, in the province of Seville, Utrera was of some importance during the Mohammedan period and has the remains of a Moorish castle. Uxbridge UXBRIDGE, an ancient borough and market town of Middlesex, England, is pleasantly situated on the Colne and Frayswater, on the Grand Junction Canal, and on a branch of the Great Western Railway, 15 miles west of London. The principal street is spacious and contains a number of good shops, but the streets leading off it are narrow and tortuous. The suburbs have of late greatly increased. The Colne … Vaccination VACCINATION (from Lat. yucca, a cow), the name given in France to the Jennerian practice of cowpoxing, ? shortly after the practice began in England (1799). The procedure was based almost exactly on the earlier practice of inoculating the smallpox, the matter being inserted under the skin of the arm by a lancet point ; also the continuance of the same stock from arm to arm through a series of case… Vacz VACZ (Germ. Vaga, Perin VAGA, PERIN? DEL (1500-1547), a painter of the Roman school, whose true name was PERINO (or PrErto) BUONACCORSI. He was born in Florence on 28th June 1500. His father ruined himself by gambling, and became a soldier in the invading army of Charles VIII. His mother dying when he was but two months old, he was suckled by a she-goat ; but shortly afterwards he was taken up by his father's second wife… Valais VALAIS (Germ., Wallis), one of the Swiss cantons, ranking as twentieth in the Confederation. Its name has been explained to mean the " Welsh land," as the Teutons called all non-Teutonic lands ; but it is far more probably derived from " vallis," for Valais is simply the " Vallis Pcenina," or valley of the Rhone, from its source to the gorge of St Maurice, together with some villages south of the … Valdepestas VALDEPEStAS, a town of Spain, in the province of Ciudad Real, on the railway line from Madrid to Cordova, is situated in the midst of a district thickly clothed with vineyards at the foot of the northern slope of the Sierra Morena. Valdes, Juan De VALDES, JUAN DE (c. 1500-1541), Spanish religious writer, born about 1500 at Cuenca in Castile, was the younger of twin sons of Fernando de Valdes, hereditary regidor of Cuenca. Juan has often been confounded with his twin-brother Alphonso, who was in the suite of Charles V. in 1520, acted as his Latin secretary from 1524, and died in 1532 at Vienna. It has been conjectured that Juan studied at th… Valence VALENCE, a town of France, chef-lieu of the department of Drome and an episcopal see, is situated on the left bank of the Rhone, 65 miles south of Lyons on the railway to Marseilles. The river is here crossed by a fine suspension bridge. The cathedral of St Apollinaris (originally of St Stephen) was rebuilt in the 1 1 th century in the Auvergnesque variety of the Romanesque style, and consecrated … Valencia VALENCIA, capital of the above province, is situated in the beautiful " huerta " of Valencia, on the right bank of the Guadalaviar or Turia, 3 miles above its mouth, and 304 miles by rail east-south-east from Madrid. Until 1871 it was enclosed by a wall, built in 1356 by Pedro 1V. ; two picturesque gateways with machicolated towers still remain. elegant Gothic hall (1482). The citadel, on the nort… Valencia VALENCIA, a province of Spain, one of the three into which the former " kingdom " of Valencia is now divided, has an area of 4352 square miles and a population (1877) of 679,030, being thus, next to Barcelona, the most populous province in the kingdom. It is bounded on the N. by Teruel and Castellon de la Plana, on the E. by the Mediterranean, on the S. by Alicante, and on the W. by Albacete and C… Valencia VALENCIA, a town in the United States of Venezuela, capital of the state of Carabobo, situated amidst savannas and tropical plantations, 1800 feet above sea-level, in the valley between the two Chains of the Maritime Andes. It is about 3 or 4 miles distant from the Lagoon of Tacarigua or Lake of Valencia (about 45 miles in length and from 10 to 13 in width). The town is connected by cart-roads wit… Valenciennes VALENCIENNES, a town of France and a first-class fortress, in the department of Nord, is 157 miles north-north-east of Paris on the railway to Brussels, at the point where the river Rhonelle joins the Scheldt. The latter here divides into two branches, one of which flows through the town, while the other, canalized, fills the trenches of the citadel and skirts the fortifications. Valenciennes is t… Valens VALENS, emperor of the East from 364 to 378, owed his elevation in the thirty-sixth year of his age to his brother Valentinian, who chose him to be his associate in the empire, of which a formal division into East and West was now once for all definitively arranged (see VALENTINIAN I.). Valens had been attached to Julian's bodyguard, but he was not much of a soldier, though his father, Gratian of … Valentine, Or Valentiniis VALENTINE, or VALENTINIIS, the name of a considerable number of saints,' three of whom may be particularized. 1. VALENTINO'S, presbyter and martyr, according to the authorized Roman legend (see lesson for second nocturn, 14th February, in the diocese of Tortosa), was arrested and thrown into chains at the instance of the emperor Claudius (Gothicus), and handed over to Calphurnius, who employed one… Valentinian VALENTINIAN I., emperor of the West from 364 to 375. He had been an officer of the guard under Julian and Jovian, and had risen high in the imperial service. With a fine robust frame, he possessed great courage and great military capacity. He was chosen emperor in his forty-third year by the officers of the army at Nictea in Bithynia early in 364, and shortly afterwards named his brother VALENS (q… Valentinian Ii VALENTINIAN II., an infant of four years of age, with his half-brother Gratian, a lad of about seventeen, became the emperors of the West on the death of their father, Valentinian I., in 375. They made Milan their home; and the empire was nominally divided between them, Gratian taking the trans-Alpine provinces, whilst Italy, Illyricum in part, and Africa were to be under the rule of Valentinian I… Valentinian Iii VALENTINIAN III., emperor of the West from 425 to 455, the son of Constantius and Placidia, daughter of the great Theodosius, was declared Cmsar at Thessalonica under the auspices of Theodosius II., and again the following year at Rome, in the seventh year of his age. His reign of thirty years was a period of great and terrible events associated with the names of Attila., Genseric, and Aetius, the… Valentinus VALENTINUS, pope for thirty or forty days in 827, in succession to Eugenius II. (824-827), was a Roman by birth, and, according to the Liber Ponhficalis, was first made a deacon by Paschal I. (817-824). Valentinus And Valentinians VALENTINUS AND VALENTINIANS. Valentinus was the most important Christian theologian before Origen. Clement and Origen both were his pupils. In his school all those problems were started which afterwards engrossed the Greek fathers, and a large proportion of the solutions given by him and his followers subsequently became, though in a modified form, accepted doctrines. The dogmatic of Origen lies a… Valerian VALERIAN, a genus of herbaceous perennial plants of the natural order Valeriartacex. Two species - Valeriana officinalis, L. (see vol. iv. pl. VIII.), and V. diaica, L., - are indigenous in England, while a third, V. pyrenceica, L., is naturalized in some parts of Scotland and the west of England. The valerians have opposite leaves and small flowers, usually of a white or reddish tint, and arrange… Valerian Vs, Publiiis Licinius VALERIAN VS, PUBLIIIS LICINIUS, Roman emperor from 253 to 260, was a man of ancient family and is first mentioned in the year 238 as princeps senatus. Some thirteen years later, when Decius restored the censorship and added to the office legislative and executive powers so extensive that it embraced the best part of the civil authority of the emperor, Valerian was chosen censor by the senate, to w… Valerilts VALERILTS, Pumaus, surnamed PUBLICOLA, the colleague of Brutus in the consulship in the first year of the Roman republic. According to the legend represented by Livy and Plutarch (see ROME), he was a member of one of the noblest Roman families, being son of Volusus, a descendant of a Sabine of that name who had settled in Rome along with King Tatius. He was one of those who witnessed the death of … Valerius Flaccus VALERIUS FLACCUS. See FLACCUS. VALERIUS MAXIM�œ“S, Latin writer, author of a collection of historical anecdotes, published his work in the reign of Tiberius. Prefixed to many MSS. of the collection is a life of the author, but it is a late and worthless compilation, and the only trustworthy information concerning Ins career is drawn from a few passing allusions in the book itself. The family of Va… Valladolid VALLADOLID, a province of Spain, one of the eight into which Old Castile is now divided, is bounded on the N. by Leon and Palencia, on the E. by Burgos, on the S. by Segovia, Avila, and Salamanca, and on the W. by Zamora. The area is 3043 square miles and the population in 1877 was 247,458. The province belongs entirely to the basin of the Douro, which traverses it from cast to west, and within it… Valladolid VALLADOLID, a town in the state of Yucatan, Mexico, lying towards the centre of the northern plateau, on the river Bolina, about 90 miles south-east of Merida, with which it is about to be connected by a railway. -Valladolid, which with the suburban district has a population (1885) of 18,470, mostly Indians and half-castes, is situated in the healthiest and best cultivated part of Yucatan, and is … Valladolid VALLADOLID, capital of the above province, on the left bank of the Pisuerga, at its confluence with the Esgueva, which traverses the town by two channels, is situated (about 2250 feet above sea-level) 150 miles by rail to the north-west of Madrid. The site is in a small valley enclosed by steep and broken, though not very high, ground. The . town, which was formerly surrounded by walls and entered… Valla, Lorenzo VALLA, LORENZO (C. 1406-1457), one of the most salient personalities of the earlier Italian Renaissance, was born at Rome, of parents derived from Piacenza, possibly in the year 1406-07, or perhaps somewhat earlier. lie was educated in the humanistic schools of Rome, according to the customs of that age, learning grammar from some humble dominie and afterwards attending the classes of eminent prof… Vallejo VALLEJO, a city of Solano county, California, United States, is situated on the shore of San Pablo Bay, near the western end of the Straits of Carquinez. Valle, Pietro Della VALLE, PIETRO DELLA (1586-1652), to whom we owe one of the best books of Eastern travel, came of a noble Roman family which had produced two cardinals, and was born, on 11th April 1586, in the family palace built by Cardinal Andrea. His early life was divided between the pursuits of literature and arms. He saw active service against the Moors of Barbary, but also became a member of the Roman Acade… Valls VALLS, a town of Spain, in the province of Tarragona, 11 miles to the north of that town, on a height near the Francoli. Valparaiso VALPARAISO, a city of Chili, the chief town of the province of the same name, and one of the principal commercial ports on the west coast of South America, is situated on a fine bay of the South Pacific Ocean, in 33? 0' 2" S. lat. and 71? 41' 15" W. long., 70 miles north-west of Santiago, with which there is communication by a circuitous railway of 115 miles. The city lies at the south part of the… Vals, Or Vals-lls-bains VALS, or VALS-LLS-BAINS, a village of France, in the department of Ardeche, with a population of 21S6 in 1886, is noted chiefly for its alkaline waters, which are similar to those of Vichy (see vol. xvi. p. 435). Valtellina, Or Valtelline2 VALTELLINA, or VALTELLINE2 the upper valley of the Adda, in the extreme north of Italy (province of Sondrio), derives its name from Teglio, the former capital, not far from Tirauo (Val di Teglio, Val Teglina ; Germ., Veltlin), and has a length, from Bormio to the Lake of Como, of about 68 miles. The chief town is Sondrio (4014 inhabitants in 1881), other important places being Tirano (3119) and Mo… Valtquelin VALTQUELIN, Lours NICOLAS (1763-1829), French analytical chemist, was born at Saint-Andre-d'Hebertot in Normandy on 16th May 1763. His parents, although very poor, sent him to school to fit him for the coveted post of a gentleman's servant at the ch?teau. At the age of thirteen or fourteen Vauquelin went to Rouen as laboratory boy with an apothecary. He did not remain long there ; but his interest… Value VALUE. In most departments of economic theory it is convenient to use as the basis of the exposition the opinions of J. S. Mill, not only because lie has embodied in his treatise in a remarkable manner nearly everything of importance from the theoretical standpoint in the work of his predecessors, but also because most of the recent advances in economic science have been made by way of criticism o… Vampire VAMPIRE, a term, apparently of Servian origin (wampir), originally applied in eastern Europe to bloodsucking ghosts, but in modern usage transferred to one or more species of blood-sucking bats inhabiting South America. In the first-mentioned meaning a vampire is usually supposed to be the soul of a dead man which quits the buried body by night to suck the blood of living persons. Hence, when the … Vanadium VANADIUM, a rare element discovered in 1830 by Sefstrom, when analysing a kind of iron obtained from the ores of Taberg in Sweden. Berzelius, in the course of an extensive investigation on vanadium, came to the conclusion that it is analogous to chromium, forming like it an acid trioxide, Van03, in which " Van " signifies 134-4' parts of a radical analogous to the Cr = 52 parts of chromium in chro… Vanbrugh, Sir John VANBRUGH, SIR JOHN (1666?