CoutancesCOUTANCES, a town of France, capital of an arrondissement of the department of La Manche, and the seat of a bishop, is built on a granite ridge which rises between the canalized River Soulle and the stream called the Bulcard, 16 miles W.S.W. of St Lb and 7 miles from the sea. From the hill, up the sides of which the crooked streets of the town are built, a fine panorama of the surrounding country … Couthon, GeorgesCOUTHON, GEORGES (1756-1794), one of the most notorious actors in the Reign of Terror, was born at Orsay (Orcet), a village in the district of Clermont in Auvergne, in 1756. He studied law, and was admitted advocate at Clermont in 1785. At this period he was noted for his integrity, gentle-heartedness, and charitable disposition. His health was feeble, and his body was half paralyzed from a recent… Coutts, ThomasCOUTTS, THOMAS, an eminent banker, head of the London house of Coutts & Co., was born probably about 1731. He was the fourth son of John Coutts, who carried on business at Edinburgh' as a corn factor and negotiator of bills of exchange, and who in 1742 was elected lord provost of the city. The family was originally of Montrose, but one of its members had settled at Edinburgh about or before 1696. … CovenantersCOVENANTERS, in Scottish history, the name applied to a party, embracing the great majority of the people, who during the 17th century bound themselves to establish and maintain the Presbyterian doctrine and polity as the sole religion of the country, to the exclusion of Prelacy and Popery. An account of the covenanting cause as a religious and political movement belongs to the history of Scotland… CoventryCOVENTRY, an ancient city and municipal and parliamentary borough of England, in the county of Warwick, 18 miles E.S.E.of Birmingham. It stands on a gentle eminence, and is watered by the Sherbourne and the Radford Brook, which unite within the town. Of its ancient fortifications two gates and some portions of the wall are still extant, and several of the older streets present a picturesque appear… Coverdale, MrlebCOVERDALE, MrLEB (1488-1569). the celebrated translator of the first complete English Bible, was born in Yorkshire in 1488. He was educated at Cambridge in the house of the Augustine friars, and, after having been admitted into that order, was ordained priest at?Norwich in 1514. On the promulgation of the Reformed opinions at Cambridge, Coverdale was amongst the first to abandon his allegiance to … CovilhaCOVILHA, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beirabaixa, on thq south-eastern slope of the highest part of the Serra da Estrella, where it descends to the upper valley of the River Zezere, 30 miles northof Castello-Branco, to which district it belongs. CovingtonCOVINGTON, a city of the United States, in Kenton County, Kentucky, on the Ohio, at its confluence with the Licking, and directly opposite Cincinnati (see plan, p. 783 of vol. v.). Its principal buildings are the city hall, the United States court house, the high school, the Oddfellows' hall, the hospital of St Elizabeth, the Benedictine priory of St Joseph's, and the Benedictine nunnery of St Wal… CowellCOWELL, Da Jorrer (1554-1611), jurist, was born at Ernsborough, Devonshire. Cowes, West And EastCOWES, WEST and EAST, two towns of England, in the county of Hants, on the estuary of the Medina, on the north coast of the Isle of Wight, directly opposite to the mouth of Southampton Water. The port between them is the chief one of the island, and is the headquarters of the Royal Yacht Squadron (founded in 1815); it is in constant steam communication with Itycle, and with Portsmouth and Southamp… Cowley, AbrahamCOWLEY, ABRAHAM (1618-1667), the most popular English poet during the lifetime of Milton, was born in the city of London late in 1618. His father, a wealthy citizen, who died shortly before his birth, is believed to have been a grocer. His mother was wholly given to works of devotion, but it happened that there lay in her parlour a copy of The Faery Queen. This became the favourite reading of her … Cowper, WilliamCOWPER, WILLIAM (1731-1800), the best of English letter-writers and the most distinguished poet of his day, was born on the 26th of November 1731, at Great Berkhamstead, Hertfordshire. His father, who held the living of the parish, was chaplain to George II. He married Aun, daughter of Roger Donne, of Ludham Hall in Norfolk. This lady, after giving birth to several children who died in infancy, ex… CowryCOWRY, the popular name of the shells of the Cyprceida, a family of mollusks. Upwards of 100 species are recognized, and they are widely distributed over the world, - their habitat being the shallow water along the sea-shore. The best known is the money cowry or Cyprcea moneta, a small shell about half an inch in length, white and straw-coloured without and blue within, which derives its distincti… Coxcie, MichaelCOXCIE, MICHAEL (1499-1592), was born at Malines, and studied under Bernard an Orlay, who probably induced him to visit Italy. At Rome in 1532 he painted the chapel of Cardinal Enckenvoost in the church de Anima ; and Vasari, who knew him personally, says with truth "that he fairly acquired the manner of an Italian." But Coxcie's chief business in Italy was not painting. His principal occupation w… Cox, DavidCOX, DAVID (1783-1859). The remarkable development of the English school of landscape-painting during the first half of the present century gives importance to the name of David Cox. He is, indeed, to use a phrase now sufficiently common, a representative man, having practised his art through the entire period, outliving and overcoming public indifference, and reaping at last a harvest of apprecia… Cox, RichardCOX, RICHARD (1499-1581), born at Whaddon, Buckinghamshire, was educated. at Eton, and afterwards at King's College, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in 1519. He was -invited to Oxford by Cardinal Wolsey ; but having adopted the Reformed opinions, he was stripped of his preferment, and thrown into prison. On his release, however, he was appointed master of Eton School, and in 1541 he was mad… CoypelCOYPEL, the name of a French family of painters. Noel Coypel (1628-1707), also called, from the fact that he was much influenced by Poussin, Coypel le Poussin, was the son of an unsuccessful artist. Having been employed by Edward to paint some of the pictures required for the Louvre, and having afterwards gained considerable fame by other pictures produced at the command of the king, in 1672 he wa… Coysevox, AntoineCOYSEVOX, ANTOINE (1640-1670), one of the most able and famous of French sculptors, born at -Lyons in 1640, belonged to a family which had emigrated from Spain. He was only seventeen when he produced a statue of the Madonna of considerable merit ; and having studied' under Leranbert, and trained himself by taking copies in marble from the Greek masthrpieces (among others from the Venus de Medici a… CrabCRAB, a name common to all the species of short-tailed Decapod Crustaceans ( Brachyura), as well as to the forms intermediate between the short-tailed and long-tailed groups (Anomoura), and derived from the Latin Carubus, the name by which the common edible species was known to the Romans. The abdomen in the true crabs is short, and is completely folded beneath the breast. In the female this part … Crabbe, GeorgeCRABBE, GEORGE (1754-1832), was born at Aldborough, in Suffolk, December 24, 1754, and was the son of an officer of the customs. He appears to have been designed by his father first for an employment similar to his own, and afterwards for the medical profession. Ho was apprenticed to an apothecary, and received an education merely sufficient to qualify him for such an occupation, and by no means t… CracowCRACOW (Polish, Krakov ; German, Krakau), a city of the crownland of Galicia, Austria, the capital anciently of Poland, and more recently of a small Polish republic which bordered on the Prussian, Austrian, and Russian dominions where they meet. The city stands in a fertile plain on the left bank of the "Vistula, where the stream of the Rudowa joins it, nearly 200 miles north-east of Vienna in lat… CraigCRAIG, Sin THOMAS (c. 1538-1 608), of Riccarton, one of the earliest and one of the ablest writers on the law of Scotland, and a poet of seine note, was born about the year 1538. It is probable that he was the eldest son of William Craig of Craigfintray, or Craigston, in Aberdeenshire, but beyond the fact that lie was in some way related to the Craigfintray family nothing regarding his birth is kn… Craig, JohnCRAIG, JOHN (c. 1512-1600), one of the Scottish the eve of his execution Pope Paul IV. died, and the mob naturally succeeded to the leadership of the Scottish Church. Craik, George LillieCRAIK, GEORGE LILLIE (1799-1866), professor of English literature at Queen's College, Belfast, was the son of a schoolmaster in Fifeshire. He studied at the university of St Andrews with the intention of entering the church, but altering his plans, removed to London, at the age of twenty-five, to devote himself to literature. He became connected with a short-lived literary paper called the Verula2… CrakeCRAKE, a genus of birds belonging to the order Gralke of which the Corn Crake (Ortygonctra (Tex) is the mcst familiar example. This bird is a summer visitor to Britain and to Northern Europe generally, where its migrations extend as far north as Iceland. It reaches Britain in April, and leaves in October, having meanwhile raised a brood of young. It frequents rich meadows and green corn-fields in … CrampCRAMP, a painful spasmodic contraction of muscles, most frequently occurring in the limbs, but also apt to affect certain internal organs. This disorder belongs to the class of diseases known as local spasms, of which other varieties exist in such affections as spasmodic asthma and colic. The cause of these painful seizures resides in the nervous system, and operates either directly from the great… Cranach, LucasCRANACH, LUCAS (1472-1553), one of the representative painters of Germany at the time of the Reformation, was born at Cronach in Upper Franconia, and learnt the art of drawing from his father. It has not been possible to trace his descent or the name of his parents. We are not informed as to the school in which he was taught, and it is a mere guess that he took lessons from the South German master… CranberryCRANBERRY, the fruit of plants of the genus Oxycoccus, natural order Vacciniacete. 0. palustris, the comwiry, creeping, and of varying length ; the leaves are evergreen, dark and shining above, glaucous below, revolute at the margin, ovate, lanceolate, or elliptical in shape, and not more than half an inch long ; the flowers, which appear in May or June, are small and pedunculate, and have a four-… CranbrookCRANBROOK, a town of England, in the county of Kent, six miles south of the Staplehurst station, on the South-Eastern Railway. CraneCRANE (in Dutch, Kraan; Old German, Krcen; cognate, as also the Latin Grus, and consequently the French Grue and Spanish Grullcc, with the Greek .Asavos), the Grus COMMUlli8 or G. cinerecc of ornithologists, one of the largest Wading-birds, and formerly a native of England, where Turner, in 1544, said that he had very often seen its young (" earum pipiones scepissime vidi"). Notwithstanding the pr… Cranmer, ThomasCRANMER, THOMAS (1489-1550), archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Aslacton in Nottinghamshire on the 2d July 1489. The second son of Thomas Cranmer and of his wife Anne Hatfield, he belonged to a family that had been settled in Nottinghamshire from the time of the Norman Conquest. He received his early education, according to Morice his secretary, from " a marvellous severe and cruel schoolmaster… CrannogsCRANNOGS (Celtic, erann, a tree), the term applied in Scotland and Ireland to the stockaded islands so numerous in ancient times in the lochs of both countries. The existence of these lake-dwellings in Scotland was first made known by Mr John Mackinlay, a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, in a letter sent to George Chalmers, the author of Caledonia, in 1813, describing two crannogs… CrantorCRANTOR, a Greek philosopher of the Old Academy, famous as the first commentator on Plato, was born, probably about the middle of the 4th century, at Soli in Cilicia, and was a fellow pupil of Polomo in the school of Xenocrates at Athens. CrapeCRAPE is a silk fabric of a gauzy texture, having a peculiar crisp or crimpy appearance. It is woven of hard spun silk yarn in the gum" or natural condition. There are two distinct varieties of the textile - lst, soft, Canton, or Oriental crape, and 2d, hard or crisped crape. `.1 ho wavy appearance of Canton crape results from the peculiar manner in which the weft is prepared, the yarn from two bo… Crashaw, RichardCRASHAW, RICHARD (1613-1650), the poet, styled " the divine," was born in London in 1613. He was the son of a strongly anti-papistical divine, Dr William Crashaw, who distinguished himself, even in those times, by the excessive acerbity of lds writings against the Catholics. Richard Crashaw was originally put to school at Charter House, but in July 1631 he was admitted to Pembroke College, Cambrid… CrassusCRASSUS, Lucius LICEVIUS (140-91 E.c.), a celebrated Roman orator most highly praised by Cicero. Crassus, Marcus LiciniusCRASSUS, MARCUS LICINIUS, the triumvir, surnamed the Rich on account of his wealth, which he acquired by educating slaves and selling them at a high price, by working silver mines, and by skilful purchases of land and houses. The proscription of Cinna obliged him to flee to Spain ; but after Cinna's death he passed into Africa, and thence to Italy, where he ingratiated himself with Sulla. Having b… CratesCRATES, of Thebes, a Cynic philosopher of the 4th century B.C., was a pupil of Diogenes, whose extreme cynicism he rivalled. CratesCRATES, of Athens, an Athenian actor and author of comedies of the 5th century B.C. CratesCRATES, of Mallus in Cilicia, a Greek grammarian and Stoic philosopher of the 2c1 century B.c., was leader of the literary school and head of the library of Pergamus. CratinusCRATINUS (519-423 B.c.), one of the greatest of the Athenian masters of comedy. Our knowledge of his personal history consists of only one or two facts : - he was the son of a certain Callimedes ; he was triarch of the Anean tribe ; he died in 423 B.C., at the age (Lucian tells us) of ninety-seven ; and the end of his life was devoted to drinking. His comedies also are now lost, with the exception… CratippusCRATIPPUS, a Peripatetic philosopher, belonging to Mytilene, was contemporary with Cicero, whose son he taught at Athens, and by whom he is praised in the Do Officiis as the greatest of his school. Crauford, QuentinCRAUFORD, QUENTIN (1743-1819), an English author. In early life he went to India., where he entered the British army, and on the conclusion of peace devoted himself to commerce. Returning to Europe before the age of forty with a handsome fortune, he settled at Paris, where he gave himself to the cultivation of literature and art, and formed a good library and collection of paintings, coins, and ot… Craver, Gaspard DeCRAVER, GASPARD DE (1582-1669), was born at Antwerp, and learnt the art of painting from Raphael Coxcie. He matriculated in the guild of St Luke at Brussels in 1607, resided in the capital of Brabant till after 1660, and finally settled at Ghent. Amongst the numerous pictures which he painted in the last of these cities, one in the town museum represents the Martyrdom of St Blaise, and bears the i… CrawfurdCRAWFURD,JonN (1783-1868), a Scottish author, was born in the island of Islay, Scotland. CrayonCRAYON, a coloured material for drawing, employed generally in the form of pencils, but sometimes also as a powder, and consisting of native earthy and stony friable substances, or of artificially prepared mixtures of a base of pipe or China clay with Prussian blue, orpiment vermilion, umber, and other pigments. Calcined gypsum, talc, and compounds of magnesium, bismuth, and lead are occasionally … CrcesusCRCESUS, king of Lydia, was the son and successor of Alyattes. It was supposed by Clinton and Bahr that for fifteen years he shared the throne with his father ; however that may be, he became sole king on the death of Alyattes, about 568 11. C. (according to the computation of Rawlinson), when, Herodotus tells us, he was thirty-five years old. 1-fo speedily reduced all the Greek cities in Asia Min… Crebillon, Claude Prosper JolyotCREBILLON, CLAUDE PROSPER JOLYOT (1707-1777), a French novelist and wit of the 18th century, was the only son of Crebillon, the tragic poet. Crebillon, Prosper Jolyot DeCREBILLON, PROSPER JOLYOT DE (1674-1762), a famous French tragic poet, was born at Dijon, where his father was notary-royal. Having been educated at the Jesuits' school of the town, and at the College Mazarin, he became an advocate, and was placed in the office of a lawyer named Prieur at Paris. The encouragement of his master, an old friend of Scarron's, induced him to continue with more serious … Crecy, Or CressyCRECY, or CRESSY, a town of France, department of Somme, on the Maye, 12 miles N. by E. of Abbeville ; though an ancient place it has now only about 1300 inhabitants. Credi, Lorenzo DiCREDI, LORENZO DI (1459-1537), was the least gifted of three artists who began life as journeymen with Andrea del Vcrrocchio at Florence. Though he was the companion and friend of Leonardo da Vinci and Perugino, and closely allied in style to both, he had neither the genius of the one nor the facility of the other. We admire in