-1726), dramatist and architect, was the son of a wealthy sugar-baker in Cheshire and grandson of a Protestant refugee of Ghent. From a passage in one of his letters to Tonson it might be supposed that he was born in the Bastille, though in what year is uncertain, probably in 1666. He was educated in France, but what he learnt there, whether architecture or merely that art… Van Buren, Martin VAN BUREN, MARTIN (1782-1862), eighth president of the United States, was the son of a small farmer, and was born 5th December 1782 at Kinderhook, Columbia, New York State, on the banks of the Hudson. He was educated at the village school, and, entering on the study of law at the age of fourteen, was called to the bar in 1803. Possessing in addition to his other abilities a peculiar power of winni… Vancouver, George VANCOUVER, GEORGE (c. 1758-1798), English navigator, was born about 1758. He entered the navy at the age of thirteen, and accompanied Cook in his second (1772-74) and third (1776-79) voyages of discovery. After serving for several years on the Jamaica station, Vancouver was appointed to command an expedition to the north-west coast of America, the object being to take over from the Spaniards their… Vandals VANDALS. The Vandals, one of the leading Teutonic nations that overthrew the Roman empire, were of the Low German stock and closely allied to the Goths. We first hear of them in the time of Pliny and Tacitus as occupying a district nearly corresponding to Brandenburg and Pomerania. From thence, in the 2d century, they pressed southwards to the confines of Bohemia, where they gave their name to the… Vandevelde, Adrian VANDEVELDE, ADRIAN (1639-I 672), animal and landscape painter, a brother of William Vandevelde (see below), the marine painter, was born at Amsterdam in 1639. He was trained in the studio of Jan Wynants, the landscape painter, where he made the acquaintance of Philip Wouwerman, who is believed to have aided him in his studies of animals, and to have exercised a powerful and beneficial influence up… Vandevelde, William VANDEVELDE, WILLIAM (1633-1707), the younger, marine painter, a son of William Vandevelde, the elder, also a painter of sea-pieces, was born at Amsterdam in 1633. He was instructed by his father, and afterwards by Simon de Vlieger, a marine painter of repute at the time, and had achieved great celebrity by his art before Ile came to London. In 1674 he was engaged by Charles II., at a salary of ?10… Van Dyck VAN DYCK, Sin ANTHONY (1599-1641), painter, was born in Antwerp on 22d March 1599. Though the name of Van Dyck is frequently met with in the list of Antwerp painters, Anthony's pedigree cannot be traced beyond his grandparents, who were silk mercers of some standing. He was the seventh of twelve children of Francis Van Dyck, an Antwerp tradesman in good circumstances, and not, as has been asserted… Vane VANE, Sir, HENRY (1612-1662), the younger, was the son of Sir Henry Vane and Frances Darcy. His father, of an ancient family in Durham, was secretary of state and comptroller of the household under Charles L Henry was born in 1612 at Hadlow in Kent ; and after an education at Westminster, where he was noted for his high and reckless spirits, and at Magdalen, Oxford, where he neither matriculated n… Vanilla -VANILLA, a flavouring agent largely used in the manufacture of chocolate, in confectionery, and in perfumery. It consists of the fermented and dried pods of several species of orchids belonging to the genus Vanilla.' The great bulk of the commercial article is the produce of planmjolia, Andrews, a native of eastern Mexico, but now largely cultivated in several tropical countries, especially in Re… Vanloo, Charles Andrew VANLOO, CHARLES ANDREW (1705-1765), subject painter, a younger brother of John Baptist Vanloo (see below), was born at Nice on 15th February 1705. Vanloo, John Baptist VANLOO, JOHN BAPTIST (1684-1745), subject and portrait painter, was born at Aix in Provence on 14th January 1684. He was instructed in art by his father. Having at an early age executed several pictures for the decoration of the church and public buildings at Aix, he was employed on similar work at Toulon, which he was obliged to leave during the siege of 1707. He was patronized by the prince of C… Vannes VANNES (Breton Gmened), a town of France, chef-lieu of the department of Morbihan and an episcopal see, is situated on a little stream, 10 miles from the Gulf of Morbihan and 84 north-west of Nantes on the railway to Brest. The narrow, steep, and crooked streets of the old town, which lie on a hill facing the south, are surrounded by fortifications of the 14th, 15th, and 17th centuries, pierced by… Vantni, Liicilio VANTNI, LIICILIO (1585-1619), philosopher, was born at Taurisano, near Naples, in 1585. He studied philosophy and theology at Rome, and after his return to Naples applied himself to the physical studies which had come into vogue with the Renaissance. Though unmethodically cultivated and destitute of definite results, physical science powerfully affected men's imaginations in this transition period… Vapour VAPOUR. See EVAPORATION. VAR, a department of France, formed in 1790 of part of Provence, but reduced in 1860 by the formation of the department of Alpes-Maritimes, so that the Var no longer flows through the department to which it gives its name. Situated between 42? 58' and 43? 55' N. hit. and 5? 39' and 6' 57' E. long., Var is bounded by the Mediterranean on the S., by Alpes-Maritimes on the E.… Varasd VARASD (Germ. Varenius VARENIUS,BERNHARDus, or BERNHARD VAREN (1622- 1670), geographer, was born at Hitzacker on the Elbe, in the Luneburg district of Hanover. His early years were spent at Uelzen, where his father was court preacher to the duke of Brunswick. Varenius studied at the gymnasium of Hanover and at Kiinigsberg and Leyden universities, where he devoted himself to medicine, taking his degree in 1649. He then s… Variable, Complex VARIABLE, COMPLEX. 1. The solution of a quadratic equation involves the extraction of the square root of a quantity which may be negative. In that case the solution is of the form a + - b2, which may be written a +7, or a + ib, putting, with Gauss, for brevity, i. Analysis was, therefore, at a very early stage compelled to contemplate the possibility that symbols of magnitude may represent combina… Varley VARLEY, Joux (1778-1842), water-colour painter, was born at Hackney, London, on 17th August 1778. His father, a man of scientific attainments and tutor in the family of Lord Stanhope, discouraged his leanings towards art, and placed him under a silversmith. But on his parent's death Varley escaped from this uncongenial employment, and, after working with a portrait painter, engaged himself at the … Varley, Cornelius VARLEY, CORNELIUS (1781-1873), water-colour painter, a younger brother of John Varley (see below), was born at Hackney, London, on 21st November 1781. He was educated by his uncle, a philosophical instrument maker, and under him acquired a knowledge of the natural sciences ; but about 1800 he joined his brother in a tour through Wales, and began the study of art. ' He was soon engaged in teaching … Varna VARNA, a fortified town and seaport of Bulgaria, in 43? 12' N. lat. and 27? 56' E. long., about midway between the Danube delta and the Bosphorus, lies on the north side of the Bay of Varna., at the opening of the Pravadi valley, 5 miles wide and skirted by hills on both sides. The town, which covers the slope of one of these hills, facing seawards-, comprises Greek, Bulgarian, Turkish, Jewish, an… Varnish VARNISH. A varnish is a fluid preparation which, when spread out in thin layers, dries either by evaporation or by chemical action into a hard, transparent, and glossy film. Varnishes are used to communicate lustre and brilliance to many different kinds of dressed surfaces, - metal-work, wood, paint, paper, leather, &e., - and to protect such surfaces from the influence of air and damp. The chief … Varro, Marcus VARRO, MARCUS TERENTIus, Roman polymath and man of letters, lived from 116 to 27 B.C. When he was born, the Gracchan agitation had only just been laid to rest, and the year of his death saw the final and formal establishment of the empire. Into the changing life of that stirring time Varro entered deeply, and there was no current in thought, culture, literature, and even politics, with which he wa… Vasar-i, Giorgio VASAR-I, GIORGIO (1513-1574), a painter and architect, whose main distinction rests on his valuable history of Italian art,' was born at Arezzo in 1513. At a very early age he became a pupil of Guglielmo da Marsiglia, a very skilful painter of stained glass. At the age of sixteen he went to Florence, where he studied under Michelangelo and Andrea del Sarto, aided by the patronage of the Medici pri… Vasilkoff VASILKOFF, a district town of Russia, in the government of Kieff, is situated 22 miles by rail to the south-west of that city. Vasto VASTO, a fortified town of Italy, in the province of Chieti, stands high on an olive-clad slope, about a mile from the Adriatic and 131 miles south-east from Ancona. Vatican Council VATICAN COUNCIL. The Vatican Council is the first and only plenary council of the Latin Church held since the close of the Council of Trent in 1563. But it bears very slight resemblance to that assembly in the circumstances of its origin, objects, and proceedings. The Council of Trent was all but forced upon the Papacy by the demands of the principal Catholic states of Europe, and by the religious… Vatte VATTE L, EMER DE (1714-1767), an eminent jurist, was the son of a Protestant minister, and was born at Couvet, in the principality of Neuchatel, on 25th August 1714. He studied at Basel and Geneva. During his early years his favourite pursuit was philosophy ; and, having carefully examined the works of Leibnitz and Wolf, he published in 1741 a defence of Leibnitz's system against Crousaz. In the s… Vauban, Sebastien Le Prestre De VAUBAN, SEBASTIEN LE PRESTRE DE (1633-1707), marshal of France, was born in the neighbourhood of Saulieu in Burgundy (now in the department of COte-d'Or) on 15th May 1633. At an early age he was left an orphan in very poor circumstances, and rlis boyhood and youth were spent among the peasantry of his native place, thus enabling him to gain that sympathetic insight into the condition of the agricu… Vaucluse VAUCLUSE, a department of France, formed in 1793 out of the county of Venaissin (695 square miles), the principality of Orange (621 square miles), and a part of Provence (5151 square miles), lies between 43? 39' and 44? 26' N. lat. and 4? 38' and 5? 45' E. long., is bounded by Drone on the N., Basses-Alpes on the E., Bouches-duRhone (from which it is separated by the Durance) on the S., and Gard a… Vaud VAUD (Germ. Waadt), a canton of Switzerland, ranking as nineteenth in the Confederation, takes its name either from the German Wald (a wood) or, more probably, from Weilsch, the term applied by Teutonic to non-Teutonic tribes. It is of very irregular shape, as it owes its existtotal 1053.6 square miles are classed as productive, forests tween the "national church" (19'20) and the "free church" (1.… Vaughan, Henry VAUGHAN, HENRY (1621-1693), called "the Silurist," poet and mystic, was born into an ancient Welsh family settled at Skethiog-on-Usk, in the parish of Llansaintfraed, Brecknockshire, in 1621. From 1632 to 1638 he and his twin brother Thomas were privately educated by the rector of Llangattock, and then they proceeded to Jesus College, Oxford. At what time Henry left the university is not known ; b… Vaughan, Thomas VAUGHAN, THOMAS (1621-1665), "the Rosicrucian," was the twin brother of Henry VAUGHAN (see above). Vauvenargues VAUVENARGUES, Luc DE CLAPIERS, MARQUIS DE (1715-1747), a moralist and miscellaneous writer of considerable originality and power, was born at Aix in Provence on 6th August 1715. His family was poor though noble ; he was very badly educated; and his health was weak. He, however, entered the army early and served for more than ten years, taking part in the Italian campaign of 1736, and in the disast… Veadikavkaz VEADIKAVKAZ, a fortified town of Russia, in the province of Terek, is advantageously and picturesquely situated at the northern base of the Great Caucasus chain, on a raised plain, 2230 feet above the sea-level, where the gorge of the Terek emerges from the mountain tracts. Vedanta VEDANTA. The Vedanta is the first and most impressive structure of Indian philosophy, the creed of intellectual Hindus, and the basis of the popular Hindu religions. Its earliest germs lie in the Mantra portion of the Veda. The Nasadiyasukta (Rigveda, x. 129) propounds the genesis of the world from an inscrutable principle, darkness, neither existent nor non-existent, and from "one that breathed w… Vedas VEDAS. See BnAmmArusm and SANSKRIT LITERATURE. VEDDAHS, or WEDDA ITS, that is, "Hunters," a primitive people of Ceylon, probably representing the Yakkos of Sanskrit. writers, who appear to have been the true aborigines and the sole inhabitants of the island prior to the Hindu conquest. During the Dutch occupation (16441796) they were met in scattered groups as far north as Jaffna, but are now conf… Vega Carpio, Lope Felix VEGA CARPIO, LOPE FELIX ax (1562-1635), Spanish dramatist and poet, was born on 25th November 1562 at Madrid, in a house in the Piaterias or jewellers' quarter adjoining the Puerta de Guadalajara. His father and mother, Felix de Vega and Francisca Hernandez, belonged to the lesser provincial nobility, and originally came from the valley of Carriedo in Asturias, where the hamlet of Vega still exist… Vegetable Kingdom VEGETABLE KINGDOM.2 There is one peculiar factor which enters into the problem of the classification of plants and materially acids to its complexity. It is the polymorphism of the individual : that is, the life-history is usually complex, the individual assuming different forms in various stages of its life-history. Thus, in the great majority of plants there is a well-marked alternation of gener… Vegetius, Flavius Renatus VEGETIUS, FLAVIUS RENATUS, the compiler of a treatise on the art of war, dedicated to Valentinian II. (375-392). Veglia VEGLIA (Slavonic, 'irk), an island in the Gulf of Quarnero, Adriatic Sea, belonging to the Austrian district of Istria, is separated from the mainland by the narrow channel of Morlacca or Maltempo and from the island of Cherso on the south-west by that of Mezzo. Velazquez, Diego De Silva VELAZQUEZ, DIEGO DE SILVA (1599-1660), the head of the Spanish school of painting and one of the mightiest painters the world has known, was born in Seville early in June 1599, the year in which Van Dyck also first saw the light at Antwerp. His European fame is of comparatively recent origin, dating from the first quarter of the 19th century. Till then his pictures had lain immured in the palaces … Veleta VELETA, a town of Liguria, near the frontier of Gallia Cisalpina, on the Apennine slope, about 20 miles to the south of Placentia. Velez-malaga VELEZ-MALAGA, a town of Spain, in the province of Malaga, and 15 miles east-north-cast from that town, is finely situated in a fertile valley at the foot of steep mountains (Sierra Tejada), within a mile of the mouth of the small river Velez. Velizavetgrad VELIZAVETGRAD. See ELIZABETIIGRAD. YELIZAVETPOL. See ELIZABETIIPOL. [ YELLOW FEVER is a typhus-like fever of certain ports, or of ships hailing from them. It differs from all other existing types of fevers and infections in largely sparing the Negro. It resembles cholera in being endemic in some parts of the world (but only shipping places) and in being importable to others, in being an infection … Velizh VELIZH, or WELtz, a district-town of Russia, in the government of Vitebsk, on the Dwina, 53 miles north-east of the city of Vitebsk. Velletri VELLETRI, a town of Italy, in the province of Rome, and 26 miles by rail to the south-east of that city, is picturesquely situated on a spur of Monte Artemisio on the southern edge of the Alban Hills and overlooking the Pontine marshes. The streets are steep, narrow, and irregular. In the highest part of the town are the municipal offices, with an important ancient inscription relating to the rest… Vellore VELLORE, a town and military cantonment of India, in North Arcot district of the Madras presidency, on the right bank of the river Pillar in 12? 55' 17" N. lat. and 79' 10' 17" E. long. Velvet VELVET is a silken textile fabric having a short dense piled surface. It is the type of the numerous forms of piled fabric now made, the processes employed in the manufacture of which are noticed under -WEAVING (I.V.). En all probability the art of velvet-weaving originated in the far East ; and it is not till about the beginning of the 14th century that we find any mention of the textile. Fustian… Vendace VENDACE is the name of a British freshwater fish of the genus Coregonus, of which two other species are indigenous in the fresh waters of the British Islands, viz., the gwyniad and the pollan. The vendace (C. vandesius) is restricted to some lochs in Dumfriesshire, Scotland ; it is, however, very similar to a species (C. celbula) which inhabits some of the large and deep lakes of northern Europe. … Vendee VENDEE, a maritime department of France, formed in 1790 out of Bas-Poitou, and taking its name from an unimportant tributary of the Sevre Niortaise, lies between 46? 16' and 47? 5' N. lat. and 0? 32' and 2? 10' W. long., and is bounded by Loire-Inferieure and Maine-et-Loire on the N., by Deux-Sevres on the E., by Charente-Inferieure On the S., and by the Atlantic Ocean on the W. for 93 miles. The … Vendome VENDOME, a town of France, chief-lieu of an arrondissement in the department of Loir-et-Cher, is situated on the river Loir, 109 miles south-west of Paris by the railway to Tours, at the junction of the line from Blois to Le Mans. The abbey of the Trinity (12th to 15th century) has a fine portal in florid Gothic style. A graceful to the middle of the 12th century, and is one of the finest examples… Veneering VENEERING is the art of attaching thin sheets or leaves of wood, ivory, &c., to the surface of wood or other material of a less costly or less ornamental description. It is thus in connexion with wood, ivory, &c., equivalent to plating in the working of metals. The art is largely practised in cabinet-work. Veneers are either cut or sawn from solid blocks or planks. The ordinary veneer saw is a cir… Venereal Diseases VENEREAL DISEASES. See PATHOLOGY, vol. xviii. p. 401, and SURGERY, vol. XXii. p. 20. 11,1V. VENEZUELA,' a federal republic in South America, lying between about 57? and 73? 30' W. long. and 1? 40' and 12? 26' N. lat. The republic claims that the area of its territory is 632,807 square miles ; but the boundaries are not yet definitely fixed, and its area is consequently uncertain. In the south-west… Venlo VENLO, a frontier town of -Holland, in the province of Limburg, on the right bank of the Meuse (here crossed by a bridge), is an important railway junction ; Cologne lies 60 miles to the south-east and Maestricht -43 miles to the south-west. Ventmation VENTMATION is the process of changing the air of rooms and other closed places so that a certain standard of purity may be preserved notwithstanding the vitiation which the air undergoes from the breath of inhabitants, the products of combustion of illuminating agents, and other causes. In estimating the amount of air to be supplied, account must be taken of the standard of purity which is aimed a… Ventnor VENTNOR, a watering-place in the south-east of the Isle of Wight, is finely situated in the Undercliff district, at the foot of St Boniface Down (784 feet), 12 miles south-south-west of Ryde and 10 south-south-east of Newport, with both of which there is communication by coach as well as by rail. The town is finely and picturesquely built on a succession of terraces sloping towards the sea, and fr… Venue VENUE (from Lat. vicenetum) denotes in English law the place from which a jury must be brought for the trial of a case. The word occurs early in constitutional documents, for it was for a long time one of the essentials of trial by jury that the jury should belong to the neighbourhood in which the cause of action arose or the alleged crime was connnitted (see Junv). The phrase duodecim legales hom… Vera, Augusto VERA, AUGUSTO (1817-1885), the chief representative of Hegelianism in Italian philosophy, was born at Amelia in the province of Perugia on 4th May 1817. He completed his education in Paris, and, after teaching classics for some years in Switzerland, was appointed professor of philosophy in connexion with the university of France. Attaching himself to Hegel's system with the enthusiasm of a discipl… Vera Cruz VERA CRUZ, a fortified town and seaport of Mexico, formerly capital of the state of Vera Cruz, is situated in 19? 11' 50" N. lat. and 96? 20' W. long., at the south-west corner of the Gulf of Mexico, on a low and exposed seaboard, partly sandy partly marshy, where the true yellow fever is endemic, prevailing throughout the summer and occasionally breaking out even in winter.'- The town, which in 1… Veratrum VERATRUM. The Greek physicians were acquainted with a poisonous herb which they called white hellebore, and which has been supposed to represent the existing Veratrunt. Be this as it may, in modern times the name has been applied to a genus of herbaceou's plants closely allied in their structure to Colchi?um, but differing greatly in general appearance. Ieratrum is a tall-growing herb, having a fi… Verbena VERBENA. The vervain genus gives its name to the natural order (Verbenacem) of which it is a member. The species are herbaceous or somewhat shrubby, erect cm procumbent, with opposite or whorled leaves, generally deeply cut. The sessile flowers originate in the axils of bracts, and are aggregated into close spikes. Each flower has a tubular, ribbed calyx, a more or less irregular tubulam two-lippe… Vercelli VERCELLI, a town of Italy, in the province of Novara, lies 14 miles to the south-west of that town, on the river Sesia (here crossed by a bridge), at its junction with the Canterana. The walls by which Vercelli was formerly surrounded have been demolished, and their place is now occupied by boulevards, from which a fine view of the Alps (especially the Monte Rosa group) is obtained. The streets ar… Verdun VERDUN, a town of France, chef-lieu of an arrondissement in the department of Meuse, an episcopal see, and a first-class fortress, is situated on the Meuse, 174 miles east-north-east of Paris by the railway to Metz, at the junction of the line from Lerouville to Sedan by the Meuse. The enceinte is pierced by four gates ; that to the north-east consists of two crenellated towers, and is an interest… Vergniaud, Pierre Victurnien VERGNIAUD, PIERRE VICTURNIEN (1753-1793), French orator and Revolutionist, was born on 31st May 1753 at Limoges. He was the son of a merchant of that town, who lost the greater part of his means by speculation. The boy was early sent to the college of the Jesuits at Limoges, and soon achieved distinction. Turgot was then intendant of Limousin. In his presence young Vergniaud on one occasion recite… Verkhne-uralsk VERKHNE-URALSK, a district-town of Orenburg, Russia, at the eastern base of the Ural Mountains and on the upper Ural river, 380 miles north-cast of Orenburg, is rapidly becoming an important centre of trade with the Bashkirs and Kirghiz in honey, wax, wool, hides, horses, and sheep. Vermigli, Pietro Martire VERMIGLI, PIETRO MARTIRE (1500-1562), commonly known as PETER MARTYR, a Reforming theologian of the 16th century, came of a good Tuscan family, and was born at Florence on 8th September 1500. In 1516 he entered the house of the Augustinian canons regular at Fiesole, and from 1519 onwards studied at Padua, where he heard lectures on the Aristotelian philosophy and taught himself some Greek. In his … Vermilion VERMILION is a brilliant scarlet pigment composed of the sulphide of mercury, HgS. To a small extent it is obtained direct from pure and bright-coloured portions of the native ore CINNABAR (q.v.); but it is chiefly an artificial preparation. The process of manufacture, as conducted principally in Holland, consists in making an intimate mixture of mercury with about one-sixth of its weight of sulph… Vermont VERMONT, one of the New England States of the American Union, lies between 42? 44' and 45? 0' 43" N. lat. and 71? 3S' and 73? 25' W. long. It is bounded on the N. by the Canadian province of Quebec, on the E. by New Hampshire, from which it is separated by the Connecticut river, on the S. by Massachusetts, and on the W. by New York, from which it is separated for snore than 100 miles by Lake Champ… Vernet VERNET, the name of three eminent French painters. I, CLAUDE JOSEPH VERNET (1714-1789), who was born at Avignon on 14th August 1714, when only fourteen years of age aided his father, a skilful decorative painter, in the most important parts of his work. But the panels of sedan chairs could not satisfy his ambition and he started for Rome. The sight of the sea at Marseilles and his voyage thence to… Vernier, Pierre VERNIER, PIERRE (C. 1580-1637), inventor of the instrument which bears his name, was born at Ornans (near Besancon) in Burgundy about 1580. He was for a considerable time commandant of the castle in his native town. In 1631 he published at Brussels a treatise entitled Construction, usage, et proprietes du quadrant nouTeau de matkematiques, in which the instrument associated with his name is descri… Vernon, Edward VERNON, EDWARD (1684-1757), English admiral, was life of the sea, and his stay in that "seed-plot of learning" and on his return to England Queen Anne acknowledged his gallantry with the present of two hundred guineas. He next went to the West Indies as rear-admiral to Sir Charles Wager, a brave seaman, who afterwards rose to the highest position at the admiralty in the Whig ministry of Walpole, a… Verona VERONA, an important city of northern Italy, in the province of Venetia, situated (45? 