Da Vinci's heads a heavenly contentment and smile, in his technical ex… Credit Foncier And Credit MobilierCREDIT FONCIER AND CREDIT MOBILIER are finance institutions, which had their origin in the joint-stock speculation and sanguine promotion of public works which marked many years of the second empire in France, and to which the introduction of limited liability in England had given a great stimulus on the British side of the Channel. The parent institutions in Paris were followed by similar establi… CreditonCREDITON, a market town of England, county of Devon, on the Creedy, near its junction with the Exe, eight miles north-west of Exeter. Population (1871), 4222. It is situated in a narrow vale, between two steep hills, and is divided into two parts, the east or old town, and the west or new town. The church, formerly collegiate, is a noble edifice, in the later Pointed style, with a fine tower 100 f… Creech, ThomasCREECH, THOMAS (1659-1701), an English translator from the classics, was born at Blandford near Sherborne in Dorsetshire. He studied at Wadham College, Oxford, and obtained a fellowship first in that college and afterwards at All Souls'. In 1699 he received a college living, but not more than two years after he hanged himself. The immediate cause of the act was not improbably .a money difficulty, … Creeds, Or Confessions Of FaithCREEDS, or CONFESSIONS OF FAITH, may be defined as authorized formularies of Christian doctrine. The three ancient or, as they are sometimes called, oecumenical creeds are the most important, although the briefest, of such documents, and mainly call for attention in such an article as this. The !acre detailed confessions since the time of the Reformation will also be enumerated. But their special … Crefeld, Or KrefeldCREFELD, or KREFELD, a town of Germany, capital of a circle of the same name, in the province of Dusseldorf, twelve miles north-west of the town of that name, 125 feet above the sea. This town is one of the finest in Rhenish Prussia, being well and regularly built, while the surrounding fertile district is almost entirely laid out in gardens. It is the most important seat of the silk and velvet ma… CremaCREMA,an ancient town of Lombardy, in the province of Cremona, on the right bank of the Serio and on the railway from Bergamo to Cremona, twenty-five miles E.S.E. of Population (1871), 8154. CremationCREMATION, or the burning of human corpses, may be said to have been the general practice of the ancient .world, with the important exceptions of Egypt, where bodies were embalmed, Judaea, where they were buried in sepulchres, and China, where they were buried in the earth. ?In Greece, for instance, so well ascertained was the law-that only suicides, uuteethed children, and persons struck by light… CremonaCREMONA, a province of Lombardy, Italy, lying between the Rivers Oglio and Adda, north of the Po, which separates it from Parma and Piacenza. CremonaCREMONA, the capital of the above province and the seat of a bishop, is situated on the north bank of the Po, crossed there by a bridge, 46 miles south-east of Milan ; lines of railway unite it north and westward with Brescia, Bergamo, Pavia, and Milan, and eastward with Mantua. It is well built, of an oval shape, about six miles in circumference, and surrounded by walls flanked with towers and we… CreoleCREOLE (Spanish, Criollo), is a term which primarily was used to denote an inhabitant of the Spanish colonies who was descended from the European settlers, as distinguished from the aborigines, the negroes, and mulattoes. CreonCREON, in Greek fable, son of Menceceus, became king of Thebes at the death of Laius, the husband of his daughter Jocasta. Thebes was then trembling before the cruelty of the Sphinx, and Creon offered his crown and his daughter to whoever should solve the fatal enigma proposed by the monster. (Edipus, the son of Laius, ignorant of his parentage (see (Epirus), having accoMplished the task, received… Crescimbeni, Giovanni MarioCRESCIMBENI, GIOVANNI MARIO (1663-1728), critic and poet, was born at Macerata in 1663. Having been educated by a French priest at Rome, he entered the Jesuits' College of his native town, where he produced a tragedy on the story of Darius, and versified the Pharsalia. In 1679 he received the degree of doctor of laws, and in 1680 he removed again to Rome. The study of Filieaja and Leonio having co… Crespi, DanieleCRESPI, DANIELE (1590-1630), an Italian historical painter, born at Milan, studied under Giovanni Battista Crespi and Procaccini. Crespi, Giovanni BattistaCRESPI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1557-1663), an Italian painter, sculptor, and architect, was born at Cerano. Crespi, Giuseppe MariaCRESPI, GIUSEPPE MARIA (1665-1747), an Italian painter, called "I1 Spagnuolo " from his fondness for rich apparel, was born at Bologna, and was trained under Angelo Toni, Domenico Canuti, and Carlo Cignani. CresswellCRESSWELL, Six CRESSWELL (1793-1863), the first judge of the English Divorce Court, was a descendant of an old Northumberland family, and was born in 1793. He was educated at the Charter house and at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, the latter of which he entered in 1810. He graduated B.A. in 1814, and M.A. four years later. Having chosen the profession of the law he studied at the Middle Temple, and … CrestCREST, a town of France, in the department of Dr6me and arrondissement of Die, situated on the right bank of the River Drome, there crossed by a fine stone bridge. CreswickCRESWICK, Tnonas, an English landscape painter (1811-1869), was born at Sheffield, and educated at Hazelwood, near Birmingham. At Birmingham he first began to paint. His earliest appearance as an exhibitor was in 1827, at the Society of British Artists in London ; in the ensuing year he sent to the Royal Academy the two pictures named Llyn Gwynant, Morning, and Carnarvon Castle. About the same tim… Crete, Or CandiaCRETE, or CANDIA, atm of the largest islands in the Mediterranean, situated between 31? 50' and 35? 40' N. lat., and between 23? 30' and 26? 20' E. long. It is thus the most southerly portion of Europe. By its position south of the .hEgean Sea or Archipelago, extending to the north-west to within 60 miles of Cape Malea in the Peloponnesus, while its north-east angle is distant only about 110 miles… CretinismCRETINISM may be defined as an endemic idiocy, of which the characteristic is an arrested development of body as well as mind. The origin of the word is doubtful. its southern French form Chrestiaa suggested to Michel a derivation from cresta (crete), the goose foot of red cloth worn by the Cagots of the Pyrenees. The Cagots, however, were not cretins. Again Christianus (which appears is the Lomba… CreuseCREUSE, a department of central France, comprising the greater portion of the old province of Marche, bounded N. by the departments of Indre and Cher, E. by Allier and Puyde?Dome, S. by Correze, and W. by Haute-Vienne, with an area of 2150 square miles. The surface is hilly, with a general inclination north-westward in the direction of the valley of the Creuse, sloping from the mountains of Auverg… Creutz, Gustaf PhilipCREUTZ, GUSTAF PHILIP, COUNT, a Swedish poet, was born in Finland in 1729. After concluding his studies in Abo he received a post in the Court of Chancery at Stockholm in 1751. Here he met Count Gyllenborg, with whom his name is as firmly united as Beaumont's with Fletcher's. Their friendship woke the poetic vein in each of the young men, and they formed, in unison, the one great figure in the poe… Creuzer, Georg FriedrichCREUZER, GEORG FRIEDRICH (1771-1858), a German philologist and archaeologist, born on March 10, 1771, at Marburg, was the son of a bookbinder of that town. Having studied at Marburg and Jena, he for some time lived at Leipsic as a private tutor ; but in 1802 he was appointed professor at Marburg, and two years later professor of philology and ancient history at Heidelberg. The latter position he h… Creuzot, LeCREUZOT, LE, a town of France, department of Saoneet-Loire, 12 miles S.S.E. of Autun, on the high ground which extends between the Cevennes and Cote d'Or, 13.55 feet above the sea. Situated in a district which is rich in coal and iron, it has the most extensive iron works in France, rivalling those of Birmingham, Essen, or Lii3ge, and since 1837 has gathered round these a population amounting in 1… Crevier, Jean BaptisteCREVIER, JEAN BAPTISTE Louis (1 69 3-17G5), a, French author, was born at Paris, where his father was a printer. CreweCREWE, a town of Cheshire, and an important station on the London and North-Western Railway, to which it is altogether indebted for its importance. It is the centre of six lines of railway, connecting it with Manchester, Chester, Birmingham, and other large towns, and is 21 miles east by south of Chester, and 54 miles north-west of Birmingham. It is inhabited principally by persons in the employme… CribbageCRIBBAGE, a game at cards, of uncertain etymology. A very similar game called noddy was formerly played : the game was fifteen or twenty-one up, marked with counters, occasionally by means of a noddy board. Cribbage seems to be au improved form of noddy. A complete pack of fifty-two cards is required, and a cribbage board and four pegs. The board is drilled with sixty holes for each player (see di… CrichtonCRICHTON. J.tmEs (1560-1582), commonly called "the Admirable Crichton," was the son of Robert Crichton, lord-advocate of Scotland in the reign of James VI., and was born at Eliock, in Dumfriesshire. He was sent when ten years old to Saint Salvator's College, St Andrews, where he took his master's degree at fifteen. In 1577 he was still living in Scotland ; some time after that date, however, a qua… CricketCRICKET (Achetidce), a family of saltatory Orthopterous Insects, characterized by the great length and slenderness of the antenna,, and by the horizontal position of the wings and wing-covers when at rest. The wings when folded form long slender filaments, which often reach beyond the extremity of the body, and give the appearance of a bifid tail, while in the male they are provided with a stridul… CricketCRICKET is the national game of Englishmen. The prevalent love of the pastime may perhaps be cited as an instance, of the development of the national character, requiring, as it does, such a combination of intellectual and physical qualities - broad and open shoulders, stout arms and quick legs, with patience, calculation, and promptness of execution. In the infancy of the game, stumps did not exi… CrickladeCRICKLADE, a town and parliamentary borough of England on the northern borders of the county of Wilts, situated in a flat stretch of country on the right bank of the Thames, not far from the Thames and Severn Canal. CrieffCRIEFF, a town in Perthshire, Scotland, on the north bank of the Earn, seventeen miles west of Perth by rail. CrimeCRIME is a word which, in every-day speech, is sometimes made to include more and sometimes less than the subject of the present article. On the one hand, the breach of a moral principle, with which the law has never con, corned itself, is sometimes loosely described as criminal ; on the other hand, a distinction is sometimes drawn between crimes and minor offences, though the law prescribes a pun… CrimeaCRIMEA, the ancient Tauric Chersonese, called by the Russians by the Tatar name Krym, or Orlin, a peninsula in the Black Sea forming part of the Russian government of Taurida, with the mainland of which it is connected by the Isthmus of Perecop, about six miles wide. It is situated between 44? 22' and 46? 10' N. lat. and 32? 30' and 36? 40' E. long. ; is rhomboid in form, the angles being directed… Criminal LawCRIMINAL LAW. A crime is an offence which the law punishes directly, as distinguished from an offence which it punishes indirectly by giving an action for damages to the person injured. The criminal or penal law is that portion of the law which deals with crimes. Sometimes it is attempted to distinguish crimes fora civil injuries by saying that? the former are offences against the state, the latte… Crimmitzschau, Or KrimmitzscitaiiCRIMMITZSCHAU, or KRIMMITZSCITAII, a manufacturing town of Saxony, in the circle of Zwickau, and seven miles N.N.W. of the town of that name, on both banks of the Pleisse, and on the Saxon Western State Railway, 760 feet above the sea. Crispin And CrispinianCRISPIN AND CRISPINIAN, two saints whose festival, as marked in the calendar, is on the 25th of October. Crissa, Or CrisaCRISSA, or CRISA, in ancient geography, one of the oldest cities of Greece, was situated in Phocis, at the foot of one of the spurs of Mount Parnassus. Its name occurs both in the Iliad and in the Homeric Ilymns, where it is described as a powerful place, with a rich and fertile territory, reaching to the sea, and including within its limits the sanctuary of Pytho. As the town of Delphi grew up ar… CritiasCRITIAS, an Athenian orator and poet, and one of the thirty tyrants. Crivelli, Carlo, CavaliereCRIVELLI, CARLO, CAVALIERE, a Venetian painter, was born in the earlier part of the 15th century. The only dates that can with certainty be given are 1468 and 1493 ; these are respectively the earliest and the latest years signed on his pictures - the former on an altar-piece in the church of San Silvestro at Massa near Fermo, and the latter on a picture in the Oggioni collection in Milan. Though … Croatia And SlavoniaCROATIA AND SLAVONIA, a crown-land of the Hungarian kingdom, which extends from 14" 25' to 20? 25' E. long., and is bounded on the N.W. by Carniola and Styria, N. by Hungary, S. by Servia, Bosnia, and Dalmatia, and W. by Dalmatia and the Adriatic, on which it has a coast-line of about S8milcs, Inclusive of the districts belong ing to the Military Frontier, it has a total area of about 16,785 Engli… CrocodileCROCODILE (Crocodilia), an order of Reptiles which, in the possession of a four-chambered heart, and of distinct sockets for. the teeth, and in the traces of a diaphragm, differs from the other reptilian orders, and shows an approach in organization to warm-blooded animals. The presence of a four-chambered heart does not prevent that commingling of venous and arterial blood previ(ms to its entranc… Croft, WilliamCROFT, WILLIAM (1677-1727), doctor of music, was born in 1677, at Nether Eatington in Warwickshire. He received his musical education in the Chapel Royal under Dr Blow. He early obtained the place of organist of St Anne's, Westminster, and in 1700 was admitted a gentleman extraordinary of the Chapel Royal. In 1707 lie was appointed joint-organist with Blow ; and upon the death of the latter in 170… CrokerCROKER, Tuomes CROFTON (1798-1854), an antiquary and humourist, was born in Cork in 1798. He was apprenticed to a merchant, but in 1819, through the interest of John Wilson Croker, who had been a friend of his father, he became a junior clerk in the Admiralty, where he afterwards obtained one of the first clerkships. In 1825 he produced his most popular book, the Fairy Legends of the South of Irel… Croker, John WilsonCROKER, JOHN WILSON (1780-1857), statesman and author, was born in Galway on the 20th December 1780. lie belonged to a respectable family of English origin that had been settled in Ireland for several generations, being the only son of John Croker, well known and popular as the surve.yor-general of Ireland. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where he graduated in 1800. Immediately afterwa… Croly, GeorgeCROLY, GEORGE (1785-1860), a distinguished literary divine of the Church of England, was born in Dublin about 1785, and received his education at Trinity College there. Croly, although a staunch unbending Tory, owed to Lord Brougham his promotion to the living of St Stephen's, Walbrook, London. The appointment conferred honour on Brougham, as the presentee was a keen partisan, and had zealously se… CromCROM.ARTY, a county in the north of Scotland, consisting of eleven detached portions scattered throughout Ross-shire, with which county it is for most purposes incorpor. ated. One of these portions, that which is situated on the south shore of the Cromarty Firth (from which it takes its name cromachty, or crooked bay), is the original county; and this district still preserves for Cromarty a separa… CromartyCROMARTY, the county town, is situated near the mouth of the firth of that name on its southern shore, 16 miles N.N.E. of Inverness. CromfCROMF, ions (1769-1821), English landscape painter. founder and chief representative of the "Norwich School," often called Old Crome, to distinguish him from his son, was born at Norwich, DeceMber 21, 1769. his father was a weaver, and could give him only the scantiest education. His early years were spent in work of the humblest kind ; and at a fit age he became apprentice to a house-painter. To … CromlechCROMLECH (Gaelic or Welsh cro?z, curved, vaulted, and leac or llech, a monumental stone) is the name given in Britain to those megalithic monuments exclusively which consist of a great stone supported on three or more stones set on end in the ground. In France, however, and on the Continent generally, it is exclusively employed to denote a totally different class of monument, for which in this cou… Crompton, SamuelCROMPTON, SAMUEL (1753-1827), the inventor of the spinning-mule, was born at Ellwood near Boltonle.Moors, Lancashire, of poor parents. While yet a boy he lost his father, and removed with the rest of his family to Hall-in-the-Wood, near Bolton, where he educated himself as well as circumstances would allow, maintaining himself by working as a cotton-spinner. His musical capacity - he had sufficien… Cromwell, OliverCROMWELL, OLIVER, Lord Protector of the British Commonwealth, was born at Huntingdon, 25th April 1599. His father, Robert Cromwell, was the second son of Sir Henry Cromwell of Hinchinbrook, surnamed, for his munificence, The Golden Knight. His mother,1 Elizabeth Steward, was the daughter of a gentleman of some property in the city of Ely. The connection of the Cromwell family with that of the cele… Cromwell, Or CrumwellCROMWELL, or CRUMWELL, THOMAS, earl of Essex. Of the life of Thomas Cromwell before he entered the service of Henry VIII., crowded with stirring incident as we know it was, the accounts that we possess are meagre and far from authentic. Even the year of his birth is unknown, but 1490 has been fixed upon as a probable approximate date. His childhood was passed near London - perhaps, as Foxe says, c… CronstadtCRONSTADT, Or KRONSTADT, a strongly fortified seaport town of Russia and the great naval station of the Russian fleet in the northern seas, the seat of the Russian admiralty and of a military governor, is situated on the island of Kotlin, near the head of the Gulf of Finland, twenty miles west of St Petersburg, of which it is the chief port, in 59? 