26' 8" N. lat. and 10? 59' 4" E. long.) in a loop made by the winding of the Adige (ancient Athesis). It lies at the junction of the Adige valley railway and that from Mantua with the Milan, Vicenza, and Venice line, 25 miles north of Mantua and 30 south-south-west of Vicenza. _Modern City. - The basilica of S. … Veronese, Paolo VERONESE, PAOLO (152S-1588), the name ordinarily given to PAor.o CALIARI, or CAGLIARI, the latest of the great cycle of painters of the Venetian school, was born in Verona in 1528 according to the best authorities (Zanotti and others), or in 1532 according to flidolfi. His father, Gabriele Caliari, a sculptor, began to train Paolo TO his own profession. The boy, however, showed more propensity to … Veronica, St VERONICA, ST. According to the Bollandists (4th Feb.), Veronica or Berenice was a pious woman of Jerusalem who, moved with pity as Jesus bore His cross to Golgotha, gave Him her kerchief that He might wipe the drops of agony from His brow. The Lord accepted the offering and after using it handed it back to her, bearing the image of His face miraculously impressed upon it. According to various form… Verres VERRES (c. 112-43 E.c.), whose name has been branded with everlasting infamy by the speeches of Cicero, was the this is very doubtful, he may have belonged to some branch of the Cornelian family, or have been adopted into it. The younger Verres held his first important appointment about 62 B.C. as quustor of the consul Carbo in Cisalpine Gaul. This implies that he was then of the democratic party … Verrocchio, Andrea VERROCCHIO, ANDREA. DEL (1435-1488), one of the most distinguished Florentine artists of the 15th century, equally famed as a goldsmith, sculptor, and painter, was born at Florence in 1435. He was the son of Michele di Francesco de' Cioni, and took his name from his master, the goldsmith Giuliano Verrocchi. Except through his works, little is known of his life. As a painter he occupies an importan… Versailles VERSAILLES, a town of France, chef-lieu of the department of Seine-et-Oise and an episcopal see, lies 11 miles west-south-west of Paris, with which it is connected by railways on both banks of the Seine and by a tramway. The town owes its existence to the palace (460 feet above the sea) built by Louis XIV. The -fresh healthy air and the nearness of the town to Paris have attracted many residents, … Versecz VERSECZ, a royal free town in the county of Temes, Hungary, 40 miles south of Temesvdr. Vertebrata VERTEBRATA, the name of a great branch or phylum of the Animal Kingdom which comprises those animals having bony " vertebrm ", or pieces of bone jointed so as to form a spinal column. The first recognition of the group is due to Lamarck (1797), who united the four highest classes of Linnmus's system as "animaux h vertebres," whilst distinguishing the rest of' the animal world as " animaux sans ver… Vertue, George VERTUE, GEORGE (1684-1756), engraver and antiquary, was born in St Martin's-in-the-Fields, London, in 1684. At the age of thirteen he was apprenticed to an heraldic engraver, a Frenchman, who failed in three or four years. Vertue then studied drawing at home, and afterwards worked for seven years as an engraver under Michael Vandergucht. He was patronized by Sir Godfrey Kneller, and was one of the… Verviers VERVIERS, a town of Belgium, in the province of Liege, is situated on the Vesdre, 154 miles by rail east by south from Liege and 19 miles south-west from Aix-la-Chapelle. Vesical Diseases VESICAL DISEASES. The urinary bladder is the temporary reservoir of the renal secretion, and as such contains the urine for longer or shorter periods. In recent years diseases of the bladder have come more than formerly within the scope of operative surgery, owing especially to great advances in the methods of examining the inner wall of the bladder both by sight and touch, - by sight in virtue of… Vespers VESPERS (officium ve,spertinum) in the Roman Catholic liturgy is that part of the daily office which follows none (nona) and precedes compline (completorium). Vespucci, Amerigo VESPUCCI, AMERIGO (1 45 1-1 5 1 2), navigator, was born at Florence on 9th March 1451. His father, Nastugio Vespucci, was a notary, and his uncle, to whom he owed his education, was a scholarly Dominican and a friend of Savonarola. As a student Amerigo showed a preference for natural philosophy, astronomy, and geography. He was placed as a clerk in the great commercial house of the Medici, then th… Vesta VESTA (Greek Feo-rta), the goddess of fire and the domestic hearth. The cults of the Greek Hestia and the Latin Vesta, both of which involved the guardianship of an ever-burning sacred fire, are most probably derived from a very early custom, common to a great variety of races, and practised during many different ages. Among people in a primitive state of development the production of fire is a sl… Vestments VESTMENTS, in ecclesiastical law, are the garments worn during the church service by the officiating clergy. In England and Scotland before the Reformation the vestments in use were similar to those still worn by the Boman Catholic clergy, - probably modifications of the dress of Roman citizens in their origin (see CosTumE) - and were either sacrificial, as the chasuble, or non-sacrificial, as the… Vesuvius VESUVIUS, the most celebrated volcano in the world, rises from the eastern margin of the Bay of Naples in Italy, in the midst of a region which has been densely populated by a civilized community for more than twenty centuries. Hence it has served as a type for the general popular conception of a volcano, and its history has supplied a large part of the information on which geological the sea. Ve… Veszprem VESZPREM. Veto VETO. By this expression (Lat. veto, "I forbid ") is understood in public law the constitutional right of time competent authority, or in republics of the whole people in their primary assembly, to protest against a legislative or administrative act, and to prevent wholly, or for the time being, the validation or execution of the same. It is generally stated that this right was called into existen… Viareggio VIAREGGIO, a coast town of Italy, in the province of Lucca, 13 miles by rail north-north-west from Pisa, had in 1881 a population of 10,190 (commune 12,735). Viaticum VIATICUM. This word, which in classical Latinity means " provision for a journey " (Gr. Ta 468w.), is often used by early Christian writers to denote the sacrament of the Eucharist, and sometimes even is applied to baptism. Ultimately it came to be employed in a restricted sense to denote the last communion given to the dying. The 13th canon of the council of Nice is to the effect that "none, even… Viau, Or Viaud VIAU, or VIAUD, TIth)PHILE DE (1590-1626), more commonly called both in his own time and since simply T110- PHILE, a poet of unfortunate life and of great but misused powers, was born at Clairac near Agen in 1590. He went to the capital in his twentieth year and ingratiated himself with at least one patron, the ill-fated duke of Montmorency, who was always constant to him. He also became acquainte… Viborg, Or Wiborg VIBORG, or WIBORG (Finnish, Viipuri), capital of a province or bin of the same name in Finland, is situated at the head of the Bay of Viborg in the Gulf of Finland, at the mouth of the Saima Canal and on the railway which connects St Petersburg with Helsingfors. The Saima Canal (37 miles long), a fine engineering work, connects with the sea Lake Saima - the principal lake of Finland, 249 feet abov… Vicar VICAR., in ecclesiastical law, is, in the words of Black-,tone, "a curate, deputy, or vicegerent of the appropriator, and therefore called vicarius or vicar." When a benefice had become appropriated before the dissolution of the religious houses to a spiritual corporation, usually with the authority of a licence from the Chancery, the vicar was the person appointed by the appropriators for the cur… Vicente, Gil VICENTE, GIL (c. 1470?c. 1536), Portuguese dramatist, with an honourable position also in the history of Spanish literature, was born, most probably in Lisbon, about the year 1470. He was of good family, and, after studying law at the then university of Lisbon, became attached to the royal court, in what capacity is unknown. In June 1502 Ire produced and took the leading part in the performance of… Vich VICH, a town of Spain, in the province of Barcelona. 38 miles by rail to the north of that town, lies in a small side valley of the Ter, about 1500 feet above sea-level. Vichy VICHY, a town of France, in the department of Allier, is situated on the right bank of the Allier, 227 miles by Nimes separate. The population in 1SS1 was 8322, and in 1886 10,072. Vichy owes its importance to its mineral waters, which were celebrated in the time of the Romans. Within the town or in its immediate vicinity there are 21 springs, 12 of which are state property (4 of these obtained by… Vicksburg VICKSBURG, a city of the United States and the county seat of Warren county, Mississippi, the largest and most important city in the State, stands on the bluffs, on the east bank of the Mississippi, nearly midway between Memphis and New Orleans. It is situated in the midst of the most fertile cotton region of the country, and is one of the principal inland shipping ports of that staple. Its means … Vico, Giovan Tiattisti VICO, GIOVAN TIATTISTI (1668-1744), Italian jurist and philosopher, was the son of Antonio Vico, a small bookseller, and was born at Naples on 23rd June 1668. At the age of seven he had a serious fall and severely injured his head, which produced in him "the melancholy and sour temper suited to men of talent." Afterwards be applied himself to the study of scholastic philosophy. At an early age he … Victor VICTOR I., Sr, bishop of Rome from about 190 to 202, succeeded Eleutherus and was followed by Zepltyrinus. Victor, Claude Perrin VICTOR, CLAUDE PERRIN (1764-1841), duke of Belluno, marshal of France, was born at La Marche (Vosges) on 7th December 1764. In 1781 he entered the army as a common soldier, and after ten years' service he received his discharge and settled at Valence. Soon afterwards he joined the local volunteers and in less than a year had risen to the command of a battalion. He greatly distinguished himself on … Victor Emmanuel VICTOR EMMANUEL (1820-1878), king of Italy, born at Turin on 14th March 1820, was the son of Charles Albert, prince of Carignan?, who in 1831 became king of Sardinia. He was brought up with some severity and as a strict Catholic ; but it was not found possible to interest him in study or intellectual pursuits. In 1842 lie was married to Adelaide, daughter of the Austrian grand-duke Rainer, his fat… Victoria VICTORIA, a city of Brazil, capital of the province of Espirito Santo, 270 miles north-east from Rio de Janeiro, in 20? 18' S. lat. and 40? 20' W. long. Victoria, which has a white, Negro, and coloured population (1880) of 12,500, stands on the west side of an island at the head of the Bay of Espirito Santo, the entrance of which is defended by five forts, and also rendered difficult of access by … Victoria VICTORIA, capital of British Columbia and the principal town of Vancouver Island, in the south-east corner of only admitting vessels drawing 18 feet. Victor Ii VICTOR II., one of the series of German popes and the successor of Leo IX., was consecrated in St Peter's, Rome, on 13th April 1055. His father was a Swabian baron, Count Hartwig von Calw, and his own baptismal name was Gebhard. At the instance of Gebhard, bishop of Ratisbon, uncle of the emperor Henry III., he had been appointed while still a young man to the see of Eichstiidt ; in this position … Victor Iii VICTOR III., pope from 24th May 1086 to 16th September 1087, was the successor of Pope Gregory VII. Son of Landolfo V., prince of Benevento, he was born in 1027 ; in his thirtieth year he entered the cloister at Monte Cassino, changing his name of Dauferius into Desiderius. He soon became abbot of the monastery, and in 1059 Nicolas II. raised him to the cardinalate. He rendered many important serv… Victor Iv VICTOR IV. Victor, Sextus Aurelius VICTOR, SEXTUS AURELIUS. A person of this name was made prefect of Pannonia by Julian about 360 (Amm. Marc., xxi. 10), and may be identical with the man who was consul along with Valentinian in 373 and with the prefect of the city of the same name who is mentioned in an inscription of the time of Theodosius. Four small historical works have been ascribed to him on more or less doubtful grounds - (… Vida, Marco Girolamo VIDA, MARCO GIROLAMO (C. 1489-1566), one of the most eminent Latin poets and scholars of the age of Leo X., was born at Cremona shortly before the year 1490. He received the name of Marcantonio in baptism, but changed this to Marco Girolamo when he entered the order of the Canonici Regolari Lateranensi. During his early manhood he acquired considerable fame by the composition of two didactic poems… Vien, Joseph Marie VIEN, JOSEPH MARIE (1716-1809), French painter, was not only time master but the forerunner of David, and the author of the classic movement which, inaugurated under Louis XVI., ran itself out under the first empire. Ile was born at Montpellier, 18th June 1716. Protected by Comte de Caylus, he entered at an early age the studio of Natoire, and obtained the great prize in 1745. He used his time at … Vienna VIENNA (Germ. Wien), the capital and largest city of the Austrian-Hungarian empire, is situated on the right bank of the Danube, in 48? 13' N. lat. and 16? 23' E. long., at a height of about 550 feet above the level of the sea. It lies at the base of the last outlying spurs of the eastern Alps (the Wiener Wald), at the beginning of a plain which stretches eastwards to the Carpathians. The main cha… Vienne VIENNE, a town of France, chef-lieu of an arrondissement in the department of Isere, historically and industrially the first, and by population the second, city of Dauphine, is situated on the left bank of the phone, at the point where it is joined by the Gere, 19 miles S. of Lyons by the railway to Marseilles. On the north, east, and south the town is sheltered by low hills. Its site is an immens… Vienne VIENNE, a department of France, formed in 1790 out of Poitou (four-fifths of its present area), Touraine (one-seventh), and Berry, lies between 46? 3' and 47? 10' N. lat. and 0? 6'1V. and 1? 12' E. long., and is bounded by DeuxSevres on the W., Charente on the S., Haute-Vienne on the S.E., Indre on the E., Indre-et-Loire on the N.E. and N., and Maine-et-Loire on the N.W. The river Vienne, which gi… Vienne, Haute VIENNE, HAUTE-, a department of France, formed in 1790 out of Limousin (three-fifths), La Marche (one-fourth), Poitou, and Berry, and formerly known as Haut-Limousin, lies between 45? 26' and 46? 23' N. lat. and 0? 38' and 1? 54' E. long., and is hounded by the Indre on the N., Crease on the E., Correze on the S.E., Dordogne on the S.W., Charente on the 1V., and Vienne on the N.W. Haute-Vienne bel… Vierzon VIERZON, a town of France, in the department of the communes of Vierzon-Ville (population 10,514 in cultural machines, also foundries, porcelain and earthenware works, and glass-works. Vieta, Or Vihte VIETA, or VIhTE, FRANcOIS, SEIGNEUR DE LA BIGOTIhRE nots for several years. On the completion of his studies in law at Poitiers Vieta began his career as an advocate in his native town. This lie left about 1567, and somewhat later we find him at Rennes as a councillor of the parlement of Brittany. The religious troubles drove him thence, and Rohan, the well-known chief of the Huguenots, requests) … Vigevano VIGEVANO, a town of Italy, in the province of Pavia, on the right bank of the Ticino, 24 miles south-west from Milan and about the same distance north-west from Pavia. Vigil VIGIL, in its ecclesiastical sense, means the day-preceding a festival. Vigilantius VIGILANTIUS, presbyter, celebrated as the author of a work, no longer extant, against superstitious practices, which called forth one of the most violent and scurrilous of Jerome's polemical treatises, was born about 370 at Calagurris in Aquitania (the modern Saint Bertrand de Comminges in the department of Haute-Garonne), where his father kept a "static" or inn on the great Roman road from Aquita… Vigilius VIGILIUS, pope from 537 to 555, succeeded Silverius and was followed by Pelagius I. He was ordained by order of Belisarius while SILVERIUS (q.v.) was still alive ; his elevation was due to Theodora, who, by an appeal at once to his ambition and, it is said, to Ids covetousness, had induced him to promise to disallow the council of Chalcedon, in connexion with the "three chapters " controversy (see… Vigny, Alfred De VIGNY, ALFRED DE (1799-1863), a French poet of exceptionally refined and original faculty, which was kept front voluminous production by a fastidiousness perhaps verging on affectation, was born at Loches (Indre-et-Loire) on 27th March 1799. Sainte-Beuve, in the rather ill-natured essay which he devoted to Vigny after his death, expresses a doubt whether the title of count which the poet bore was … Vigo VIGO, a town of Spain, in the province of Pontevedra, 486 miles by rail north-west from Madrid,is picturesquely situated on the side of a hill (Castelo) which slopes clown to the southern shore of the Ria de Vigo. The Pia is the most southerly of the great fjords by which the western coast of Galicia is so deeply indented ; Bayona at its mouth is 13 miles from the town of Vigo and Puente Sampayo a… Vilkomir, Or Wilkomierz -VILKOMIR, or WILKOMIERZ, a district-town of Russia, in the government of Kovno, 44 miles north-east of the capital of the province, is one of the oldest cities in that part of western Russia. Villa De Contas VILLA DE CONTAS, a town of Brazil, in the province of Bahia, 230 miles south-west from the city of Bahia, on the Brumado (Contas-Pequeno), a head-stream of the Rio de Contas (Jussiape), which rises on the east slope of the neighbouring Serra das :Ulnas, and flows thence to the coast at Barra do Rio Contas. Villa Do Rio Pardo VILLA DO RIO PARDO, a town of Brazil, in the province of Rio Grande do Sul, on the left bank of the Jacuhy at its confluence with the Pardo, about 80 miles due west from Porto Alegre, in 30? S. lat. and 52? W. long. The Jacuhy, chief affluent of the coast lagoon Dos Patos, is navigable by small steamers to this place, which is one of the most flourishing towns in the province, with a total populat… Villani, Giovanni VILLANI, GIOVANNI (C. 1275-1348), Italian chronicler, was the son of Villano di Stoldo, and was born at Florence in the second half of the 13th century ; the precise year is unknown. He was of good burgher extraction, and, following the traditions of his family, applied himself to commerce. During the early years of the 14th century he travelled in Italy, France, and the Netherlands, seeing men an… Villars, Claude VILLARS, CLAUDE Loris HECTOR, DITKE OF (1653- 1734), French general, was born at Moulins on 8th May 1653. After spending some time at the college of Juilly, lie became a page of the grand .curie, and then entered the army as a volunteer. Ile first saw service in Holland under Louis XIV, and later under Conde, Turenne, and Luxembourg in Germany, where in 1674 he obtained the command of a troop of h… Villefranche De Rouergue VILLEFRANCHE DE ROUERGUE, a town of France, chef-lieu of an arrondissement in the department of Aveyron, is situated 390 miles south of Paris by the railway to Toulouse, on the right bank of the Aveyron. One of the three bridges that cross the river belongs to the 13th century, and the narrow, winding streets are full of gabled houses of the 13th and 14th centuries. The church of Notre Dame (1260-… Villehardouin, Geoffroy De VILLEHARDOUIN, GEOFFROY DE (C. 1160?c. 1213), the first vernacular historian of France, and perhaps of modern Europe, who possesses literary merit is rather supposed than known to have been born at the chitteau from which he took his name, near Troyes in Champagne, about the year 1160. Not merely his literary and historical importance, but almost all that is known about him comes from his chronicl… Villon, Francis VILLON, FRANCIS (1431-1461?), whose real surname is a matter of much dispute, so that he is also called Corbueil, Corbier, De Montcorbier, and Des Loges, though in literature Villon is the sole term used, was born in 1431, and, as it seems, certainly at Paris. The mixture of the real and the ironical in the singular poems called Testaments, which form his chief, if not his only certain, work, make… Vilna, Or I VILNA, or I'VrisNo, capital of the above government, is situated 436 miles to the south-west of St Petersburg, at the junction of the Villa with the Vileika, and at the intersection of two great railway lines, one from St Petersburg to Warsaw, the other from Libau to the mouth of the Don. It is an old town, rich in historical associations. Its imperial palace, and the cathedral of St Stanislaus, c… Vilna, Or Wiln0 VILNA, or WILN0, a Lithuanian government of west Russia, has the Polish province of Suwatki on the W., Kovno and Vitebsk on the N. and E., and :Minsk and Grodno on the E. and S. Its area is 16,421 square miles. Vilna lies on the broad marshy swelling, dotted with lakes, which separates POLAND (q.v.) from East Prussia and stretches east-north-east towards the Valdai Plateau. Its highest parts arc a… Vincennes VINCENNES, a town of France, in the department of Seine, 4 miles east of Paris, with which it is connected by a railway and two tramways. The castle, formerly a royal residence, was begun by Louis VII. in 1164, and rebuilt by Philip Augustus, Philip of Valois, and Charles V. Catherine de' Medici added two pavilions, finished in 1614, which Louis XIV. connected by two covered galleries, one of whic… Vincennes VINCENNES, a city of the United States, the county scat of Knox county, Indiana, is situated on the east bank of the Wabash, which is navigable to this point. Vincent De Paul VINCENT DE PAUL, ST (1576-1660), founder of the "Congregation of Priests of the Mission," usually known as LAZARITES (q.v.), was born on 24th April 1576 at Pony near Dax (Landes), where his father owned a small farm. It was originally intended to train him for the ordinary pastoral life of the peasants of the Landes, but he soon showed other aptitudes, and after passing through the school at Dax h… Vincent Ferrer, St VINCENT FERRER, ST (1355-1419), a great Spanish Dominican preacher, was born of respectable parentage at Valencia on 23d January 1355. In February 1374 be took the Dominican habit, and after spending some years in teaching, and in completing his theological studies, be was licensed to preach. He graduated as doctor of theology at Lerida in 1374, and his sermons in the cathedral of Valencia from 13… Vincent, George VINCENT, GEORGE (1796-1831 ?), English landscape and marine painter, was born at Norwich in June 1796. Vincent Of Lerins VINCENT OF LERINS, ST, an ecclesiastical writer of the Western Church, of whose personal history hardly anything is known, except that he was a native of Gaul, possibly brother of St Loup, bishop of Troyes, that lie became a monk and priest in the monastery of Lerinum (island of St Honorat opposite Cannes), and that he died in or about 450. From himself we further learn that only after long and sa… Vincent, Or Vincentius VINCENT, or VINCENTIUS, ST, deacon and martyr, according to the Roman Breviary, was born of noble parents at Huesca (Osca) in Spain, and was educated by Valerius, bishop of Zaragoza, who in due time ordained him to the diaconate. Ruder the persecution of Diocletian be was arrested and taken to Valencia. Having stood firm in his profession before Dacianus, the governor, he was subjected to excrucia… Vine VINE. Of the grape vines (Pitts) Y. rinVera is the species best known and longest cultivated ; but out of ten species that grow wild in the -United States four ( rotunclifolia, V. Lahrusca, V. cestivatis, and V. cordtfaia), according to Engelmann, are cultivated and have given origin to numerous derivatives used for wine-making purposes. Some of the American varieties have been introduced into Fra… Vinegar VINEGAR, is a dilute form of acetic acid, having a historical period, and its power of acting on and dissolving mineral substances rendered it an important agent in the hands of the alchemists. They were, however, unacquainted with pure acetic acid ; the most concentrated solution they possessed, called spiritus veneris, was obtained vinegars are made by the slow process, whilst for the quick meth… Vinet, Alexandre Rodolphe VINET, ALEXANDRE RODOLPHE (1797-1847), a French critic, though not a Frenchman, was born near Lausanne on 17th June 1797. He was educated for and duly entered the ministry of the Protestant Church, the date of his ordination being 1819. He had, however, already acquired an important position as teacher of the French language and literature in the gymnasium at Basel, and during the whole of his lif… Vinnitsa VINNITSA, a district-town of Russia, in the government of Podolia, is situated on the Bug, 137 miles to the north-east of Kameuet-s-Podolsk, and 29 by rail from the Zhmerinka junction on the railway from Odessa to Lemberg. Violet VIOLET. The violets comprise a genus of at least one hundred, some say two hundred species, found principally in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere ; a few also occur in mountainous districts of South America, while the genus is not wholly without representatives in Australia. The species are mostly low-growing herbs with alternate leaves provided with large leafy stipules. The flowers a… Violin VIOLIN, a stringed instrument employed in orchestral and chamber music. The body is a resonant box, composed of a