59' 30" N. lat., and 29? 46' 30" E. long. The isl… Cronstadt, KronstadtCRONSTADT, KRONSTADT, Or KnfiNEN (Romanic, Brasiovu, Magyar, Brass6), a town of Transylvania, Austria, situated on the slope of the Transylvanian Alps, near the south-eastern corner of the principality, at an elevation of 1830 feet above the sea. It is the capital of a district of the same name, also known as Bnrzenlancl, from the stream of the Burze, a tributary of the Alt, which waters it, a ric… CroquetCROQUET, Fr. from croc, a crook, or crooked stick (Du Cange, Glossarium). The game has been derived by some writers from paille-maille (mall), which was played in Languedoc at least as early as the 13th century. Mall was fashionable in England in the time of the Stuarts. It was played with a ball (pi/a), and a mallet very similar to the mallets now in use, and with two hoops, or a hoop and a peg, … CrossCROSS (Latin, crux ; Greek, crraupOs). In its simplest aspect, a figure produced by the intersection of two lines at right angles, the cross in its primary signification is understood to denote an instrument for inflicting capital punishment, or a gibbet formed of two pieces of wood fixed together cross-wise without any reference to their relative proportions. Metaphorically, the term cross implie… Crotch, WilliamCROTCH, WILLIAM (1775-1847), doctor of music, was born at Norwich, on 5th July 1775. When only three years and a half old, he was able to play tunes with their basses on the organ with great correctness. Dr Charles Burney, the English historian of music, gave an interesting account of the infant Crotch in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (vol. lx. pt. i. for 1779). Crotch also e… Crotona, Or CrotonCROTONA, or CROTON, now COTEONE, a celebrated city of Magna Grrecia, at the mouth of the small river ./Esarus, in the country of the Bruttii, on the western shore of the Ionian Sea. It was founded in the year 7101;.c. by a colony of Achmans under the command of Myseellus, in accordance with a decree of the oracle at Delphi. The first well-established fact in its history is its friendship with Syba… CroupCROUP (synonym, Uynanche trachealis), a common and dangerous form of disease, occurring chiefly in young children. Its essential nature is an acute inflammation of the air passages, particularly the larynx and trachea, accompanied with the exudation of a fibrinous material or "false membrane " which spreads over the interior of the tube, narrowing its calibre, and thus obstructing respiration. Cro… Crousaz, Jean Pierre DeCROUSAZ, JEAN PIERRE DE (1663-1748), professor of philosophy and mathematics, was born at Lausanne, of a noble Protestant family. He was destined by his father for the profession of arms, but his tastes were literary. Instead of joining the army, he went to study at Geneva, especially devoting himself to mathematics and the Cartesian philosophy, which he adopted. After some time spent in travellin… CrowCROW (Holland, Kraai, Germ. Krdhe Fr. Corbeau, Lat. Corvus), a name most commonly applied in Britain to the bird properly called a Rook (Corvus frugilegus), but perhaps originally peculiar to its congener, nowa-days usually distinguished as the Black or Carrion-Crow (C. corone). By ornithologists it is also used in a far wider sense, as under the title Crows, or Corvidw, is included a vast number … Crowe, Eyre EvansCROWE, EYRE EVANS (1799-1868), journalist and historian, was born about the year 1799. He commenced. his work as a writer for the London newspaper press in connection with the now defunct Morning Chronicle, and he afterwards became a leading contributor to the Examiner and the Daily News. Of the latter journal he was principal editor for some time previous to his death. The department he specially… Crowl And, Or CroylandCROWL AND, or CROYLAND, an ancient town and parish of Lincolnshire, situated in a low fiat district, about eight miles north-east from Peterborough. CrownCROWN, a circular ornament worn around the head. The name is applied, at present, only to the head-dress worn by kings or emperors as a badge of their dignity. Originally it was of much wider meaning. The simplest and earliest form of the crown appears to have been a fillet or band, tied about the head, and serving for use, as well as ornament, by keeping up the hair. The name of crown is also giv… CroydonCROYDON, a town, parish, and district of England in the north-east of the county of Surrey, nine miles south of London, with stations on several lines of railway. It stands near the sources of the River Wandle, under Banstead Downs, and is a place of great antiquity. The original site, further west than the present town, is supposed to have been that of the N'aviontagus of the Antonine Itinerary, … Cruden, AlexanderCRUDEN, ALEXANDER (1701-1770), author of the well-known Concordance to the English Bible, was born at Aberdeen in 1701. He studied at Marischal College with the intention of entering the church, and took his M.A. degree after the usual curriculum of four years. He was prevented from fulfilling his purpose, however, by an attack of insanity, caused by a disappointment in love. After being for some … Crusenstolpe, Magnus JakobCRUSENSTOLPE, MAGNUS JAKOB, a Swedish historian, was born in 1795. He became early famous both as a political and an historical writer. His first important work was a IIistory of the Early Years of the Life of King Gustavus IV. Adolphus, which was followed by a series of monographs and by some politico-historical novels, of which The house of Holstein-Gottorp in Sweden is considered the best. He o… Crusius, Christian AugustCRUSIUS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST (1715-1775), after 13uddus the most distinguished theological opponent of the Wolfian philosophy and critical methods, was born on the 10th of January 1715, at Leuna, in Mersebnrg, a division of Prussian Saxony, and passed to the university of Leipsic in 1734. Cruveilhier, JeanCRUVEILHIER, JEAN (1791-1874), a French anatomist, was born at Limoges. Cruz, Juan De LaCRUZ, JUAN DE LA (1542-1591, a Spanish mystic, whose family name was Yepes, was born at Ontiveros, in Old Castile. He took the vows at twenty-one, and soon became the faithful and ardent follower of Santa Teresa in her plans for the reform of the Carmelite order, to which he belonged. His zeal drew upon him the wrath of his brethren, through whose influence he was imprisoned for nine months. His r… Cruz, Ramon De LaCRUZ, RAMON DE LA, Spanish dramatist, was born at Madrid in 1731. CryoliteCRYOLITE, so named from /claims, ice, and Won, stone, on account of its ready fusibility, is a massive, usually granular or indistinctly crystalline, cleavable, translucent to transparent, brittle mineral, of a snow-white (sometimes reddish or brownish) colour, vitreous lustre, hardness 2.5, and specific gravity 2.9-3-077. Its transparency is increased by immersion in water. Before the blowpipe it… CryptCRYPT (Latin, ow ta, from the Greek aciArw, I hide), a vault or subterranean chamber, especially under churches. In classical phraseology " crypta " was employed for any vaulted building, either partially or entirely below the level of the ground. It is used for a sewer (crypta Suburce, Juvenal, Sat. v. 06); for the " carceres," or vaulted stalls for the horses and chariots in a circus (Sidon. Apo… CryptographyCRYPTOGRAPHY (from Kptivrrav, to hide), or writing in cipher (from Arabic cib-, empty, void), called also steganograpliy (from 0-Ter;.vq, a covering), is the art of writing messages, &c., in such a way as to be understood by those only who possess the key to the characters employed. The unravelling of the writing is called deciphering. Cryptography having become a distinct art, Bacon classed it (u… CrystallographyCRYSTALLOGRAPHY. When water containing saline matter in solution is allowed to evaporate slowly, the salt it contains is thrown down in bodies of peculiar forms, bounded by smooth, even surfaces meeting in straight lines. Fused metals consolidating in certain favourable conditions appear as similar hodies. And in nature also, in cracks or fissures of the rocks, or imbedded in their mass, minerals … Csokonai, Mihaly VitezCSOKONAI, MIHALY VITEZ (1773-1805), an Hungarian poet, was born at Debrecsin in 1773. Csoma De KorgsCSOMA DE KORGS, ALEXANDER (a 1790-1842), or as the name is written in Hungarian, Korosi Csonia Sandor, an Hungarian traveller and philologist, born about 1790 at Koriis in Transylvania, belonged to a noble family which had sunk into poverty. He was educated at NagyEnyed and at Gfittingen ; and, in order to carry out the dream of his youth and discover the origin of his countrymen, he divided his a… CtesiasCTESIAS, a Greek physician and historian, who flourished in the 5th century B.C. He was born of an Asclepiad family at Cnidus in Caria, and was in the early part of his life physician to Artaxerxes 111-nernon, having, according to Diodorus Siculus, been taken prisoner of war. He was the author of a treatise on rivers, another on the Persian revenue; a history of India, which is only of value as re… CtesiphonCTESIPHON, an ancient city in the south of Assyria, situated on the left bank of the Tigris, about twenty-five miles south-east of Baghdad. It is reported by Ammianus to have been founded by a Parthian, Varanes by name, of whose history nothing is known ; it rose into importance when the city of Seleucia on the opposite bank began to decline.; and under the Parthian kings, who originally selected … CubaCUBA, the largest and richest of the West India Islands, and the most important colony of Spain, was discovered by Columbus on 28th October 1492, during his first voyage. It was first called Juana in honour of Prince John, son of Ferdinand and Isabella ; but after Ferdinand's death it received the name of Fernandina. It was subsequently designated Santiago, from the patron saint of Spain ; and sti… CubebsCUBEBS (Arabic, ?ababah), the fruit of species of plants belonging to the genus Cubeba, natural order Piperacece. The cubebs of pharmacy are produced by C. ofiicinalis (Piper Cubeba, Linn.), a climbing woody shrub indigenous to South Borneo, Sumatra, Prince of Wales Island, and Java. It has round, ash-coloured, smooth branches ; oblong, or ovate-oblong, coriaceous, shining leaves, 4 to inches long… Cubitt, Sir WilliamCUBITT, SIR WILLIAM (1785-1861), a distinguished English engineer, was born at Dilham in Norfolk, where his father was a miller. He received his early education at the village school, and subsequently profited greatly by the access he had to a clergyman's library. While still very young lie worked in his father's mill, and served an apprenticeship of four years (1800-1804) as a joiner and cabinetm… Cubitt, ThomasCUBITT, THOMAS (1788-1855), who attained distinction as a builder and capitalist, was born at Buxton, near Norwich. Few men have exhibited greater self-reliance in early life in the pursuit of a successful career. In his nineteenth year, when he was working as a journeyman carpenter, his father's death quickened the desire to reach an independent position, and induced him to undertake a voyage to … Cuckoo, Or CuckowCUCKOO, or CUCKOW, as the word was formerly and more correctly spelt - changed without any apparent warrant except that accorded by custom, while some of the more scholarly English ornithologists, as Montague and Jenyns, have kept the older form - the common name of a well-known and often-heard bird, the Cuculus canorus of Linnaeus. Iii some parts of the United Kingdom it is more frequently called… CucumberCUCUMBER (Cucumis), a genus of the natural order Cueurbitacece, represented by indigenous species in most warm regions of the globe, and distinguished by the following characters : - plants, annual or possessing a perennial thick root ; stems, rarely if ever climbing ; leaves heart-shaped, sometimes reniform, with three to Seven lobes, and crenulate or denticulate margin ; flowers, moncecious and … CuddaCUDDA.PA.H, or KADAPA, a district of British India in the presidency of Fort St George or Madras, situated between 13? 12' and 16? 19' N. let. and 77? 52' and 79? 48' E. long. It is bounded on the N. by Karnaul, on the E. by Nellor, on the S. by North Arcot and Mysore ; and on the E. by Ballari. The district is in shape an irregular parallelogram, divided into two nearly equal parts by the range o… Cuddalor, Or GudalurCUDDALOR, or GUDALUR, a municipal town of British India, in the Madras Presidency and the district of South Arcot, situated on the western shore of the Bay of Bengal at the estuary of the River Panar, 102 miles S.S.W. from Madras, and 15 S.S.W. from Pondicherry. It lies low, but is regarded as exceptionally healthy, and serves as a kind of sanatorium for the surrounding district. The principal tra… Cudworth, RalphCUDWORTH, RALPH (1617-1688), the most learned and philosophical of the Cambridge Platonists, was born at Aller, Somersetshire, in 1617. His father, rector of Aller, and an editor of Perkins's works, died in 1624. His widow married a second time Dr Stoughton, under whose care young Cudworth was well grounded in school learning, 7n 1630 he was entered a pensioner in Emmanuel College, Cambridge, of w… CuencaCUENCA, the capital of the above province, and the seat of a bishop, is finely placed on a rocky eminence girt about with bilis, beside the river Jucar at its confluence with the stream of the Huecar, at an elevation of 2960 feet above the sea, and distant about eighty-five miles E.S.E. from Madrid. CuencaCUENCA, an inland town of the Andes of Ecuador, S. CuencaCUENCA, a province of New Castile, Spain, lying between 39? 20' and 40? 40' N. lat., and 1? 10' and 3? 10' W. long., with the provinces of Guadalajara and Teruel on the N., Valencia on the E., Albacete and Ciudad Real on the S., Toledo on the W., and Madrid on the N.W. Area, 6726 square miles. It occupies the eastern part of the ancient kingdom of New Castile, and slopes from the Sierra de Cuenca … Cuirass, Or CorsletCUIRASS, or CORSLET, the plate armour, whether formed of a single piece of metal or other rigid material or composed of two or more pieces, which covers the front of the wearer's person. In a suit of armour, however, since this important piece would be worn in connection with a corresponding defence for the back, the term cuirass commonly is understood to imply the complete body-armour, including … CujasCUJAS, or CoJAcius, JACQUES, or, as ho called himself, JACQUES DE CUJAS (1520-1590), one of the greatest of jurisconsults, was born at Toulouse, where his father, whose name was Cujaus, was a fuller. Having taught himself Latin and Greek, he studied law under Arnoul Ferrier, then professor at Toulouse, and rapidly gained a great reputation as a lecturer on Justinian. He was an unsuccessful candida… CuldeesCULDEES. On no subject connected with the early ecclesiastical history of the British Islands has there been more discussion than on that of the Culdees. Their very name has furnished matter for dissertations, and their doctrines, mode of life, and peculiar institutions have been the fruitful source of controversy. There is still room for doubt as to details, but in all-important points the truth … Cullen, WilliamCULLEN, WILLIAM (1710-1790), an eminent physician and medical teacher, was born at Hamilton, Lanarkshire, on 15th April 1710. His father, who was a writer by profession, was factor to the duke of Hamilton, and was owner of a small estate in the parish of Bothwell. William received his early education at the grammar school of Hamilton, and he appears to have subsequently attended some classes at th… CullerCULLER A, a walled seaport-town situated on the left bank of the River Jucar, near its mouth, in the province and 20 miles south of the capital of Valencia. CullodenCULLODEN, a desolate tract of moorland, otherwise known as Drummossie, about five and a half miles E. of Inverness in Scotland, celebrated as the scene of the battle of April 16, 1746, by which the fate of the house of Stuart was decided. Cum1eCUM1E, Curate, or in Greek 1(4.77, the oldest and one of the most important of the Greek colonies in Italy, was situated on the shore of Campania, between the lakes Acherusia and Liternus, and about six miles north of Beim. The most generally received opinion is, that Cumm was founded by a joint colony, partly from the lEolian Cumm or Cymc and Ftrtly from Chalcis in Eubcca, who agreed that they sh… CumanaCUMANA, a city of Venezuela, capital of a province of the same name, stands on the Gulf of Cariaco, at the mouth of the Manzanares, 180 miles east of Caracas. CumberlandCUMBERLAND, a city of the United States, capital of Alleghany county, Maryland, on the north bank of the Potomac river, 179 miles west of Baltimore. CumberlandCUMBERLAND, a county of England, at its northwest extremity, situated between 54" 6' and 55? 