belly, back, and six ribs, all shaped out of thin wood to various curves, the belly and back being scooped out of solid slabs, and the ribs planed and bent. The whole is glued together upon six internal blocks. Pine is used for the belly, maple for the other parts. The external surface… Viollet-le-duc, Eugene Emmanuel VIOLLET-LE-DUC, EUGENE EMMANUEL (1814-1879), French architect and writer on archology, was born at Paris on 27th January 1814. He was a pupil of Achille Leclerc, and in 1836-37 spent a year studying Greek and Roman architecture in Sicily and Rome. His chief interest was, however, in the art of the Gothic period, and, like Sir Gilbert Scott in England, he was employed to "restore" seine of the chie… Viotti, Giovanni Battista VIOTTI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1753-1824), violinist and musical composer, was born at Fontanetto in Piedmont, on 23d March 1753. Ile learned the rudiments of music from his father, a veterinary surgeon and an amateur horn-player ; and in 1764 Giovannini taught him the violin for a year. Two years later he was placed by the Marchesa di Voghera under the violinist Pugnani at Turin. In 1780 Viotti, havi… Viper VIPER. The vipers constitute a family (Iriperidre) of Old-World, poisonous, viviparous snakes, which have a single movable poison fang on either side of the upper jaw, without any excavation or pit between the eye and the nostril, - thus differing from the Crotalicke. They have a post-frontal and a maxillary bone, which latter is swollen and upright, articulating with the pre-frontal by a ginglymu… Virgil VIRGIL (P. VERGILIUS :NERO enjoyed in ancient times an unquestioned supremacy among Roman poets. His pre eminence in poetry was as distinctly recognized as that of Cicero in prose ; and among the Romans, as among all nations who have possessed a great poetical and a great prose literature, the superior power of poetry Over that of any other mode of artistic expression to embody and perpetuate the … Virgil, Polydore VIRGIL, POLYDORE (c. 1470-1555), author of the Historia Anglica, otherwise known as P. V. CASTELLENSIS, was a kinsman of Cardinal Hadrian Castellensis, a native of Castro in Etruria. his father's name is said to have been George Virgil ; his great-grandfather, Anthony Virgil, " a man well skilled in medicine and astrology," had professed philosophy at Paris, as did Polydore's own brother and prote… Virginia VIRGINIA, one of the original thirteen States of the North American Union, extends from 36? 31' to 39' 27' N. hat., and from 75' 13' to 83? 37'1V. long. It is rudely triangular in form, - its southern boundary, the base of the triangle, a nearly east to west line, being 440 miles long, the north-western 565, the northern and north-eastern 236 and the eastern 125 miles. On the S it is bounded n�– y… Virginia City VIRGINIA CITY, the county scat of Storey county, Nevada, U.S., and the largest and most important city of the State, is situated upon the steep rugged eastern slope of Mount Davidson, about 6300 feet above sea-level. A branch line connects it with the Central Pacific Railroad at Reno. Virginia City is built over the great Comstock lode, the mineral vein which has yielded probably more of the preci… Virgin Islands VIRGIN ISLANDS, a group of small West India Islands (see WEST INDIES), about one hundred in number, for the most part uninhabited, extending eastward from Porto Rico, and lying between 17? and 18? 50' N. lat., and 64? 10' and 65? 30' W. long. Their total area may be estimated at about 465 square miles, and their population at 67,000. For the most part they are rocky or sandy and barren, but the cu… Viscount VISCOUNT (Latin vice-comes), a titled rank of nobility, the fourth in the order of the British peerage, and consequently intervening between the dignities of earl and baron. The first English viscount, as that term now is used and understood, was John, Baron Beaumont, K.G., who, by letters patent dated 12th February 1440, by Henry VI. was created Viscount Beaumont. The title vice-comes, however, e… Vitebsk VITEBSK, a government of western Russia, with Livonia and Pskoff on the N., Smolensk on the E., Moghileff, Minsk, and Vilna on the S., and Courland on the W., has an area of 17,440 square miles. Except on its south-eastern and northern borders, where there are low bills, deeply eroded by the rivers, its surface is mostly flat, or slightly undulating, and more than a million of acres are occupied b… Vitebsk VITEBSK, capital of the above government, stands on both banks of the Diina, on the railway from Smolensk to Riga, 345 miles west of Moscow. It is an old town, with decaying mansions of the old nobility, and dirty Jewish quarters, half of its 54,6S0 inhabitants being Jews. Its manufactures are insignificant, and the poorer classes support themselves bygardening, boat-building, and the flax trade, … Vitellius VITELLIUS, AuLus, the ninth of the twelve Ct-esars, and Roman emperor during the greater part of 69 A.D., was the son of Lucius Vitellius, who had been consul and governor of Syria under Tiberius, and distinguished for his gross and ridiculous flattery under Caius (Caligula) and Claudius, which the senate, who gave him a public funeral, recognized by a statue with the inscription " Pietatis immobi… Viterbo VITERBO, a city of Italy, capital of a circondario in the province of Rome, lies 1200 feet above sea-level, on the Arcione, at the north-western base of Monte Cimino (3450 feet), on the high road between Florence and Rome, 42 mires north-north-west of the latter city ; a branch line (2 1k miles) connects it with the Attigliano station on the railway. It is picturesquely surrounded by luxuriant gar… Vitoria VITORIA, a town of Spain, capital of the Basque province of Alava, stands at a height of about 1750 feet above sea-level, on a small hill commanding the plain of Alava, 234 miles by rail north-north-east of Madrid. The oldest part of the town, the Campillo or Villa-Suso, occupies the top of the hill ; some of the walls and towers by which it was formally defended still remain, but it is now almost… Vitre VITRE, a town of France, chef-lieu of an arrondissement in the department of Ille-et-Vilaine, stands on a hill rising from the left bank of the Vilaine, 24 miles east of Rennes by the railway to Paris. The town has preserved as many features of the Middle Ages as any in France, and viewed from the north its feudal aspect is striking. The streets are formed of confused masses of wooden houses, full… Vitrified Forts VITRIFIED FORTS is the name given to certain rude stone enclosures whose walls bear' traces of having been subjected to the action of fire. They are generally situated on elevated hills, which occupy strong and easily defended positions. Their form is irregular, and seems to have been determined rather by the contour of the flat summits which they enclose than by any definite architectural plan. T… Vitriol VITRIOL, a name formerly and sometimes still given to sulphuric acid and to certain sulphates (see Sumurn, vol. xxii. p. 636). Vitritvius VITRITVIUS,1 a Roman architect and engineer, whose full name was MARCUS VITRUVIUS PoLuo, the author of a very celebrated work on architecture. Nothing is known about his personal history, except what can be gathered from incidental remarks in his own writings. Owing to the discovery of a number of inscriptions relating to the Gens Vitruvia at Formi..T in Campania (Mola di Gaeta), it has been sugge… Vittoria VITTORIA, an inland town of Sicily, in the Italian province of Syracuse, about 18 miles by road east-southeast from Terranova, stands in the midst of a rich vine and olive district, which also produces silk, rice, and honey. Vitus, St VITUS, ST, according to the Roman Breviary, while still a very young boy, had been baptized without the knowledge of his father, who, on learning this, spared no effort to bring about his return to paganism. After other severe measures had been tried in vain he was delivered to Valerian to be scourged, but even this had no effect, and lie was handed back to his father. _Admonished by an angel, Vit… Vivarini VIVARINI, the surname of a family of painters of Murano (Venice), who produced a great quantity of work in Venice and its neighbourhood in the 15th century, leading on to that phase of the school which is represented by Carpaccio and the Bellinis. Vives VIVES,As Luis (or Lunovicus) (1492-1540), a well-known scholar of the third and fourth decades of the 16th century, was born at Valencia, in Spain, in March 1492. He studied at Paris and Louvain, ultimately becoming professor of humanity at the latter university. At the instance of his friend Erasmus he prepared an edition of Augustine's De Cicitate Dci, which was published in 1522 with a dedicati… Vizagapatam VIZAGAPATAM, a municipal and seaport town, the administrative headquarters of the above district, with a population in 1881 of 30,291. Vizagapatam VIZAGAPATAM, a British district of India, in Madras presidency, lying between 17? 14' 30" and 18? 5S' N. lat. and 82? 19' and 83' 59' E. long., with an area of 3177 square miles. Including the Jaipur and Vizianagram zamindaries, which are under British administration, the area is 17,380 square miles. Vizagapatam is bounded on the N. by Ganjam district, on the E. by Clanjam and the sea, on the S. b… Viziadillig VIZIADILLIG, or GuEm.k, a port in Ratnagiri district, Bombay presidency, India, about 30 miles south of natthigiri town and 170 miles south of Bombay city, in 16? 33' 40" N. lat. and 73? 22' 10" E. long. It is one of the best harbours on the western coast of India, being without any bar, and may be entered in all weathers ; even to large ships it affords safe shelter during the southwest monsoon. … Vizianag11 VIZIANAG11..0I, one of the most ancient and extensive estates or zamindaries in India, included in the Vizagapatam district of the Madras presidency, with an area of about 3000 square miles, and a population (1881) of S-11,168. Vizier VIZIER (Arabic Tazir), literally the "burden bearer" of the sovereign. The office of vizier, which spread from the Arabs to the Persians, Turks, Mongols, and other Oriental peoples, arose under the first Abbasid caliphs, and took shape under their great ministers the Barmecides (see vol. xvi. p. 591). The vizier stood between sovereign and subjects, representing the former in all matters touching … Vizzini VIZZINI, an inland town of Sicily, in the Italian province of Catania, 39 miles E.N.E. of Terranova and 34 miles W.N.W. of Syracuse, is a prosperous country place of 13,966 inhabitants (1881). Vlachs VLACHS. Vlach, otherwise written Wallack, is a general name for all the members of the Latin-speaking race inhabiting eastern Europe. The name is in its origin identical with our " Welsh," " Welshman," and represents a Slavonic adaptation of a generic term applied by the Teutonic races at the time of the migration of peoples to all Roman provincials. It thus finds its analogies in the German name … Vladimir VLADIMIR, capital of the above government, is known in history as Vladimir-on-the-Klyasma, to distinguish it from Vladimir in Volhynia. It is picturesquely situated on the Klyasma and Lybed, 114 miles by rail to the east of Moscow. The Lybed divides it into two parts. Extensive cherry gardens occupy the surrounding slopes, each with its small watch-tower, having cords drawn in all directions to be… Vladimir VLADIMIR, a government of middle Russia, bounded by Moscow and Tvcr on the W., Yarostav and Kostroma on the N., Nijniy Novgorod on the E., Tamboff and Ityazaii on time S., has an area of 18,864 square miles. It extends over the eastern parts of the central plateau of middle Russia, which has an average elevation of from 800 to 950 feet above the sea, and is grooved by river valleys to a depth rang… Vladivostok VLADIVOSTOK, the chief naval station of Russia on the Pacific, is situated in 43? 7' N. lat. and 131? 