7i' N. lat. and 2? 13' and 3? 30' W. long., and bounded on the N. by the Solway Firth and Scotland, on the E. by Northumberland and Durham, on time S. by Westmoreland and North Lancashire, and on the W. for about 70 miles by the Irish Sea. It is at a medium about 50 miles long and 30 miles broad, widrin a … Cumberland, RichardCUMBERLAND, RICHARD (1732-1811), a dramatic and miscellaneous writer, was born in the Master's Lodge of Trinity College, Cambridge, on the 19th of February Meanwhile his projects of work as a classical scholar had been interspersed with attempts at imitating Spenser - whom, by his mother's advice, he " laid upon the shelf ''and a dramatic effort (unprinted) on the model of Mason's Elfrida, called … Cumberland, RichardCUMBERLAND, RICHARD (1632-1718), bishop of Peterborough, was the son of a respectable citizen of Loudon, and was born in the parish of St Ann, near Aldersgate. He was educated in St Paul's school, and at Magdalene College, Cambridge, where in due time he took his degrees in arts, and obtained a fellowship. He took the degree of B.A. in 1653 ; and, having proceeded M.A. in 1656, he was next year in… Cumberland, William AugustusCUMBERLAND, WILLIAM AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF, son of George II. and Queen Caroline, was born on the 15th of April 1721. When five years of age he was created duke of Cumberland ; and when still very young he gave interesting amusement to his grandfather and the London public by the ability with which he drilled and manoeuvred a company of boy soldiers under his own charge. His education was well attended… Cumin, Or CumminCUMIN, or CUMMIN (Cumimum Cyminum), is an annual, umbelliferous, herbaceous plant, indigenous to Upper Egypt, but early cultivated in Arabia, India, and China, and in the countries bordering the Mediterranean. Its stem is slender and branching, and about a foot in height ; the leaves are multifid, with filiform segments ; the flowers are small and white. The fruits or achenes, the so-called seeds,… Cumming, Roualeyn GordonCUMMING, ROUALEYN GORDON, Scottish traveller and sportsman, generally known as " the Lion Hunter," was born March 15, 1820. He was the second son of Sir William G. Gordon Cumming, baronet, of Altyre and Gordonstown, North Britain. In his early years a strong love for nature in her wildest forms and a passion for sport displayed themselves in him, at once foreshadowing and determining his future ca… Cunard, Sir SamuelCUNARD, SIR SAMUEL (1787-1865), baronet, civil engineer, founder of the Cunard line of Atlantic steam-ships, was born at Halifax, Nova Scotia, in 1787. He was the son of a merchant, and was himself trained for the pursuits of commerce, in which, by his abilities and entexprizing spirit, he attained a conspicuous position. When, in the early years of steam navigation, the English Government made kn… Cuneiform WritingCUNEIFORM WRITING. The cuneiform or " wedge-shaped" system of writing takes its name from the wedgelike form of its characters, which were once extensively us al over Western Asia. It has sometimes been called " arrow-headed " from the supposed resemblance of the several strokes which compose a character to the head of an arrow. The characters were originally hieroglyphics, each denoting an object… Cunitz, MariaCUNITZ, MARIA, a celebrated astronomer, born about the beginning of the 17th century, was the eldest daughter of a doctor of medicine in Silesia, and the wife of a Dutch physician, Elias de Loewen, whom she married in 1630. Cunningham, AllanCUNNINGHAM, ALLAN (1784-1842), a Scottish poet and prose writer, was born at Blackwood, in Dumfriesshire, Remains of Nithsdale and Galloway Song; but, instead of London, where he?supported himself partly by working in the studio of Bubb the statuary, and partly as a newspaper reporter, till 1814, when he obtained the situation of clerk of the works in the studio of Francis Chantrey, in which he co… Cunningham, PeterCUNNINGHAM, PETER (1816-1869), topographical and antiquarian littdrateur, was born in London, April 7, published work was The Life of Drummond of Thawthornden, with large selections from his poetical works. This volume appeared in 1833. His most important topographical work is the Handbook of London, the first edition of which was published in 2 vols. in 1849, and the second in 1 vol. in 1850. It … Cunningham, WilliamCUNNINGHAM, WILLIAM (1805-1861), a Scottish theologian and ecclesiastic, was born at Hamilton, in Lanarkshire, on the 2d October 1805. After the usual course of study at the university of Edinburgh, in which he acquitted himself with distinction, he was licensed to preach in 1828. Two years afterwards he was ordained to a collegiate charge in Greenock, where he remained for three years, refusing d… Cupar-fifeCUPAR-FIFE, so called to distinguish it from CouparAngui ni Perthshire, is a royal and parliamentary burgh of Scotland, and the principal town of the county of Fife. It stands on the left bank of the Eden, in the centre of the Howe or Hollow of Fifeshire, about 6 miles from the sea, and is about 32 miles distant by railway and ferry from Edinburgh. The town-hall, the county hall, and the cornexcha… CupidCUPID (Amon, "Epos), in classical mythology, was the god, first, of the principle of love as it was seen to exist throughout nature, and, secondly, of love as a human passion. In the former and earlier phase of his character, be resembled Hermes, and like him was probably a deity of the primitive Pelasgians, since the worship of him at Parion on the Hellespont was connected with the Pelasgic relig… CuppingCUPPING. The operation of cupping is one of the methods adopted by surgeons to draw blood from an inflamed part in order to relieve the inflammation. The apparatus required is a spirit lamp and a glass cup with a rounded edge. The skin is washed and dried; the air is rarefied in the cup by the flame of the lamp ; the cull is then firmly applied to the skin. A partial vacuum forms within the cup as… CuraCURA.SSOW (Cracince), a group of gallinaceous birds forming one of the sub-families of Cracicice, the species of which are among the largest and most splendid of the game birds of South America, where they may be said to represent the pheasants and grouse of the Old World. They are large, heavy birds, many of them rivalling the turkey in size, with short wings, long and broad tail, and strong bill… CurateCURATE (from the Latin curare, to take care of), properly a presbyter who has the cure of souls within a parish, being the Latin equivalent of the Greek parochus. The term curate is used in this general sense in certain rubrics of the Anglican Prayer Book, in which it is applied equally to rectors and vicars .as to perpetual curates. In a more limited sense it is applied in the Church of England t… CuresCURES, an old town of the Sabines, not far from the left bank of the Tiber, about 25 miles from Rome. Cureton, WilliamCURETON, WILLIAM, D.D. (1808-1864), a famous English Orientalist, was born at Westbury, in Shropshire. After being educated at the Free Grammar School of Newport, and at Christ Church, Oxford, he took orders in 1832, became chaplain of Christ Church College, sub-librarian of the Bodleian, and, in 1837, assistant keeper of MSS. in the British Museum. He was afterwards appointed select preacher to t… CurfewCURFEW, CURFEll, or COUVRE-FEU, a signal, as by tolling a bell, to warn the inhabitants of a town to extinguish their fires and lights and retire to rest. This was a common practice throughout the various countries of Europe during the Middle Ages, especially in cities taken in war. In the law Latin of those times it was termed ignitegiun2, or pyritegium. The curfew is commonly said to have been i… CuriaCURIA, the name of the ten divisions into which a tribe was divided by the constitution of Romulus. There being three tribes, there were thirty curim., a number which was not altered when the number of the tribes was increased to thirty-five. This division was a division of the populus, to the exclusion of the plebs ; and hence the assembly of the populus was called the comitia curiata. But when S… CurlewCURLEW, in French Courlis or Corlieu, a name given to two birds, of whose cry it is an imitation, both belonging to the group Limicolce, but possessing very different habits and features. I. The Long-billed Curlew, or simply Curlew of most British writers, the Numenius arquata of ornithologists, is suffused with cinnamon markings, in an artless nest on the ground. In England it has been ascertaine… CurlingCURLING, a game in which the players throw large rounded stones upon a rink or channel of ice, towards a mark called the tee. Where the game originated is not precisely known ; but as it has been popular in North Britain for the last three centuries at least, and down till our own day been practised chiefly by natives of that country, it may correctly he spoken of as a Scottish ..pastime. Some wri… CurraghCURRAGH, a level stretch of open ground in the county of Kildare, in Irelani, famous for its race-course and its military camp. It has an area of upwards of 4800 acres ; and its soft natural sward, which has never been broken by the plough, affords excellent pasture for sheep. From the peculiarity of its herbage, the district is known in the neighbourhood as " the short grass ; " and the young men… CurranCURRAN, Joni PImILroT (1750-1817), Master of the Rolls in Ireland, and one of the most brilliant wits and orators of his day, was born on the 24th July 1750, at Newmarket, Cork, where his father, a descendant of one of Cromwell's soldiers, was seneschal to the manor-court. Pleased with his bright boyish vivacity and wit, the rector of his native place, the Rev. Nathaniel Boyse, first gave him less… CurrantsCURRANTS, the dried seedless fruit of a variety of the grape-vine, Vitis vinifera, cultivated principally in Zante, Cephalonia, and Ithaca, and near Patras, in the Morea. Currants were bright originally from Corinth, whence their name ; In the 13th and 14th centuries they were known as raisins. de Corauntz. In the Ionian Islands the currant-vine is grown on the sides of the lower hills, or in' the… Currie, JamesCURRIE, JAMES (1756-1805), a Scotch physician and an editor of Burns, wasthe son of theminiEter of Kirkpatrick Fleming, in Dumfriesshire, where he was born. He was destined for business, and while still very young was sent out to Virginia. The outbreak of the first American war, however, changed his prospects considerably; he had a long and dangerous illness ; and he still further damaged his chan… CurryCURRY, a name applied to a great variety of seasoned dishes. CurzolaCURZOLA (Slavonic, Karkar), a city of Dalmatia, Austria, the capital of an island of the same name in the Adriatic, which is situated between 42? 50' and 43? I' N. lat. and 16? 40' and 17? E. long, and has a length of about 25 miles, with an average breadth of 4 miles. The city is about 55 miles north of Ragusa. It is regularly built, and, besides the old cathedral, the loggia or council chambers,… Cusa, Nicolas DeCUSA, NICOLAS DE [NICOLAUS Cusalcusi cardinal (1401-1464), was the son of a poor fisherman named Krypffs or Krebs, and derived the name by which he is known from the place of his birth, Cues or Cusa, on the 3loselle, in the archbishopric of Treves. In his youth he was employed in the service of Count Ulrich of Manderscheid, who, seeing in him evidence of exceptional ability, sent him to study at t… CushCUSH, the eldest son of Ham, from whom seems to have been derived the name of the Land of Cush, which is commonly rendered by the Septuagint and by the Vulgate Ethiopia. The locality of the land of Cush is a question upon which eminent authorities have been divided ; for while Boehart maintained that it was exclusively in Arabia, Schulthess and Gesenius held that it is to be sought for nowhere but… Custard AppleCUSTARD APPLE, a name applied to the fruit of various species of the genus Anona, natural order A nonacece. The members of this genus are shrubs or small trees having alternate, exstipulate leaves, and flowers with three small sepals, six petals arranged in a double row, and numerous stamens. The fruit of A. reticulata, the common custard apple, or " bullock's heart " of the West Indies, is dark b… Customs DutiesCUSTOMS DUTIES are taxes on the import and export of commodities, and rank among the most ancient, as they continue to prevail as one of the most common modes, in all countries, of levying revenue for public purposes. In an insular country like the United Kingdom customs duties came in process of time to be levied only or chiefly in the seaports, and thus ,applied only to the foreign commerce, whe… Custos RotulorumCUSTOS ROTULORUM, in England, is one of the justices of the peace, and keeper of the records for the county. Cutch GundavaCUTCH GUNDAVA, a district in the province of Baluchistan, situated at the bottom of the mountains lying south-east of Khelat, between 27? 40' and 29? 50' N. lat. Cutcit, Or KammCUTCIT, or KAMM, a native state in the south-western extremity of Hindustan, situated between 68? and 72? E. long. and 22? and 25? N. lat. It is a peninsular tract of land, inclosed towards the W. by the eastern branch of the Indus, or the Force, on the S. by the Indian Ocean and the Gulf of Cutch, and on the N. and E., towards the interior, by the great northern Ran, or Runn, an extensive salt mo… Cuthbert, StCUTHBERT, ST . .-687). The precise date and of Northumbria which lay north of the Tweed, and was afterwards included in the Scottish kingdom. The original abbey of Melrose - to be distinguished from the later Cistercian foundation of that name, which lies higher up the Tweed - bad been founded before the middle of the 7th century. The first abbot was Eata, one of the twelve English disciples of th… CutleryCUTLERY (French, coutillerie, from the Latin cutter, a knife) is a branch of industry which originally embraced the manufacture of all cutting implements of whatever form or material. The progress of manufacturing industry has, however, detached from it the fabrication of several kinds of edge-tools, saws, and similar implements, the manufacture of which is now regarded as distinct branches of tra… Cuttle-fishCUTTLE-FISH. The cuttle-fishes are the " Dintenfische " of the Germans and the " Seiches " of the French, and they constitute the most highly organized members of the class of the Cephalopoda. The great class of animals now known to naturalists under the name of Cephalopoda was fully recognized by Aristotle as a well-marked division of animals, under the name of Malakia. Even at the early period a… Cuvier, BaronCUVIER, BARON (1769-1832). Georges Cuvier was born on the 23d of August 1769, at Montbeliard, in the department of Doubs, then belonging to Wiirtemberg. He was christened Leopold-Chretien-Fred4rie.Dagobert, but afterwards assumed, at his mother's wish, the name of Georges, which was that of an elder brother deceased. His father, a retired officer on half-pay, belonged to a Protestant family which … Cuxhaven, Or KunhafenCUXHAVEN, or KUNHAFEN, a small seaport-town of Northern Germany, at the mouth of the Elbe, on its left bank, 58 miles W.N.W. of Hamburg, in the detached bailiwick of Ritzebiittel, which forms part of the territory belonging to Hamburg. CuyabaCUYABA, or CurAn.k, the capital of the Brazilian inland province of Matto Grosso, in 15? 20' S. lat. and 56? W. long., or almost in the heart of theSouthArnerican continent. It lies about a mile from the left bank of the Cuyabit river, one of the head streams of the Paraguay, at 250 miles by river from the confluence with the main stream, and about 2400 miles from the estuary of the Plata. Its chu… CuypCUYP, the name of a Dutch family which produced two generations of painters. The Cups were long settled at Dort, in the neighbourhood of which they had a country house, where Albert Cuyp was born and bred. The eldest member of the family who acquired fame was - JACOB GERRITSZ Cuir (15751-1619), born, it is said, at Dort, and taught by Abraham Bloemaert of Utrecht. It is difficult to find a greater… CuzcoCUZCO, a city of southern Peru, the capital of a province of the same name, the ancient capital of the empire of the Incas, and still one of the most important cities of the republic, in 13? 31' S. lat. and 73? 