55' E. long., on the Gulf of Peter the Great in the Sea of Japan. This gulf, which has a length of nearly 50 miles, and a width at its entrance of 112 miles, is divided into two large bays - Amur and Usuri - by the hilly peninsula of Muravioff-Amurskiy, continued in a group of islands, of which th… Voghera VOGHERA (Titus Iriw), a town of Italy, in the province of Pavia, and 19 miles by rail to the south-southwest of that city, on the Staff ora, formerly the Iria (a tributary of the Po), here crossed by a fine bridge. Vogler, Georg Joseph VOGLER, GEORG JOSEPH (1749-1814), usually known as Abbe Vogler, organist and composer, was born at Wiirzburg, June 15, 1749. His father, a violin maker, while educating him for the church, took every opportunity of encouraging his musical talent, which was so marked that at ten years old he could not only play the organ well, but had also acquired a fair command of the violin and some other instru… Voice VOICE is produced by the vibrations of the vocal cords, two ligaments or bands of fibrous elastic tissue situated in the larynx. It is to be distinguished from speech, which is the production of sounds intended to express ideas. Many of the lower animals have voice, but none have the power of speech in the sense in which man possesses that faculty. There may be speech without voice, as in whisperi… Voiron VOIRON, a manufacturing town of France, in the department of Isere, stands on the banks of the Morge (a tributary of the Isere) and on the lower slopes of a mountain nearly 2500 feet high, 15 miles north-north-west of Grenoble on the Lyons railway. Voiture, Vincent VOITURE, VINCENT (1598-1648), the best writer of very de societe that France has yet produced, and one of the most influential preceptors of classical French prose, was horn at Amiens in 1598. His father was a well-to-do wine merchant, who had connexions with the court, and it is one of the charges brought against Voiture that he was unnecessarily ashamed of his origin. At any rate he soon obtaine… Vole VOLE (Germ. TrUldnunts, Fr. Campagnol). This word, little known as it is to the majority of English people, is the proper name for a genus containing three of the commonest of our English mammals, namely, the water, bank, and field voles, - animals generally called " water-rat," "red field-mouse," and "short-tailed field-mouse " respectively. The scientific name for the group is Arvicola, a genus … Volga, The VOLGA, THE, the chief river of European Russia, rises in the Valdai plateau of Tver in north-western Russia, and after a winding course of 2325 miles (1040 in a straight line) falls into the Caspian at Astrakhan. It is by far the largest river of Europe, those next in length, the Danube and the Ural, being only 1735 and 1478 miles respectively, while the Rhine (825 miles) is shorter even than two … Volhynia VOLHYNIA, a government of south-western Russia, bounded by the Polish provinces of Lublin and Siedlce on the W., Grodno and Minsk on the N., Eictf on the E., and Podolia and Galicia (Austria) on the S., has an area of 27,731 square miles. A broad and flat spur of the Carpathians - the Avratynsk plateau - which enters from the west and spreads eastward towards the Dnieper, occupies its southern por… Volney, Constantin Francois Chasseeceuf VOLNEY, CONSTANTIN FRANcOIS CHASSEECEUF, COMTE DE (1757-1820), was born at Craon, on February 3, 1757, of a good but not noble family, and educated first at the neighbouring provincial towns of Aneenis and Augers, then at Paris. According to the common and curious habit of the time and country he was at first surnamed Boisgirais, but afterwards assumed the name of Volney. When he was about four an… Volo VOLO, a town and seaport of Greece, on the east coast of Thessaly, at the head of the gulf to which it gives its name. Volo lies just below the mouth of the little river Orchestus, near the west foot of Mount Pelion, on the southern verge of an undulating and extremely fertile plain, which stretches thence northwards beyond Larissa, and which is skirted on the east by the chain above which tower P… Vologda VOLOGDA, a government of north-eastern Russia, having Archangel on the N., Tobolsk on the E., Penn, Vyatka, Kostroma, and Yaroslavl on the S., Novgorod and Olonetz on the W. This immense government, which comprises an area of 155,500 square miles, stretches in a north-easterly direction for 800 miles, from Novgorod to the Urals, including the broad depression drained by the Sukhona from the S.W. a… Vologda VOLOGDA, capital of the above government, is situated in its south-western corner, 302 miles to the north-east of Moscow, with which it is connected by rail via Yarostavl. It is an old town, having many relics of the past in its churches, including one which dates from the 12th century, and the cathedral founded in 1565. The educational institutions are in a better state than in many other provinc… Volsk VOLSK, or Vousx, a district town of Russia, in the government of Saratoff, and 90 miles to the north-east of that town, on the right bank of the Volga, was a century ago but a small village (Matykovo); recently, however it has grown to be one of the important towns on the lower Volga, and its population has rapidly increased from 23,500 in 1860 to 36,315 in 1885. Volta, Alessandro VOLTA, ALESSANDRO (1745-1827), was born at Como on February 18, 1745. In 1774 he was appointed professor of physics in the gymnasium of Como, and in 1777 he left his native town for the first time to travel through Switzerland, where he formed an intimate friendship with De Saussure. In 1779 a chair of physics was founded in Pavia, and Volta was chosen to occupy it. In 1782 he undertook a journey … Voltaire, Francois VOLTAIRE, FRANCOIS:MARIE AROUET DE (1694-1778), whose real name was Fitascois MAinE AROUET simply, was born ou the 21st of November 1694 at Paris, and was baptized the next day. His father was Francois Arouet, a notary ; his mother was Marie Marguerite Damnart (sometimes, but less correctly, spelt D'Aumard, apparently because her family was noble). Both father and mother were of Poitevin extractio… Volterra VOLTERRA, a town of Italy, in the province of Pisa, 51 miles by rail east-south-east from Leghorn, and 35 by road west-north-west from Siena, stands on a commanding olive-clad eminence about 1600 feet above sea-level, and is surrounded by the massive remains of its ancient walls, some 4 miles in circuit. The most important relic of its Etrurian period is the Porta dell' Arco, an archway of dark gr… Volunteers VOLUNTEERS. Although it would be difficult to assign a period when the principle of volunteer organization for national defence was first adopted in England, it is certain that societies to promote this object existed in various parts of the country in the reign of Henry VIII., who in fact granted a charter in 1537 to the "Fraternity or Guylde of Saint George : ;Misters and Rulars of the said Scie… Volusenus, Florentius VOLUSENUS, FLORENTIUS (that is, FLORENCE 'WILSON or WOLSEY, though in an English letter he writes himself VOLUZENE), a Scottish humanist of the first half of the 16th century, whose elegant Latinity,. but still more the thoughtful beauty of his Christian philosophy, claims for him a high place among the scholars of his age. That he was born near Elgin, and studied philosophy at Aberdeen, as is sta… Voragine, Jacobus De VORAGINE, JACOBUS DE (a. 1230-1298), archbishop of Genoa, is said to have been born at the little village of Varaggio, near Savona, about the year 1230. He entered the order of St Dominic in 1244, and is said to have preached with great success in many parts of Italy, as well as to have taught in the schools of his own fraternity. From the office of prior in 1267 he was raised to be provincial of … Vorarlberg VORARLBERG, the most western division of the Austrian-Hungarian monarchy, is bounded on time N. by Bavaria, on the W. by the Lake of Constance, Liechtenstein, and Switzerland, on the S. by Switzerland, and on the E. by Tyrol. Though united for administrative purposes with Tyrol, it enjoys a constitution of its own, and ranks as a separate member of the empire. It is emphatically an Alpine region, … Voronezh VORONEZH, capital of the above government, is situated on a high bank of the river of the same name, 365 miles by rail to the south of Moscow. It is almost entirely built of wood, and only recently began to reacquire importance as an entrepot on the railway which connects Moscow with the Sea of Azoff. It has a military school of cadets, gymnasiums for boys and girls, and a number of schools for el… Vosges VOSGES, a frontier department of eastern France, was formed in 1790, for the most part of territory previously belonging to Lorraine, with fragments of Franche-Comte, Champagne, and Alsace. The portion belonging to Alsace the S. The Vosges Mountains form a natural boundary on the E. The highest point is the llohneck (4482 feet) near the Schlucht. The south of the department is traversed by the Mon… Vosges VOSGES, a mountain range of central Europe, stretching along the west side of the Rhine valley in a north-northeast direction, from Basel to Mainz, for a distance of 150 miles. Since 1871 the southern portion, from the Ballon d'Alsace to Mont Donon, has been the political boundary between France and Germany. There is a remarkable similarity between the Vosges and the corresponding range of the Bla… Vossius, Gerardus Johannes VOSSIUS, GERARDUS JOHANNES (1577-1649), classical scholar and theologian, was born near Heidelberg in 1577. His father Johannes Vos, a native of the Netherlands, had fled as a Protestant from the persecutions in his own country into the Palatinate, and became pastor in the village near Heidelberg where Gerard was born ; but, as he was a Calvinist, the strict Lutherans of the Palatinate caused him … Vossius, Isaac VOSSIUS, ISAAC (1618-1689), son of the preceding, was born at Leyden in 1618, and was carefully educated by his father. After three years spent on a learned tour through England, France, and Italy, which he used in making the acquaintance of the first scholars and the great libraries of those countries, and from which he brought back many valuable MSS., he accepted in 1648 an invitation to the cou… Voss, Johann VOSS, JOHANN lImmuen (1751-1826), German poet, archaeologist, and translator, was born at Sommersdorf in Mecklenburg on the 20th February 1751. In the same year his father, a farmer, removed from Sommersdorf to Penzlin. From 1766 to 1769 Voss attended school at Neubrandenburg. In the latter year, in consequence of misfortunes which had overtaken his father, he was obliged to accept a tutorship in … Votkinsk VOTKINSK, an iron-work in the Urals, in the Russian government of Vyatka, 47 miles north of Sarapul, and 8 miles from the Kama, was founded in 1756. Vouet, Simon VOUET, SIMON (1590-1649), French painter, born at Paris, January 9, 1590, passed many years in Italy, where he married, and established himself at Rome, enjoying there a high reputation as a portrait painter. Louis XIII. recalled him to France, lodged him in the Louvre with the title of First Painter to the Crown, and gave him a considerable salary. All royal work for the palaces of the Louvre and… Vrancx, Sebastian VRANCX, SEBASTIAN, born about 1572, was a painter of the Antwerp school, of very moderate ability. Vulcan VULCAN, the old Roman fire-god, answering to the Greek HEPH,ESTIIS (q.v.), with whom he was confounded by the ancients. The etymology of the name is uncertain: it has been proposed to derive it from the root car, " warm"; Iti?a in Sanscrit is a firebrand. How closely Vulcan was identified with the fire, regarded as a person, appears from the stories of the birth of Cmculus and Servius Tullius, bot… Vulture VULTURE, the name of certain birds whose best-known characteristic is that of feeding upon carcases, and these birds, owing to this obscene habit, are in many hot countries regarded with favour as useful scavengers. The genus Fultur, as instituted by Linnaeus, is now restricted by ornithologists to a single species, V. monachus, of which more presently, the other species included therein by him, o… Vyatka, Or Viatica VYATKA, or VIATICA, a government of north-eastern Russia, with Vologda on the N., Perm on the E., Ufa and Kazan on the S., and Nijni Novgorod and Kostroma on the W., has an area of 59,124 square miles. It has on its northern boundary the flat water-parting which separates the basins of the Northern Dwina and Volga, and its surface is an undulating plateau of from 800 to 1400 feet above sea-level, … Vyazm VYAZM A, a district town of Russia, in the government of Smolensk, and 109 miles by rail to the north-east of that town, was a populous place as early as the 11 th century, and carried on a lively trade with Narva on the Gulf of Finland. Vyernyi VYERNYI, formerly A LMATY, capital of the Russian Central-Asian province of Semiryetchensk, is situated on a plateau at the base of the Trans-Ili Alatau, in 43? 16' N. lat., 47 miles to the south of the Ili river. It was founded in 1854 as a small blockhouse, but from the advantages of its situation - the fertility of the surrounding country, the ample water-supply from the Almatinka river, and of… Vysiiniy Voeotchok VYSIINIY VOEOTCHOK, a diStrict town of Russia, in the government of Tver, 82 miles by rail to the north-west of that city, owes its importance to its situation in the centre of the Vyshne-Vototsk navigation system, which connects the upper Volga with the Neva. The portage (votok) of less than 17 miles between the Tvertsa, a tributary of the Volga, and the Tsna, which flows into the Msta and the Vo… Waco WACO, a city and the county scat of McLennan county, Texas, U.S., is situated on the west bank of the Brazos river, at the mouth of the Basque, in an agricultural and pastoral region. Wadding, Luke WADDING, LUKE (1588-1657), ecclesiastical historian, born at Waterford in 1588, emigrated with his parents to Spain in early youth, and from Spain passed to Portugal, to study at the Irish College in Lisbon. While still a student, he entered the order of Cordeliers, or Friars Minim, in 1604, taking the name Michael Angelo of St Romulus, and his early reputation for learning soon obtained for him a… Wafers WAFERS, as articles of stationery, consist of thin, brittle, adhesive disks, used for securing papers together, and for forming a basis for impressed official seals. Wager WAGER. The law of wagers may be divided for purposes of convenience into two great classes, dealing respectively with procedure and with substantive law. In both classes the legal importance of the wager has tended to diminish. Procedure. - Determination of cases, civil and criminal, by means of wager or analogous forms of procedure is a characteristic feature of archaic law. The legis actio sacra… Wages WAGES. Wages, although one of the most common and familiar terms in economic science, is at the same but then we are at once confronted with the difficulty so well stated by Adam Smith: - " The greater part of people understand better what is meant by a quantity of a particular commodity than by a quantity of labour ; the one is a plain palpable object, the other an abstract notion, which, though … Wages Approximately Plance Or Spherical WAGES APPROXIMATELY PLANCE OR SPHERICAL. A plane wave of course remains plane after reflexion from a truly plane surface ; but any irregularities in the surface impress themselves upon the wave, In the simplest case, that of perpendicular incidence, the irregularities are doubled, any depressed portion of the surface giving rise to a retardation in the wave front of twice its own amount. It is ass… Wagner WAGNER, Iltrnoux (1805-1864), anatomist and physiologist, was born in June 1805 at Baireuth, where his father was a professor in the gymnasium. He began the study of medicine at Erlangen in 1820, and finished his curriculum in 1826 at Wiirzburg, where he had attached himself mostly to Schonlein in medicine and to Heusinger in comparative anatomy. Aided by a public stipendium, he spent a year or mo… Wagner, 'Wilhelm Richard WAGNER, 'WILHELM RICHARD (1813-1883), dramatic composer and reformer of the musical drama, was born at Leipsic on May 22,1813. In 1822 he was sent to the Kreuzschule at Dresden, where he did so well that, four years later, he translated the first 12 books of the Odyssey for amusement. In 1828 he was removed to the Nicolaischule at Leipsic, where he was less successful. His first music-master was G… Wagtail WAGTAIL ( Wagsterd and Wagstyrt, 15th century, fide Th. Wright, Vol. Vocabularies, ii. pp. 221, 253; Uuagtale, Turner, 1544, p. 53), the little bird that delights us equally by its neat coloration, its slender form, its nimble actions, and its sprightly notes. Since it is so generally dispersed, especially in summer, throughout the British Islands, it seems to need no further description. The Pied… Wainewright WAINEWRIGHT, TimmAs GRIFFITHS (1794?e. 1852), journalist and subject-painter, was born at Chiswick in October 1794. He was educated by his distant relative Dr Charles Burney, and served as an orderly officer in the guards, and as cornet in a yeomanry regiment. In 1819 he entered on a literary life, and began to write for The Literary Pocket-Book, Illachcood's Magazine, and The Foreign Quarterly Re… Waitz, Georg WAITZ, GEORG (1813-1886), one of the most distinguished of modern German historians, was born at Flensburg, in the duchy of Schleswig, on October 9,1813. He was educated at the Flensburg gymnasium and the universities of Kiel and Berlin. His strong bent to historical studies and the influence of Ranke early diverted him from his original purpose of studying law, and while still a student he began … Wakefield WAKEFIELD, a municipal and parliamentary borough and market-town of England, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, of which division it is the shire-town, is pleasantly situated on the Calder, and on the Lancashire and Yorkshire, Great Northern, and North-Eastern Railway lines, 9 miles south of Leeds and 175,i miles from London. It has water communication (via Goole) with Hull by the Calder, which also… Wakefield, Edward Gibbon WAKEFIELD, EDWARD GIBBON (1796-1862) colonial statesman, was born in London, March 20, 1796, of an originally Quaker family. His father, Edward Wakefield, author of Ireland, Statistical and Political, was a surveyor and land agent in extensive practice ; his grandmother, Priscilla Wakefield, was a popular author for the young, and one of the first introducers of savings banks. Wakefield was for a … Wakefield, Gilbert WAKEFIELD, GILBERT (1756-1801), classical scholar, theologian, and politician, was born at Nottingham, February 22, 1756, and was the son of the Rev. George Wakefield, rector of St Nicholas. After being educated at various private schools, he proceeded at the age of sixteen to Jesus College, Cambridge, where he cultivated his classical studies diligently, but imbibed a thorough distaste for logic … Walch WALCH, the name of a family of scholars. I. JOHANN GEORG WALCH (1693-1775) was born at Meiningen, and studied at Leipsic and Jena under Olearius and Buddwus. From 1716 he was professor at Jena of philosophy, rhetoric, and poetry successively, and afterwards (from 1724) of theology. He married the only daughter of Buddaeus, and in his learned and theological career followed in the footsteps of his … Waldeck-pyj1mont WALDECK-PYJ1MONT, a small principality in the north-west of Germany, is the eighteenth factor of the German empire in point of area, and the twenty-fourth in point of population. It consists of two separate portions lying about 30 miles apart, viz., the county (grafschaft) of Waldeck, embedded in Prussian territory between the provinces of Westphalia and Hesse-Nassau, and the principality (ffirste… Waldenburg WALDENBURG, an active industrial town in Prussian Silesia, is situated on the Polsnitz, 39 miles south-west of Breslau. Waldenses, The WALDENSES, THE, a name given to the members of an heretical sect which arose in the south of France about 1170. The history of the sects of the Middle Ages is obscure, because the earliest accounts of them come from those who were concerned in their suppression, and were therefore eager to lay upon each of them the worst enormities which could be attributed to any. In later times the apologists of… Walker WALKER, a town of Northumberland, England, on the north bank of the river Tyne, 2 miles east of Newcastleon-Tyne, with which it is connected by railway. Christ Church, in the Perpendicular style, erected in 1848, consists of chancel, nave, aisles, and tower with beautiful illuminated clock erected in 1887. The windows of the church are all monumental stained glass. There is a large colliery, in wh… Walker, Frederick WALKER, FREDERICK (1840-1875), subject painter, was born in Marylebone, London, on May 24, 1840. While very young he began to draw from the antique in the British Museum, and at the age of sixteen he was placed in the office of Baker, au architect. The occupation proved uncongenial ; at the end of eighteen months he resumed his work from the Elgin marbles at the Museum, attending art classes ; and… Walker, Sears Cook WALKER, SEARS COOK (1805-1853), astronomer, was born at Wilmington, Massachusetts, U.S., on March 28, 1805. Wallace, Sir WALLACE, SIR WILLIAm, the most popular national hero of Scotland, is believed to have been the second son of Sir Malcolm Wallace of Elderslie and Auchinbothie, in Renfrewshire. The date of his birth is not certainly ascertained, but is usually given as 1270. The only authority for the events of his early life is the metrical history of Blind Harry. That authority cannot be implicitly relied on, th… Wallace, William WALLACE, WILLIAM (1768-1843), mathematician, was born on September 23, 1768, at Dysart, in Fife-shire, where Ile received his school education. In 1784 his family removed to Edinburgh, where he himself was set to learn the trade of a bookbinder ; but his taste for mathematics had already developed itself, and he made such use of his leisure hours that before the completion of his apprenticeship he… Wallasey WALLASEY, a town of Cheshire, England, on rising ground near a branch of the Mersey called Wallasey Pool, winch bounds it on the S.E., while to the N.W. is the Irish Sea. It is about 2 miles north-west of Birkenhead, of which part of it is practically a suburb, and Wallasey Pool is now occupied by the Great Float, forming an immense dock of about 150 acres. The church of St Hilary, rebuilt in the … Walla Walla WALLA WALLA, a city and the county seat of Walla Walla county, Washington Territory, United States, is situated in a valley on Mill Creek, a tributary of the Walla Walla, in a fertile agricultural region, devoted mainly to the growth of wheat, fruit, and vegetables. Wallenstein WALLENSTEIN (properly WALDSTEIN), ADALBERT EUSEBIUS VON (1583-1634), duke of Friedland, Sagan, and Mecklenburg, was born on the hereditary estate of his family, Hermanic, in Bohemia, on 15th September 1583. His parents were Protestants, and in early youth he attended the school of the Brothers of the Common Life at Koschumberg. After the death of his parents he was sent by his uncle, Slawata, to t… Waller, Edmund WALLER, EDMUND (1605-1687), enjoyed in the latter half of his long life a high reputation as a poet, which has been partly fixed by the compliments of Dryden and Pope. Waller is a singular and piquant figure in the history of the 17th century ; his relations with Charles I., with the Long Parliament, with Cromwell, with Charles II., his position as a poet, as a courtier, as a privileged water-drin… Wallis, John WALLIS, JOHN (1616-1703), an eminent English mathematician, logician, and grammarian, was born on the 23d November 1616 at Ashford, in Kent, of which parish his father was then incumbent. Having been previously instructed in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, he was in 1632 sent to Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and afterwards was chosen fellow of Queen's College. Having been admitted to holy orders, he left… Wallon WALLON, or 1VALL00x, the collective name of the inhabitants of the south-eastern division of Belgium, who Brabant. It forms a nearly regular right-angled triangle, direction, from the neighbourhood of Lille to Longwy at the south-west corner of German Luxemburg. It coincides almost exactly with the section of the .Meuse basin comprised within Belgian territory, and has a total area of 6000 square … Wallsend WALLSEND, a town of Northumberland, England, on the north bank of the Tyne and on the Newcastle and Tynemouth Railway, 4 miles east-north-east of Newcastle. The church of St Peter, erected in 1809 at a cost of ?5000, has a tower surmounted by a spire. There are still some remains of the old church of the 1 1 th century in the Transition Norman style. The church of St Luke was erected in 1886 at a … Walnut WALNUT (Aglow), a genus of seven or eight species, natives of the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, some even extending into Mexico and the West Indies. They are all trees, usually of large size, with alternate, stalked, unequally pinnate leaves, and abounding in an aromatic resinous juice. The scars left by the fallen leaves are unusually large and prominent. The buds are not unlike t… Walpole WALPOLE, HonAcE (1717-1797), who was born on 24th September 1717, was accepted and recognized throughout his life as the youngest of the six children of Sir Robert Walpole by Catherine Shorter, but by some of the scandal-mongers of a later age, Carr, Lord Hervey, the half-brother of the peer who wrote the Memoirs of the Court of George the Second, has been called his father. This parentage has bee… Walpole, Sir Robert WALPOLE, SIR ROBERT, EARL OF ORFORD (1676 - 1745), prime minister of England from 1721 to 1742, was the third but eldest surviving son of Robert Walpole, M.P., of Houghton in Norfolk,' by Mary, only daughter and heiress of Sir Jeffery Burwell, of Rougham, in Suffolk. The father, a jolly old squire who revelled in outdoor sport and the pleasures of the table, transmitted to his son the chief traits… Walpurgis, Walpurga WALPURGIS, WALPURGA, or WALnuncA,1 ST, was born in Sussex about the end of the 7th or the beginning of the 8th century, and was educated at Winburn, Dorset., where, after taking the veil, she remained for twenty-seven years. Sloe then at the instance of her uncle, St Boniface, and her brother, St Wilibald, set out along with some other nuns to found religious houses in Germany. Her first settlemen… Walrus WALRUS, or MousE.2 In the article MAMMALIA (VOL xv. p. 442) it was shown that the existing members of the Pinniped division of the order Carnivore, are divided into three very distinct groups, the true seals (Phocithe), the sea-bears or eared seals (Otariidx), and the Trichechithr, containing the walrus alone, in some respects intermediate between the other two, but also possessing, especially in … Walsall WALSALL, a municipal and parliamentary borough and market-town of Staffordshire, England, is situated chiefly on an eminence above a rivulet tributary to the Tame, on various canals and branch railway lines, 8 miles north-north-west of Birmingham and 123 north-west of London. The principal street is spacious and regular, and, although the side streets are generally crooked and mean, the suburbs ar… [back] Volume 23 [TAB - UPS]: 1876-77 to Thuringia Copyright © 2013 Net Industries and its Licensors – All Rights Reserved – Terms of Use Share this page: Tweet More To Explore	Contact & About Privacy Policy