3' W. long., 11,3S0 feet above the sea, and 350 miles E.S.E. of Lima. It stands at the head of a fertile valley, nine miles in length, running from south-east to north-west, and bounded by … Cybele, Or Rhea CybeleCYBELE, or RHEA CYBELE, in Greek mythology, was the mother of Zeus and the order of deities of which he was the head. As such she was styled "mother of gods" (64;),, p..4717p), and her temple called Metroon. But though thus made to fit into the general system of deities, her worship was originally peculiar to Crete and Phrygia in Asia Minor, in both which places it was accompanied by wild orgiasti… CycladesCYCLADES, the southern group of islands in the .iEgean Sea belonging to Greece, as distinguished from the northern Sporades of the Greek archipelago, and the southern Sporades of the Asiatic portion of the archipelago, belonging to Turkey. They were originally twelve in number, and derived their name from the fact of their lying in a circle round the sacred isle of Delos, which was the smallest of… CyclopesCYCLOPES (KtIKXenres), THE, in Greek mythology, worked with Vulcan at his forge in the heart of burning mountains, especially in Mount Aana, the Lipara islands, and Lemnos. Their names, Brontes, Steropes, and Arges, indicate the noise and flash of a volcanic eruption. Finding them dangerous to his rule by their enormous strength, Kronos had confined them in the centre of the earth. In the war betw… CynicsCYNICS, a Greek sect, whose name is derived either from the fact that they originally met in the gymnasium called Cynosarges, or, in scorn of their habits and temper, from the word Ki5(.0v, a dog. The founder of the sect was Antisthenes, a disciple of Socrates, who, adopting the Socratic doctrines that the sole aim of philosophy is to attain the knowledge of right conduct, and that the summum bon … Cy-presCY-PRES a principle adopted by the Court of Chancery in dealing with trusts. When the charitable purpose intended by a testator cannot be carried into effect, the court will apply the funds to some other purpose, as near the original as possible. For instance, a testator having left a fund to be divided into four parts - one-fourth to be used for " the redemption of British slaves in Turkey and Ba… CypressCYPRESS (Cupressus), a genus of the sub-order Cupressinece, natural order Coniferce or Pinacece, represented by evergreen aromatic trees and shrubs indigenous to the south of Europe, the East Indies, China, California, Mexico, Guatemala, and North America. The leaves of the cypresses are scale-like, overlapping, and generally in four rows ; the female catkins are roundish, and fewer tnan the male … CyprusCYPRUS, one of the largest islands in the Mediterranean, situated in the easternmost basin of that sea, at nearly equal distance from the coasts of Asia Minor to the north and of Syria to the east. The headland of Cape Kormakiti in Cyprus is distant about 46 miles from Cape A.namur in Cilicia, and its north-east point, Cape St Andrea, is about 60 miles from Latakieh in Syria. It lies between 34? … Cyrenaica, Or PentapolisCYRENAICA, or PENTAPOLIS, in ancient geography, a district of Africa, on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, lying exactly opposite to Greece, at the distance of about 250 miles. It received the name of Cyrenaica from Cyrene, its chief city ;.and that of Pentapolis from the fact of its containing five principal cities, Berenice or Hesperus, Barce, Cyrene, Apollonia, and Arsina or Teucheira, now i… CyrenaicsCYRENAICS, a Greek school of philosophers, so called from Cyrene, the birth-place of their founder Aristippus, who was a disciple of Socrates. They held that the one aim in life is to enjoy as many moments of as intense pleasure as possible. The pleasures of sense are to be preferred as the most intense, for duration and intensity are the only qualities in which pleasures really differ. For the wi… CyreneCYRENE, the capital of Cyrenaica, was situated on the northern slope of a lofty table-land nearly 2000 feet above the level of the sea, from which it was ten miles distant. It was the first town of Cyrenaica founded by Battus and his Therian followers (see CYRENAICA), and very soon rose into great. importance as a commercial mart. The policy of Battus led him to conciliate the aboriginal tribes of… CyrilCYRIL, of Alexandria (376-444), is a more distinguished father of the church than his namesake of Jerusalem. He was born in 376, and died in 444. Becoming patriarch of Alexandria about 412, he soon made himself known by the violence of his zeal against Jews, pagans, and heretics or supposed heretics alike. He had hardly entered upon his office when he closed all the churches of the Novatians and s… CyrilCYRIL, a celebrated professor of the ancient law college of Berytus, and one of the founders of the oecumenical school of jurists (1--i7's olicoviArqs SeSckrKaXot) which preceded the succession of Anastasius to the Eastern empire (491 A.D.), and paved the way for Justinian's legislation. His reputation as a teacher of law was very great ; and from the ,fragments of his works which have been preser… CyrilCYRIL [Cvnnurs], saint and bishop of Jerusalem. He was born probably at Jerusalem about 315, and died about 386. He was ordained a presbyter in 345, and had the instruction of the catechumens confided to him. In 350 he was elevated to the see of Jerusalem, and became deeply involved in the dogmatic controversies of his time. His metropolitan, Acacius of Caisarea, inclined to Arianism, while Cyril … Cyrus The ElderCYRUS THE ELDER. Like other national heroes, Cyrus, the founder of the Persian empire, has been surrounded with an atmosphere of myth. Already in the time of Herodotus (i. 95) four different stories were current among the Persians concerning his origin and his relation to the last king of Media. The one preferred by Herodotus is probably the most legendary of all four ; at any rate it has the same… Cyrus The YoungerCYRUS THE YOUNGER was the son of Darius Nothus, and of Parysatis, and the brother of Artaxerxes A.fnemon. He was sent by his father at the age of sixteen to assist the Lacedmmonians against the Athenians. Artaxerxes succeeded to the throne on the death of Nothus ; and Cyrus, who deemed himself, as born after his father's accession to the throne, the legitimate successor, sought to dispossess him. … CyzicusCYZICUS, an ancient town of Mysia, in Asia Minor, on the coast of the Propontis or Sea of Marmora, occupying the narrowest part of a peninsula which was at one time an island, and was said to have. been joined to the mainland by Alexander the Great by moles and bridges. During the Peloponnesian war, Cyzicus was subject to the Athenians and Lacedwmonians alternately, as the power of either state pr… CzackCZACK I, TADEUSZ (1765-1813), a Polish statesman and author, who did much for the spread of education in Poland, was born at Poryck in Volhynia, of good family. After being educated at Cracow, he went to court and gained the favour of the king, Stanislas Augustus Poniatowski, by whom he has appointed to several high dignities. In the diet which sat from 1788 to 1792 he took a prominent place, and … Czartoryski, Prince Adam GeorgeCZARTORYSKI, PRINCE ADAM GEORGE (1770-1861), a principal actor in the Polish revolution of 1830, was born at Warsaw, January 14, 1770. He was the eldest sou of Prince Adam Casimir Czartoryski ; and,?after receiving a careful education in his father's house, he completed his studies in France and Great Britain, spending some time at Edinburgh University and in London. On his return to Poland he ent… Czaslau, Or CaslauCZASLAU, or CASLAU, a town of Bohemia, the chief place of the circle of the same name, situated near the left bank of an affluent of the Elbe, in a fertile plain 48 miles E.S.E. of Prague, on the North-west Railway from Vienna. CzechsCZECHS, or phonetically T cltekhz, a large branch of the Slavonic race, which includes the Bohemians or Czechs proper, the Hannacks or Moravians, and the Slovacks. CzegledCZEGLED, a market town or large village of Hungary, in the district of Pesth, and 38 miles south-east of that city, situated on the bare sandy and infertile plain which extends between the Danube and Theiss. Czenstochova, Or TschenstochowCZENSTOCHOVA, or TSCHENSTOCHOW, OLD and NEW, two small contiguous towns of Poland, in the circle of the same name and the government of Piotrkov, on the left bank of the Warta, 130 miles S.W. of Warsaw, and on the railway between that city and Cracow. Czernowitz, Or CzernauzCZERNOWITZ, or CZERNAUZ, the capital town of the Austrian duchy of Bukowina, in 48? 26' N. lat. and 25? 57' E. long., picturesquely situated on a height above the right bank of the river Pruth, 140 miles S.E. of Lemberg, 720 feet above the sea. Czerny GeorgeCZERNY GEORGE (1 1766-1817), or KARDJORDJE, or Black George, as be is always called, though his name was properly George Petrovitch, a Servian who freed his country from the domination of the Turks, born about 1766, was the son of a Servian peasant. He was about twenty when, having killed a Turk in some wild adventure, he was forced to flee into Austria. It said that he forced his father, or his s… Czerny, KarlCZERNY, KARL (1791-1857), pianist and composer, was born at Vienna on the 21st February 1791. His father, who was a teacher of the piano, trained him for that instrument from an early age with such success that he performed in public at the age of nine, and commenced his own career as a teacher at fourteen. He was brought under the notice of Beethoven, and was his pupil in the sense in which the g… DaccaDACCA [DHAKA], the principal district in the division of the same name,1 in Bengal, British India, situated between 24* 20' 12" and 23? 6' 30" N. let., and between 89? 47' 50" and 91? 1' 10" E. long. It is bounded on the N. by Maimansinh, on the E. by Tipperah, and on the S. andW. by Bakarganj and Farfdpur. The district consists of a vast level plain, divided into two sections by the Dhaleswarf ri… Dacca CityDACCA CITY, the principal place in the above district, is situated on the left or north bank of the Buriganga river, in 23? 43' 20" N. lat. and 90? 26' 10" E. long. The city is bounded on the E. by a low alluvial plain stretching to the Lakshinia river, and on the N. and N.W. by a tract of jungle interspersed with Muhammadan cemeteries, deserted gardens, mosques, and ruined houses. The streets, ba… Dace, Dare, Or DartDACE, DARE, or DART (Lenciscus eulgaris), a freshwater fish belonging to the family Cyprinidce. It is an inhabitant of the rivers and streams of Europe north of the Alps, but is most abundant in those of France and Germany. It prefers clear streams flowing over a gravelly bottom, and deep, still water, keeping close to the bottom in winter but disporting itself near the surface in the sunshine of … DaciaDACIA, or the country of the Daci, the ancient name of that district of Europe which lies to the N. of the Danube between the Theiss on the W. and the Dniester on the E. It thus comprehended the modern provinces of Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia, the Bukowina, the Banat of Tcmeswar and other parts of Hungary, as well as the southern portions of Galicia. The first occupants of the district w… Dacier, AndreDACIER, ANDRE (1651-1722), a French classical scholar, was the son of a Protestant advocate at Castres, and was born in that town in 1651. His father resolved to give him a learned education, and accordingly sent him first to the academy of Puy Laurens, and afterwards to Saumur, to study under Tanneguy Lefevre, who at that time enjoyed a considerable reputation as a teacher of classics. Such rapid… Dacier, Anne LefkvreDACIER, ANNE LEFkVRE (1654-1720), a famous French scholar and translator from the classics, was born at Saumur, probably in 1654. She was the daughter of Tanneguy Lefevre, a self-educated scholar belonging to the Huguenots, who taught classics and edited classical authors with a liveliness and enthusiasm which brought him some degree of fame. At the age of eighteen Anne Lefevre lost her father. Sh… Da CostaDA COSTA, IsAAx (1798-1860), a Dutch poet and theologian, was born at Amsterdam on the 14th January 1798. His father was a Jew of Portuguese descent, through whom he claimed kindred with the celebrated Uriel D'Acosta. He studied at Amsterdam, and afterwards at Leyden, where he took his doctor's degreo in law in 1818. Before this he had given evidence of poetical talent, and had become acquainted w… DaffodilDAFFODIL, the name of a group of plants of the genus Narcissus, and natural order Amaryllidacece. The common daffodil, N. Pseudo-narcissus, is common in woods and thickets in most parts of the N. of Europe, but is rare in Scotland. Its leaves are 5 or 6 in number, are about a foot in length and an inch in breadth, and have a blunt keel and flat edges. The stem is about 18 inches long, and the spat… DaggerDAGGER, a weapon which, in relation to its comparatively short blade, may be considered a diminutive of the sword. Specially designed to inflict wounds by the act of stabbing, the dagger is sharp at the point, but it is equally adapted for cutting purposes with its keen edge. Al savage races have highly valued the dagger in some modifications of its simplest type ; while at certain periods it has … DaghestanDAGHESTAN, a government in Asiatic Russia, en the eastern slopes of the Caucasus, bounded by Circassia, Grusia or Georgia, and the Caspian. D'agincourt, Jean Baptiste Louis George SeroitxD'AGINCOURT, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS GEORGE SEROITX (1730-1814), archmologist and historian, was born at Beauvais on the 5th April 1730. He belonged to a g rod family, and in his youth served as an officer in a regiment of cavalry. Finding it necessary to quit the army in order to take charge of his younger brothers who had been left orphans, he was appointed a farmer-general by Louis XV. In 1777 be v… DagonDAGON, a national god of the Philistines, spoken of in Judg. xvi. 23 ; 1 Sam. v. 2 ; 1 Chron. x. 10 ; 1 Macc. i. 83. The name is derived from Dag, a fish, with the suffix of endearment, - tho older etymology from Dagan, corn, suggested by Philo Byblius, being generally regarded as untenable. The principal temples of the god were at Ashdod (1 Sam. v. 1), and Gaza (.Judg. xvi. 1, 23), and the former… D'aguesseau, Henri FrantisD'AGUESSEAU, HENRI FRANTIS (1668-1751), chancellor of France, illustrious for his virtues, learning, and talents, was born at Limoges on the 27th of November 1668. Under the careful supervision of his father, a man of great worth and ability, who held the posts of intendant of Languedoc and councillor of state, D'Aguesseau devoted himself to study with great ardour and with extraordinary results. … DahlDAHL, JonANN CHRISTIAN (1778-1857), a landscape painter, born in Bergen, Norway, on the 24th February 1778. He began painting in his native town, and formed his style without much tuition, remaining there till he was twenty-four, when he left for the better field of Copenhagen, and ultimately settled in Dresden in 1818. He is usually included in the German school, although he was thus close on for… Dahlgren, Karl FredrikDAHLGREN, KARL FREDRIK (1791-1844), the Swedish poet, was born at Stensbruk in ostergotland June 20, 1791. At the time when literary partizanship ran so high in Sweden, and the writers divided themselves into " Goths " and " Phosphorists," Dahlgren came over to the latter body, and made himself indispensable by his polemical activity. In the mock-heroic poem of Markalls somnlosa natter (Markall's … DahliaDAHLIA, a genus of herbaceous plants of the natural order Composike, so called after Dr Dahl, a pupil of Lin. limns. The dahlia is indigenous to Mexico, where it flourishes in sandy tracts at a height of 5000 feet above sea-level. Two cultivated species are distinguished by some botanists, D. frustranea and D. superflua, the outer involucre in the former being spreading, in the latter reflexed. Th… Dahlmann, Friedrich ChristianDAHLMANN, FRIEDRICH CHRISTIAN (1785-1860), a distinguished German historian and politician, was born on the 13th May 1785, at Wismar. He studied philology at the universities of Copenhagen and Halle, and at the age of twenty-five took his doctor's degree in that subject. He had already delivered lectures at Dresden ; and in 1812 he was appointed professor of history at Kiel. His devotion to histor… Dahl, MichaelDAHL, MICHAEL (1656-1743), the only celebrated Scandinavian portrait painter of his time, was born at Stockholm in 1656. Dahl, Or DaleDAHL, or DALE, VLADIMIR IvAsoviTcu (1802-1872), a Russian author and philologist of high reputati')n, was born of Scandinavian parentage in 1802, and received his education at the Naval Cadets' Institution at St Petersburg. He joined the Black Sea fleet in 1819 ; but at a later date he entered the military service, and was thus engaged in the Polish campaign of 1831, and in the expedition against … Dahlstjerna, GunnoDAHLSTJERNA, GUNNO (1661-1709), whose original surname was EURELIUS, the Swedish poet, was born September 7, 1661, in the parish of Ohr, in Dalsland, where his father was rector. He entered the university of Upsala in 1677, and after gaining his degree, entered the Government office of land-surveying. He was sent in 1681 on professional business to Livonia, then under Swedish rule, and after some … DahomeyDAHOMEY, a kingdom on the west coast of Africa, extending inland from the Slave Coast, in the Gulf of Guinea, and second only to Ashantee in power and importance. The territory of Dahomey has been described as extending from the Volta to the Niger, and from the Kong Mountains to the sea; but recent investigation has shown that the true limits of the state are much more closely circumscribed, Dahom… DaimielDAIMIEL, a town of Spain, at the head of a department of the province of Ciudad Real, and about 20 miles north-east of the town of that name, with which it is connected by rail. DairyDAIRY. Milk, either in its natural state, or in the form of butter and cheese, is an article of diet so useful, wholesome, and palatable, that dairy management, which includes all that concerns its production and treatment, constitutes a most important branch of husbandry. The physical conditions of the different countries of the world have determined in each case the most suitable animal for dair… DaisyDAISY, the name applied to the plants constituting the genus Bellis, of the natural order Compositor, and sub-order Corymbiferm. The flowers in this genus have a small, hemispherical, erect calyx ; florets of the disk numerous and tubular ; phyllaries strap-shaped and slightly notched ; filaments hair-like and very short ; anthers forming a cylindrical notched tube ; achenes obovate and compressed… DakotaDAKOTA, a territory of the United States of North America, bounded on the N. by the Dominion of Canada, E. by Minnesota and a small part of Iowa, S. by Nebraska, and W by Montana and Wyoming. It is situated between 42? 28' and 49? N. lat. and 96? 20' and 104?W. long., - thus extend:Ing about 400 miles from E. to W. and about as much from N to S., with an area estimated at 150,932 square miles. Wit… Dalberg, Charles Theodor Anton MariaDALBERG, CHARLES THEODOR ANTON MARIA, PRINCE OF (1744-1817), was the son of a prince of Dalberg who was one of the chief councillors of the elector of Mainz. Having attended the universities of Gottingen and Heidelberg, he devoted himself to the study of canon law, and entered the church. In 1772 be was appointed counsellor and governor of Erfurt by the elector of Mainz, the duties of which positi… D'alembert, Jean LeD'ALEMBERT, JEAN LE Rolm (1717-1783), French mathematician and philosopher, was born at Paris in November 1717. He was a foundling, having been exposed in the market near the church of St Jean le Rond, Paris, where he was discovered by a commissary of police on the 17th November. It afterwards became known that he was the illegitimate son of the Chevalier Destouches and Madame de Tencin, a lady of… Dalgarno, GeorgeDALGARNO, GEORGE (c. 1626-1687), an ingenious but now almost forgotten writer, born at Old Aberdeen about 1626. He appears to have studied at Marischal College ; and in 1657 he went to Oxford, where, according to Wood, " he taught a private grammar-school with good success for about thirty years," and where he died on August 28, 1687. In his work entitled Didasccdocophus, or the Deaf and Dumb Man'… Dalhousie, James Andrew Broun-ramsayDALHOUSIE, JAMES ANDREW BROUN-RAMSAY, MARQUIS OF (1812-1860), in the peerage of the United Kingdom, the great administrator who was the last of the historic governors-general under the East India Company, and may be ranked with his two most distinguished predecessors, -Warren Hastings and the Marquis Wellesley. The family was founded by Sir John Ramsay, who rescued James VI. in the Gowrie outrage … Dalin, OlofDALIN, OLOF vox (1708-1763), a Swedish poet, was born August 29,1708, in the parish of Vinberg, in Halland, being the son of the incumbent. His mother was the daughter of a Dr Amen, to whom Queen Christina had offered, during her exile in Rome, a cardinal's hat if he joined the Romish Church. He was also nearly related to a still more remarkable man, Rydelius, the philosophical bishop of Lund, and… DalkeithDALKEITH, a burgh of barony and market-town of Scotland, in the county of Edinburgh, situated between the North and South Esk, 6i miles south-east of Edinburgh. The town is for the most part clean and well-built. The principal church, an old Gothic edifice, was originally the castle chapel ; in 1406 it was raised to the dignity of a collegiate church, and after the Reformation it became the parish… Dalling And BulwerDALLING AND BULWER, BARON (1801-1872). William Henry Lytton Earle Bulwer, better known during the chief part of his long and brilliant career in diplomacy, politics, and literature as Sir Henry Bulwer, was born in Baker Street, Portman Square, London, on Friday the 13th February 1801. Upon both sides Lord Dalling's lineage was illustrious ; his father's house traced back their ancestry to the Viki… DalmatiaDALMATIA, a crownland of the Austrian empire, stretching in a narrow strip along the eastern shores of the Adriatic from Austrian Croatia on the N. to Albania in the S., and bounded towards the interior by Turkish Croatia, Herzegovina, and Montenegro. It has an area or 4937 square miles, and its population in 1869 was 456,961. The boundary towards Austrian Croatia is marked by the Velebitch Mounta… Dalton, JohnDALTON, JOHN (1766-1844), the celebrated physicist, and founder of the atomic theory of chemistry, was born September 5, 1766, at Eaglesfield, 2i miles south-west of Cockermouth, in Cumberland. His grandfather, Jonathan Dalton, was a member of the Society of Friends, and Dalton as well as his parents belonged to that body. His father, Joseph Dalton, who in 1755 married Deborah Greenup, had three c… DamagesDAMAGES, the compensation to which a person is by law entitled who has been injured by another. The principle of compensation in law makes its first appearance as a substitute for personal retaliation. In primitive law something of the nature of the Anglo-Saxon were gild, or the rotvrj of the Iliad, appears to be universal.' It is a payment due from the offender to the person he has offended, or t… Damascenus, JohannesDAMASCENUS, JOHANNES, an eminent theologian of the early Greek Church, derives his surname from Damascus, where 116 was born about the close of the 7th or the beginnin,,e' of the 8th century. His Arabic name was Mansur, and he received the epithet Chrysorrhoas (gold-pouring) on account of his eloquence. The principal account we have of his life is contained in a narrative of the 10th century, much… Damascenus, NicolausDAMASCENUS, NICOLAUS, a Greek historian and philosopher, born at Damascus, from which he is named. He flourished in the time of Augustus and Herod the Great, with both of whom he was on terms of friendship. He enjoyed the intimate confidence of Herod, who studied philosophy along with him, and employed him on an important political mission to Augustus. Nicolaus survived Herod, and it was through h… DamasciusDAMASCIUS, a celebrated Neo-Platonic philosopher, who was born at Damascus about the middle of the 5th century. DamascusDAMASCUS (Arabic, Dimeshk esh-Sham), the capital of Syria, and of a pashalik of the same name, an ancient town, 57 miles from the seaport of Beyrout, in 33? 30' N. lat. and 36? 18' E. long. It occupies a site of singular beauty, On the eastern side of the range of Antilibanus is a plain of vast extent, reaching far out into Arabia, and having an elevation of 2200 feet above the sea. The River Bara… DamaskDAMASK is a technical term applied to several distinct manufactures or manufacturing operations, from the fact that such products or operations were intimately connected with Damascus when that city was a great manufacturing centre. The principal application of the term is to variegated textile manufactures ; and at the present day it generally indicates a twilled linen texture richly figured in t… Damaskeening, Or DamasceningDAMASKEENING, or DAMASCENING, is the art of incrusting wire of gold (and sometimes of silver) on the surface of iron, steel, or bronze. Damask Steel, Or Damascus SteelDAMASK STEEL, or DAMASCUS STEEL, has a peculiar watered or streaked appearance, as seen in the blades of fine swords and other weapons of Oriental manufacture. DamasusDAMASUS I. stands thirty-ninth in the roll of bishops of Rome. Every one of the first fifty-six Popes has been canonized ; and the subject of this notice is entitled to the style of St Damasus. It is stated that he was by birth a Spaniard; but the more authentic account is that he was born at Guimaraens, in Portugal, in or about the year 304. Other writers have maintained that, though of Portugues… Damasus IiDAMASUS II. was a native of Bavaria, of the name of Papon, who beca:ine bishop of Brixen in Tyrol, and was elected the 155th Pope on the death of Clement II. in 1047, mainly by the influence of the Emperor Henry III. DamaunDAMAUN, a seaport town of Western India, in the Surat district, is a Portuguese settlement, although included within the geographical limits of the presidency of Bombay, in 20? 24' N. lat. and 72? 53' E. long. It is situated on the. DamaungangA river, which rises in the Western Ghats, about 40 miles to the eastward. The river has a bar at its mouth, with only 2 feet of water at low spring tides an… D'amboise, GeorgeD'AMBOISE, GEORGE (1460-1510), a French cardinal and minister of state, was born in the year 1460. Hp belcnged to a noble family possessed of considerable influence, and he was only fourteen when his father procured for him the bishopric of Montauban, and Louis XI. appointed him one of his almoners. On arriving at manhood D'Amboise attached himself to the party of the duke of Orleans, in whose cau… Da Mi EnsDA MI ENS:ROBERT FRANcOIS (1715-1757),who attained notoriety by his attack on Louis XV. of France in 1757, ?ah born in a village near Arras in 1715, and early enlisted in the army. After his discharge, he became a menial in the College of the Jesuits in Paris, and was dismissed from this as well as from other employments for misconduct. Indeed his conduct was such as to earn for him the name oT ? … DamiettaDAMIETTA, or, as it is called by the natives, DAM1AT, a town of Lower Egypt, on the great eastern braneh of the Nile, about six miles from its mouth (the ancient Ostium Phatniticum), and nearly 100 miles from Cairo, with which it is connected by rail. After the metropolis and Alexandria, Damietta is the largest town in Egypt, and contains a population of about 29,000, consisting for the most part … DamiriDAMIRI (1341-1405), sometimes spelt DomaInl, or, with the Arabic article, An-Daminf, is really an adjective of relation applied to a person or thing belonging to one of the two contiguous towns of North and South Damirah, near Damietta, in Egypt. Under this name is usually understood a well-known Arabian writer on canon law, who is at the same time the author of a treatise on natural history, whic… Damiron, Jean PiiilibertDAMIRON, JEAN PIIILIBERT (1794-1862), a French writer on philosophy, was born at Belleville in 1794. At nineteen he entered the normal school, where he studied under Burnouf, Villemain, and Cousin. After teaching for several years in provincial towns, he came to Paris, where he lectured on philosophy in various institutions, and finally became professor in the normal school, and titular professor … DammarDAMMAR, or DAmmErt, a resin, or rather series of resins, of the copal kind, obtained from various trees in India and the islands of the Eastern Archipelago. The resin known as dammar in British commerce is the produce of a huge pine tree, Dammam, orientalis, which grows in Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and other Eastern islands. It oozes in large quantities from the tree in a soft viscous state, with a h… DamonDAMON, a Pythagorean, celebrated for his disinterested affection for Pythias, or Phyntias, a member of the same sect. Dampier, WilliamDAMPIER, WILLIAM (c. 1652?c. 1712), an English navigator, was born at East Coker, Somersetshire, about 1652. Having early become an orphan, he was removed from the Latin school, and placed with the master of a ship at Weymouth, in which he made a voyage to Newfoundland. On his return he engaged himself as a common sailor in a voyage to the East Indies. He served in 1673 in the Dutch war under Sir … DanaDANA, the name of an American family of which several members have attained eminence. Richard Dana (1699-1772) was a leading barrister of Boston, and a prominent opponent of the Stamp Act. His son, Francis Dana, born in Charlestown in 1743, also began life as a barrister. In 1774 he was chosen to represent Cambridge in the first provincial congress of Massachusetts ; and in the following year he v… DanaeDANAE, in Greek legend, is known only in connection with her son Perseus (Iliad, xiv. 319), and in particular from the circumstances of his birth. Her father Acrisius, king of Argos, having been warned by an oracle that his daughter would bear a son who would put him to death and rule in his stead, sought to prevent this by confiping Danae in an underground chamber lined with bronze like the under… DanausDANAUS, in Greek legend, was the founder of Argos and of the race of Dauai, by which name the Argives are designated in Homer. A local feature of Argos was the drought which in summer sealed its numerous small springs, and with this feature Danaus was identified as having made the first well, while his fifty daughters (Danaides), seem to represent the many springs of the district. In the lower wor… DanburyDANBURY, a town of the United States, in Fairfield county, Connecticut, situated on the Still river, a tributary of the Housatonic, about 53 miles N.N.E. of New York, with which it is connected by rail. Danby, FrancisDANBY, FRANCIS (1793-1861), a painter of poetical landscape, who possesses some significance and importance in the English school, was born in the south of Ireland, November 16,1793. His father farmed a small property he owned near Wexford, and Francis began life in the country, but the death of his father caused the family to remove to Dublin, while he was still a schoolboy, and there his bias to… DanceDANCE. The term dancing in its widest sense includes three things : - (1) the spontaneous activity of the muscles under the influence of some strong emotion, such as social joy or religious exultation; (2) definite combinations of graceful movements performed for the sake of the pleasure which the exercise affords to the dancer or to the spectator ; (3) carefully trained movements which are meant … Dancourt, Florent CartonDANCOURT, FLORENT CARTON (1661-1725), French dramatist and actor, was born at Fontainebleau on the 1st November 1661. He belonged to a family of rank, and his parents intrusted his education to Father De la Rue, a Jesuit, who made earnest but fruitless efforts to induce him to join the order. Preserving his freedom he studied law, became an advocate, and engaged for a short time in the practice of… DandelionDANDELION (Taraxacum Dens Leonis), a perennial herb belonging to the sub-order Cichoracecr, of the natural order Compositce. The plant has a wide range, being found in Europe, Central Asia, North America, and the Arctic regions. The leaves aro smooth, of a bright shining green, sessile, and tapering downwards. The name dandelion is derived from the French dent-de-lion, an appellation given on acco… Dandolo, VincenzoDANDOLO, VINCENZO, Courr (1758-1819), an Italian scientist, was born at Venice in 1758, of good family, though not of the same house as the doges above noticed, and commenced life as a physician in his native city. He was a prominent opponent of the oligarchical party in the revolution which took place on the approach of Napoleon ; and he was one of the envoys sent to seek the protection of the Fr… Daniel, BookDANIEL, BOOK or. The controversy as to the origin and significance of this book has passed through so many phases, and the collateral arguments are so apt to obscure those on which the question really hinges, that a simpler mode of treatment than is customary in theological works seems to be here desirable. Instead of beginning with the second part of Daniel (vii. - xii.), which professes to conta… Daniel, GabrielDANIEL, GABRIEL (1649-1728), a French Jesuit historian, was born at Rouen in 1619. He was educated by the Jesuits, entered the order at the age of eighteen, and became superior at Paris. He is best known by his Iristoire de France depuis l'etablissement de la Monarchic Franfaise, which appeared first in 1713, and has since been published in 1758 and in 1755-60, the last edition with notes by P. Gr… DaniellDANIELL, Jortrr FREDERICK (1790-1845), an eminent chemist and physicist, was born in London on the 12th March 1790. From his father, a barrister, he received an excellent classical education ; but having from his early years displayed a preference for natural science, he entered a sugar refinery, where he soon effected important improvements in the process. He studied chemistry under Professor Bra… Daniell, Thomas, WilliamDANIELL, THOMAS, WILLIAM, and SAMUEL. Daniel, SamuelDANIEL, SAMUEL (1562-1619), an English poet and historian, was the son of a music-master, and was born near Taunton, in Somersetshire, in 1562. In 1579 he was admitted a commoner of Magdalen College, Oxford, where he remained for about three years, and then gave himself up to the unrestrained study of poetry and philosophy. He succeeded in being appointed tutor to Anne Clifford, daughter of the ea… Dannecker, Johann HeinrichDANNECKER, JOHANN HEINRICH vox (1758-1841), one of the best German sculptors. He was born at Stuttgart, where his father was employed in the stables of the duke of Wiirtemberg, 15th October 1758. The boy was entered in the military school at the age of thirteen, and continued there two years, when, his bias and his talent having manifested themselves, he was allowed to take his own way, although t… DanteDANTE. Dante (or Durante) Alighieri (1265-1321) was born at Florence about the middle of May 1265. He was descended from an ancient family, hut not one of the highest rank. His biographers have attempted on very slight grounds to deduce his origin from the Frangipani, one of the oldest senatorial families of Rome. We can affirm with greater certainty that he was connected with the Elisei who took … Danton, George JacquesDANTON, GEORGE JACQUES (1759-1794), one of the most conspicuous actors in the decisive episodes of the first French Revolution. He was born at Arcis-sur-Aube in 1759. His family was of respectable quality, though of very moderate means. They contrived to give him a good education, and he was launched in the career of an advocate at the Paris bar. When the Revolution broke out, it found Danton foll… DantzicDANTZIC (or, according to the German form, which is often used, DANZIG), an important seaport of Prussia, the capital of West Prussia, is situated on the left bank of the Vistula, about three miles from its mouth, 253 miles northeast of Berlin, in 54? 21' N. lat. and 18? 41' E. long. In 1875 the inhabitants, most of whom are Protestants, num tiered 98,181. The town is traversed by the Mottlau, a s… DanubeDANUBE (German, Donau; Hungarian, Duna ; Latin, Danubius, or Dan/tains, and in the lower part of its course, Inter), the largest river of Europe next to the Volga, traversing the southern part of Germany, Austria, Hungary, and the northern part of Turkey, and falling into the Black Sea after a course of about 1750 (or, including its windings, 2000) miles. Its basin, which comprises a territory of … DanversDANVERS, a town of the United States, in the county of Essex, in Massachusetts, about two miles from Salem and fifteen miles N.N.E. of Boston, with which it is connected by rail. DanvilleDANVILLE, a city of the United States, the administrative seat of Vermilion county, Illinois, on the Vermilion river, a tributary of the Wabash, about 125 miles south of Chicago. Situated in a rich and populous district, in the vicinity of an extensive coal-field, and well supplied with building materials and water, it forms a flourishing manufacturing centre with foundries, waggon works, locomoti… DanvilleDANVILLE, a town of the United States, the administrative centre of Montour county, Pennsylvania, is situated on the north branch of the Susquehanna river, fifty miles north-east of Harrisburg. DaphneDAPHNE, in Greek mythology, was the daughter of a river-god, usually the Arcadian Ladon, sometimes the Thessalian Peneus, her mother being Chea, the goddess of the earth. DaphnephoriaDAPHNEPHORIA, a festival held every nine years at Thebes, in Bceotia, in honour of Apollo, consisting of a procession in which the chief figure was a boy chosen on each occasion for his beauty and strength, who at the same time was of a good family and had both parents alive. He was styled Daphnephoros, "laurel-bearer." In front of him walked one of his nearest relatives, carrying an olive branch … Darabjird, Or Dara13-giteraDARABJIRD, or DARA13-GITERA, a city of Persia in the province of Farsistan, 140 miles south-east of Shiraz. D'arblay, MadameD'ARBLAY, MADAME (1 7 5 2-1 64 0). Frances Burney, daughter of Charles Burney, D.Mus., w as born at Lynn Regis, in Norfolk, 1752. Her mother was a Miss Esther Sleepe, distantly of French descent. In 1760 the Burneya moved to London ; and in 1761 Mrs Burney died, leaving six children, of whom Fanny, the third, was but nine years old. Her sisters were sent to school, but she, as she tag us herself, … Darboy, GeorgesDARBOY, GEORGES (1813-1871), archbishop of Paris, was born at Fayl-Billot in Haut Marne ou the 16th January 1813. He studied with distinction at the seminary at Langres, and was ordained priest in 1836. After filling a charge at St Dizier, near Vassy, he was appointed in 1839 professor of philosophy at Langres, and in 1841 he was transferred to the chair of dogmatics. A change in the direction of … DardanellesDARDANELLES, the ancient Hellespont, and in Turkish Bahr-Sefed Boghasi, the strait uniting the Sea of Marmora with the ./Egean, so called from the two castles by which the narrowest part is protected, and which preserve the name of the city of Dardanus in the Troad, famous for the treaty between Sulla and Mithridates in 84 B.C. Its shores are formed by the peninsula of Gallipoli on the N.W. and by… DardanusDARDANUS, in Greek mythology, is said to have crossed over from Samothrace to the Troad by swimming on all inflated skin, and to have there founded the kingdom of Dardania previous to the existence of Troy. DaresDARES, a Trojan priest of Hepha:stus, who lived at the time of the Trojan war, and to whom was attributed an ancient account of that war which was extant in the time of ./Elian. Darfur, Or DarforDARFUR, or DARFOR, i.e., the land of the Fur or For, a country of the Soudan in Africa, formerly an independent kingdom, but in 1874 conquered and incorporated by Egypt. It extends from 9? to 16? N. lat., and from 22? 30' to 28? 30' E. long., thus including an area of about 105,000 square miles, with a population roughly estimated at four millions. On the W. it would be conterminous with Wadai wer… DarienDARIEN, a district of South America, of special interest in the history of geographical discovery, which gives its name to the great inlet of the Colombian coast otherwise known as the Gulf of Uraba, and to the great neck of land more familiarly designated the Isthmus of Panama. It was first reconnoitred in the first year of the 16th century by Rodrigo Bastidas of Seville ; and the first settlemen… DariusDARIUS I., the son of Hystaspes, was the true consolidator of the Persian empire. His administrative ability founded a new type of government, and organized the crude mass of conquered states bequeathed him by his predecessors. Ilis military talents, though considerable, have been thrown into the shade by his legislative and financial ones. The originator of imperial centralization and unity, the … Darius IiiDARIUS III., surnamed Codomannus, the last of the Persian monarchs, succeeded Artaxerxes III. (Ochus) 336 B.C., after a short interval during which Arses was nominally king. He was the son of Arsames, a nephew of Artaxerxes II. according to one account, and his wife Sisygambis was a daughter of the same monarch. His powers in the war against the Cadisii had been rewarded by Artaxerxes III. with th… Darjiling, Or DarjeelingDARJILING, or DARJEELING, a district of British India, in the Rajshalii Kuch-Behar commissionership, under the lieutenant-governor of Bengal, is situated between 26? 30' 50" and 27? 13' 5" N. lat., and 88? 2' 45" and 88? 56' 35" E. long. It is bounded on the N. by independent Sikkim, on the E. and S. by Jalpaigurf district, and on the W. by Nepal, and has an area of 1234 square miles. Dad fling co… DarlingtonDARLINGTON, a parliamentary and municipal borough, parish, and township of England, in the southern division of the county of Durham, is situated on the main line of the North-Eastern Railway, 39 miles south of Newcastle and 235 miles north of London. The town extends east and west to a considerable distance from the River Skerne, a small tributary of the Tees, which traverses it from north to sou… DarmstadtDARMSTADT, the capital of the grand duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, in the province of Starkenburg, is situated on the River Darm, fifteen miles south of Frankfort-on-theMaine. It is the residence of the grand duke, and the seat of the Government of the province and of the grand duchy. In 1875 there was a population of 37,253 ; including the neighbouring village of Bessungen, it was 44,088. Darmstadt co… DartfordDARTFORD, an English market-town, parish, and local board district of West Kent, 16 miles east of London, on the Darent, which enters the Thames about 2 miles north of the town. The town lies low, flanked by two chalky eminences, called East and West Hills, and consists of one main street, crossed by two or three smaller streets. It possesses a town hall, a grammar school, and a county court-house… DartmouthDARTMOUTH, an ancient municipal borough and seaport town of England, in South Devon, 31 miles south of Exeter and 229 miles south-west of London by rail, is situated nearly opposite the town of Kingswear, at the mouth of the Dart, which here forms a secure harbour in the English Channel. The town stretches along the shore of the harbour, overhung by steep acclivities, and presents a picturesque ap… Da Ru, Pierre-antoineDA RU, PIERRE-ANTOINE, COMTE DE (1767-1829), a distinguished author and statesman of France, was born at Montpellier, where his father held the office of secretary to the intendancy of Languedoc. From the Oratorians of the military school at Tournon be imbibed an enthusiasm fom study, and an admiration of the master-pieces of ancient literature, which remained with him for life. At the age of sixt… Darwin, ErasmusDARWIN, ERASMUS (1731-1802), man of science and poet, was born at Elton, in Nottinghamshire, on the 12th December 1731. Having studied at St John's College, Cambridge, and at Edinburgh, and taken the degree of M.D. at the latter university, he settled as a physician at Lichfield, and gained a large practice. While here he is said to have done much, both by his own example and by more direct effort… Dashkoff, Catherina Romanofna WoronzoffDASHKOFF, CATHERINA ROMANOFNA WORONZOFF, PRINCESS (1744-1810), was the third daughter of Count Roman Woronzoff, a member of the Rnssiau senate, distinguished for his intellectual gifts. She received an exceptionally good education, having displayed from a very early age the masculine ability and masculine tastes which made her whole career so singular. She was well versed in mathematics which she … Da TeleDA TELE. [DArz.xus], JEAN (1594-1670), one of the most learned Protestant divines of the 17th century, was born at Chatellerault, in January 1594, and received his education at Poitiers and Saumur. For seven years from 1612 he was tutor to two of the grandsons of the illustrious M. du Plessis Mornay, and in 1619 he accompanied them in a tour through Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Flanders, Holland, … Date PalmDATE PALM. The dates of commerce are the fruit of a species of palm, Phcenix dactylifera, a tree which ranges from the Canary Islands through Northern Africa and the south-east of Asia to India. It has been cultivated and much prized throughout most of these regions from the remotest antiquity. In Arabia, indeed, it is the chief source of national wealth, and its fruit forms the staple article of … D'aubigneD'AUBIGNE, TfltODORE AGRIPPA (1550-1630), French historian and poet, was born at St Maury, in Saintonge, on the 8th February 1550. In his childhood he showed a great aptitude for languages ; according to his own account he knew Latin, Greek, and Hebrew at six years of age ; and he had translated the Crito of Plato before he was eleven. His father, a Huguenot who had been one of the conspirators of… D'aubigne, Jean-henri MerleD'AUBIGNE, JEAN-HENRI MERLE (1794-1872), was born 16th August 1794 at Eaux Vives, near Geneva. The ancestors of his father, Francois Merle, were French Protestant refugees ; his paternal grandmother's name, D'Aubigne, which Jean-Henri Merle subsequently added to his own, was a name well known in the service of Healy IV. Jean-Henri was destined by his parents to a commercial life ; but the new inte… D'aubusson, PierreD'AUBUSSON, PIERRE (1423-1503), a grand master of the order of St John of Jerusalem, celebrated for the zeal and ability with which he opposed the Turks, was born in 1423. He belonged to a noble French family, and early devoted himself to the career of a soldier ; but his history is involved in obscurity till he entered the order of which he was to become the head. Having distinguished himself gre… DauphineDAUPHINE, an ancient province of south-eastern France, now forming the departments of Isere, Drome, and Mantes Alpes. It was bounded on the E. by Piedmont, N.E. by Savoy, S. by Provence, S.W. by the Comte Venaissin, and N. and W. by the Rhone. The western portion was known as Lower, and the eastern portion as Upper Dauphine, - the latter including the districts of Matesine, Champ-saur, Oisans, Dia… Daurat, JeanDAURAT, JEAN (or DORAT ; in Latin, Aunkrus), French poet of the renaissance, and founder of the Pleiade, was born at Limoges in 1507. He was of illustrious family, and, after studying at the college of Limoges, came up to Paris to be presented to Francis I., who made him tutor to his pages. He rapidly gained an immense reputation, especially for proficiency in classical learning. As private tutor … Davenant, Sir WilliamDAVENANT, SIR WILLIAM (1605-1668), poet and dramatist, was born in February 1605, at the Crown Inn, Oxford, where his father was a wealthy vintner. It was stated that Shakespeare always stopped at this house in passing through the city of Oxford, and out of his known or rumoured admiration of the hostess, a very fine woman, there sprang a scandalous story which attributed Davenant's paternity to t… DavenportDAVENPORT, a city of the United States, capital of Scott county, Iowa, is situated on the west bank of the Upper Mississippi, opposite Rock Island, about 110 miles above Keokuk (following the course of the river), and 160 miles west of Chicago. DavidDAVID (Welsh, DEWI), ST, the patron saint of Wales, flourished in the 6th century. Various dates have been assigned for his birth and death, the earliest being that of .Geoffrey of Monmouth, who fixes his death in 542, and the latest that of the Annales Cambrice, which fixes it in 601. Many writers follow Ussher in stating that he died in 544, aged eighty-two ; but the latest authorities, Jones an… DavidDAVID (Hebrew, -11.1 beloved), son of Jesse, second king of Israel, and founder of the dynasty which continued to reign at Jerusalem until the Babylonian captivity. According to the usual chronology, he reigned 1055-1015 B.C., but the computations which produce this date by counting back from the destruction. of Jerusalem, 588 B.C., or the fall of Samaria, 722 B.C., contain numerous precarious ele… DavidDAVID, Lours (1748-1825), historical painter, was born in Paris in 1748. His father having been killed in a duel, a maternal uncle first placed him in the College des Quatre-Nations and afterwards in an architect's office. An accidental visit to the studio of his great-uncle, Boucher, led him to leave his adopted profession ; and Boucher, observing the boy's distaste for his own erotic style, sent… David, Frlicien CesarDAVID, FRLICIEN CESAR (1810-1876), a French composer, was born at Cadenet, in the department of Vaucluse, March 8, 1810. As a child he exhibited proofs of unusual precocity, and at the age of four had made considerable progress in his musical studies. Being early left an orphan, and totally unprovided for, he obtained, through the influence of relatives, admission to the choir of Saint-Sauveur at … David Ha-cohenDAVID HA-COHEN, a learned Rabbin' was born at Lara, in Spain, about the beginning of the 17th century, and died at H ff Hamburg in 1674. ''He was chief of the synagogue at Amsterdam, and he afterwards held the same office at Hamburg. DavidistsDAVIDISTS, a name borne by two distinct sects in the history of the Christian church. 1. It is sometimes applied to the followers of David of Dinant, whose work entitled Quaternarii was condemned at the Synod of Paris in 1209. The works of Amalric of Bena were condemned at the same synod, but this is scarcely a sufficient ground for classing David of Dinant among his followers. Our information as … David, Jean PierreDAVID, JEAN PIERRE (1789-1856), usually called David d'Angers, a much-admired French sculptor, and, like David the painter, to whom he was in no other way related. a demonstrative partisan of advanced ideas in politics and religion, was born at Augers, 12th March 1789. His father was a sculptor, or rather a carver, but he had thrown aside the mallet and taken the musket, fighting against the Choua… Davies, Sir JohnDAVIES, SIR JOHN (1569-1626), philosophical poet of the age of Elizabeth, was baptized on the 16th of April 1569, at Tisbury, in Wiltshire, where his parents lived in the manor-house of Chicksgrove. He was sent first to Winchester College, and afterwards to New College, Oxford. In 1585 he became a commoner of Queen's College, Oxford, and in 1587 entered at the Middle Temple. Bereft of both his par… Davila, Henrico CaterinoDAVILA, HENRICO CATERINO (1576-1631), historian, was desdended from a Spanish noble family. His immediate ancestors had been constables of the kingdom of Cyprus for the Venetian republic, from father to son, since 1464. But in 1570 the 'island was taken by the Turks ; and Autemo Davila, the father of the historian, had to leave it, despoiled of all he possessed. He travelled into Spain and France,… Davis, JohnDAVIS, JOHN, a celebrated English navigator of the 16th century. The date of his birth is unknown ; the place was Sandridge, about 3 miles N. of Dartmouth, in Devonshire. He made three voyages under the auspices of the English Government in search of the north-west passage to the Pacific. In the first, in 1585, he pushed his way round the southern end of Greenland, across the strait that now bears… DavyDAVY, Sin HUMPHRY (1778-1829), the eminent natural philosopher, was born on the 17th of December 1778, at Penzance, in Cornwall. After receiving there the rudiments of his education, he was in 1792 sent for a year to the grammar school of Truro, then under the direction of the Rev. Dr Cardew. There is little to record of Davy in early life except his retentive memory, facility in versification, an… DawlishDAWLISH, a watering-place of England, on the south coast of Devonshire, situated a little beyond the mouth of the Exe, twelve miles south of Exeter. It lies in a cove of the English Channel formed by two projecting cliffs, and is admirably sheltered from the weather. A small stream, which flows through the town, is lined on both sides by pleasure grounds. The town is much resorted to during spring… Dhss, PetterDHSS, PETTER (1647-1708), styled the Father of modern Norwegian poetry, was the son of Peter Dundas, a Scotch merchant of Dundee, who left his country about 1630 to escape the troubles of the Presbyterian church. Ho settled in Bergen, and in 1646 married a Norse girl of good family. Petter Dass was born in 1647 on the island of Nord Hero, on the north coast of Norway. Seven years later his father … DiedalusDIEDALUS, from the identity of his name with Satacaitetv, " to carve," and 312/3aXa, " carved images," appears to have been, not a real person, but a legendary representative of the art of carving and sculpture in Greece in the time before Homer, who speaks of him (Iliad, xviii. 590) as having made a " chorus " for Ariadne in Crete, which Hephaestus took as the model of his " chorus," or dance, on… Divisions Of The Nerves In The CrustaceaDIVISIONS OF THE NERVES IN THE CRUSTACEA. - Three principal divisions have been recognized in the nervous system of the Crustacea :- (1.) All those nervous filaments which take their rise in, and are exclusively connected with, the supracesophageal nerve-centre, forming the true sensori-volitional system. (2.) Other ganglions super-added to the abdominal columns with their nervous filaments, serving for the automatic reception and reflection of stimuli, forming the motor system. (3.) The stomato-gastric nerves, connected partly with the brain and partly with the oesophageal columns (analogous to the great sympathetic or organic nerves of the Vertebrata), forming a third group, the ganglionic system. Divisions Of Tiie Body In The Cill'staceaDIVISIONS OF TIIE BODY IN THE CILL'STACEA.--By general consent and usage the body of a crustacean is divided into three regions, namely, head (or cepludon), thorax, and abdomen (see figs. 1 and 6), to each of which divisions seven out of the twenty-one segments are attributed. These terms are used as a matter of convenience, and are not assumed to be homologous with the grand divisions of head, th… Drawing FrameDRAWING FRAME (fig. 8), where the processes of elongation or attenuation are carried on through the successive pairs of rollers with which it is provided. EdriophthalmiaEDRIOPHTHALMIA : (5.) AMPHIPODA. - This order, as Spence Bate has well observed, constitutes a group among the Edriophthalmia, parallel with the Macremra, among the Podophthalmia, whilst the Isopoda may represent the broad and flattened Brachyuri, the Caprellce offering a kind of parallelism with Squilla and its allies. As in the Isopoda, the head is small and carries only the organs of sense and … EgyptianEGYPTIAN. - The great and magnificent foreign works on the "monuments" of Egypt by Lepsius (Denknzeilcr aus ,Egypten and fhiopen, with 899 plates), Champollion, and llosellini ; Egypt and Nubia, by David. ElectricalELECTRICAL. CLOCKS. It should be understood that under this term two, or we may say three, very different things are comprehended. The first is a mere clock movement, i.e., the works of a clock without either weight or pendulum, which is kept going by electrical connection with some other clock of any kind (these ought to be called electrical dials, not clocks) ; the second is a clock with a weigh… England And AmericaENGLAND AND AMERICA. - The Report of the Royal Coal Commission (3 vols., fol., with Atlas, London, 1870). External StructureEXTERNAL STRUCTURE. - The skin of the Crustacea is more or less completely hardened by a horny deposit called " chitine," with or without the addition of lime,1 thus forming a defensive covering to the softer tissues of the animal. George Dance, JuniorGEORGE DANCE, JUNIOR, by far the ablest of the three, was born in 1740, and remained his father's pupil, succeed ing him as city surveyor and architect in 1768. At that time the office, than as now somewhat lucrative, was purchasable, and it was in that way he acquired the appointment. He was then only twenty-eight, and had spent several years abroad, most of the time with his brother in Italy, ye… George Dance, SeniorGEORGE DANCE, SENIOR, the father of the two others, was born early in the century, at a time when neither Gothic nor classic architecture, was properly- studied in England, the former being looked upon simply as a barbarism, and the latter known only through the Italian. GrailGRAIL, formerly CARRAIL, a royal and parliamentary burgh and seaport of Scotland, in the county of Fife, nino miles south-east of St Andrews. GreekGREEK and Rom AN. - The best illustrators are the British Museum Photographs, parts iv. and v., 175 and 97 plates ; with other photographs of Greek and Roman draped statues and busts, and also others of certain gems and vases by ancient artists. The facsimile representations will be advantageously associated with Smith's and Rich's Dictionaries of Greek and Boman Antiquities. See also Hope's Costu… HeteromeraHETEROMERA. - The beetles comprising this section have five joints to the first four tarsi, and four to the posterior pair, and form two groups, Trctchelia and Atrachelia. Trachelia have the head triangular or heart-shaped, and connected with the thorax by a kind of neck or abrupt pedicle. Most of the species in the perfect state live on various plants, of which they devour the foliage or suck the… Hints To PlayersHINTS TO PLAYERS. - In laying out, the non-dealer should discard such cards as are not likely to score in crib; the dealer should put out good cards for his own crib. It is so important to bcenU- the crib that the non-dealer should often sacrifice scores in his own hand. Thus with queen, knave, ten, four, ace, the dealer should put out the four and the ace ; the non-dealer the queen and ten. But t… Industrial Uses Of CoralsINDUSTRIAL USES OF CORALS. - Beyond their general utility and value as sources of lime, none of the corals presents any special feature of industrial importance, excepting the red or precious coral (Corallivni rubram) of the Mediterranean Sea. It, however, is and has been from remote times very highly prized for jewellery, personal ornamentation, and decorative purposes generally. About the beginn… InjuriesINJURIES.--As we have already seen, the young Crustacean, on quitting the egg, usually undergoes a series of larval metamorphoses more or less numerous, and subject to considerable variation even among closely-allied forms. Eventually, whether by a direct or an indirect route, a form is attained in all, which, save in size, closely agrees with the adult. Amongst the Insecta the larva usually under… Internal StructureINTERNAL STRUCTURE. - NERVOUS SYSTEM. - The typical form of the nervous system in the young of all the Articulata is a chain of ganglions placed ohmg the ventral surface of the body, and traversed in front by the gullet. This typical arrangement, however, undergoes great modifications in the several orders of Crustacea. Taking the Edriophthalmia, for example (fig. 7), we find the nervous system t… IssectsIsSECTS. - The collector of beetles, in order to obtain perfect specimens, need not have recourse to the plan adopted by the lepidopterist of rearing the insect from the egg. Tha successful rearing of these is much more difficult than in the case of butterflies and moths, and the specimens so procured are generally inferior to those collected in the ordinary way. The complete life history, however… Johann Georg CottaJOHANN GEORG COTTA was the founder of the illustrious Cotta publishing-house. At the time of the Reformation the family (originally of noble Italian blood) lived in Eisenach ; and we hear of them later as being settled in Dresden, Johann Georg started business at Tubingen in 1G10 His son, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1701-1779), born March 12, 1701, devoted himself to theological study, and began his public … LawsLAWS. - Cutting.-1. There must be a fresh cut for deal after every game, unless rubbers are played. 2. If in cutting for deal or start more than one card is exposed, adversary may choose which card he pleases. 3. Errors in cutting to the dealer necessitate a fresh cut. Dealing.-4. Cards must be dealt by one at a time, If two are dealt together, error may be rectified, if it can be done by moving o… LemmaLEMMA. - The locus of a point in a plane whose distances from two fixed points in the plane always bear a constant ratio to one another is a circle. Lop Ii YropodaLOP II YROPODA (11.) COPEPOD A. - (b.) PM-LAMA. - The parasitic Copepods are divisible into t wo groups, the fir,t comprising the peripatetic genera, in which the male and female both retain their organs of locomotion in the adult state, and can change their habitat whenever needful ; this division would include the fresh-water A rgte/idce and the marine Caligidce. The second division embraces the… Miscellaneous Works On CostumeMISCELLANEOUS WORKS ON COSTUME. - Bruce's Bayeux Tapestry; 4to., 17 facsimile plates, 1856 ; Fairholt's Costume in England, 8vo., illustrated, 1860; Fowler's (William, of Wintertou) Examples of Mediaeval Art, atlas folio, 116 plates, 1796-1829 ; Froissart's Chronicles, translated by Johnes, 4 vols. roy. 8vo., 72 plates and numerous woodcuts, 1844 ; Hogarth's Works, engraved by himself, with descri… Nathaniel DanceNATHANIEL DANCE, born in 1734, who left his father's office and was placed under Hayman, the genre-historical painter. Here lie showed great quickness, but principally in portraits, and after a few years he left that painter and went abroad. His residence in Italy, which was prolonged for many years, brought him in contact with Angelica Kauffmann, among whose devoted admirers he long remained, at … Oonnor, BernardOONNOR, BERNARD (1666-1698), physician, was born in Kerry, Ireland. Organ Of HearingORGAN OF HEARING. - Milne-Edwards, Owen, Bell, and others consider the external organ connected with the sense of hearing to be situated on the first joint of the outer and larger antennae in the lobster and other Macroura, and to consist of a conical process beneath which is a cavity having a round orifice closed by a membrane. Behind the process, and connected with the cavity, is a large sac fil… Organ Of SmellORGAN OF SMELL - Professor Owen2 refers the sense of smell to a small sac, fringed with fine hairs, opening externally by a narrow cleft in the basal joint of the first or median antenna. Organs Of FeelingORGANS OF FEELING. - AS regards the development of the individual senses, one may reasonably conjecture that the sense of touch can be but feebly exercised by the common integument of the Crustacea, if indeed it can be said to exist at all, except in those parts of the body which remain soft and undefended by a calcareous crust, such as the under side of the abdomen or the soft body of the hermit-… Organs Of NutiutionORGANS OF NUTIUTION. - In the larval stages of the higher Crustacea, and also among the adult lower and simpler forms, fewer of the somites have their paired appendages differentiated to perform special offices. Thus in the larval Decapod the chief natatory organs are the maxillipeds; this is also the case in the Merostomata. In Limulus (fig. 12) all the locomotory organs are also subservient to t… Organs Of SightORGANS OF SIGHT. - The eyes of Crustacea present a greater variety in their gradation than is to be found in any other class of the Arthropoda. Commencing with only a median fixed (bifid 7) eye-spot in the larval and simpler forms, we see these organs advance progressively, through all the stages of sessile-eyed development in the Merostomata and Edriophthalmia, to the highest condition in the Po… Organs Or TasteORGANS or TASTE. - Like almost all other animals the Crustacea select their food, showing decided preference for particular kinds; this selection is doubtless actuated by two, senses, smell-and taste. PentameraPENTAMERA. - The majority of the beetles in this section have the tarsi of the feet five-jointed, and they comprise fully one-half of all the known species of Coleoptera. It is subdivided into the following 8 groups :- I. Geodephaya, or Predaceous Land Beetles, resemble the succeeding group and differ from other Coleoptera in having the outer lobe of the maxillm distinct and articulated, thus appe… PropPROP. XIX. If the two extremities of a rod slide along two fixed straight lines at right angles to one another, any fixed point in the rod will describe an ellipse. Let OM, ON (fig. 27) be the two fixed straight lines, and MPN any position of the rod, and P the tracing point. Complete the rectangle QMON and join OQ, and draw, parallel to ON, RPH to meet OQ in R and OM in H. Then it can easily be … PropPROP. XXI. If CP, CD be conjugate semi-diameters, CP2- CD2= CA2 - C132. Let ordinates PM, DN (fig. 41) in the two hyperbolas be produced, they will meet in a point Q on the asymptote (Prop. xx., Cor.) Then CP2- CD2=011?12-1-11TP2- CN2- ND2 =QN2+MP2- QM2 - DN2 = QN2 - DN2 - (QM2 - PM2) =CA2 - CB2 (Prop. xiv.) It follows that if the tangent at P meets the axes in T, T', then PT . Pr= CD2 . For PT :… PropPROP. XIII. The ordinates of the ellipse and of the circle described on AA' as diameter are in a constant ratio. If, in fig. 22, NP be produced to meet the circle on AA" as diameter in Q, then QN2= AN'. NA' PN2: QN2- C132 : CA2 and PN : ON= CB : CA. COROLLARY. - The ordinates of two ellipses which have a CO111111011 major axis are in a constant ratio. It can easily be shown from the last result, … PropPROP. 111. If a scalene cone ADBV (fig. 44) be cut through the axis by a plane perpendicular to the base, making the triangle VAB, and from any point II in the straight line. AV a straight line IIK be drawn in the plane of the triangle VAB, so that the angle YE K may be equal to the angle VBA, and the cone be cnt by another plane passing through HK perpendicular to the plane of the triangle ABV, t… PropPROP. IV. The tangent at any point of a parabola bisects the angle between the focal distance of the point and the perpendicular from the point on the directrix. Let PZ (fig. 7) be the tangent at P, meeting the directrix in Z ; then, if PM be drawn per pendicular to the directrix, it is easily seen that the two triangles SPZ, MPZ are equal in all respects, and the angle SPZ equal to the angle MPZ… PropPROP. Reproductive OrgansREPRODUCTIVE ORGANS. - The organs of generation are easily to be discerned in most of the Crustacea, but the analogy between these parts in the male and female is so great in many genera as to need the most careful examination in order to discriminate between the two. Generally, however, the males may be discerned by their having cue or more pairs of limbs especially modified to assist in the mari… Respiratory OrgansRESPIRATORY ORGANS. - As the type upon which the Crustacean class is constructed is specially fitted for aquatic existence, branchial organs or gills in some form are essential for the aeration of the blood. The appendages which fulfil this office are attached either to the thoracic or abdominal members or to both. Where they are most highly developed, as in the crab and lobster, they assume the f… Salts Of CopperSALTS OF COPPER. - Several salts of copper possess considerable industrial value, chiefly for the formation of blue and green pigments, in dyeing and calico-printing, and fur the deposition of metallic copper by electro-metallurgy, &c. The principal salts of copper are the acetate, the carbonate, and the sulphate. Acetate of Copper or Verdigris. - This salt is found in commerce in the two forms of… Samuel DaniellSAMUEL DANIELL,William's younger brother, born 1775, was brought up as an engraver, and first appears as an exhibitor in 1792. Self-acting MuleSELF-ACTING MULE (fig. 14). - In 1818 William Eaton obtained a patent for a self-acting mule, in which the operations ordinarily performed by the spinner were effected by automatic means, and this machine, though not extensively adopted, contained several ingenious arrangements His faller lock, after a lapse of thirty-six years, was said to be re-invented, and still continues to be the hest in us… Slurring FrameSLURRING FRAME (see fig. 9). - The operation which succeeds that of the drawing frame is slabbing, where the sliver has a certain amount of twist imparted to it, and is wound on a bobbin. In this process the end or silver from the last head of the drawing frame is drawn out by means of three piirs of rollers, and this is twisted as it emerges from the front line of rollers by the action of vertica… TetrameraTETRAMERA. - The beetles composing this section have four apparent joints to all the tarsi, but in most cases the tarsi are in reality five-jointed, the fourth being so minute as to have been overlooked by the founders of the tarsal system. For this reason Westwood proposed the term Pseudotetramera in place of Tetramera, a change which .has been adopted by several systematic writers. This section … The AppendagesTHE APPENDAGES. - Just as we find a typical number of twenty-one body segments to prevail among the Crustacca, so also iu the appendages the type number of joints is seven, any departure from which is disguised by fusion of one or more joints together, the obsolete condition of others, or the depauperization of the limb into numerous artic2di (see fig. 5). At the coxal joint, or protopodite, each … Thomas DaniellTHOMAS DANIELL (1749-1840), to whom the others were indebted for everything, was a man of versatile ability and enormous energy. He was the maker of his own fortune, having been born at the Chertsey inn, kept by his father, in 1749, and apprenticed to an heraldic painter, a trade then dying out, like that of stay-maker or perukier at a later time. However profitable it had been, probably Daniell w… Tow718TOW718. - The only considerable towns in Crete are Candia, so long the capital of the island ; Canea, which has succeeded to that dignity since the renewal of the Turkish dominion in 1810 ; and Retimo, or Ithithymno, also on the north coast, a small fortified town, with a good port and about 10,000 inhabitants. Ierapetra, on the south coast, on the site of the ancient Hierapytna, though reckoned t… TrimeraTRIMERA, with all the tarsi three jointed. TroracicaTRORACICA. - Cirripedes ordinarily are bisexual,1 in which respect they differ from all other Crustacea, - the male (where it exists distinct) being minute and rudimentary in structure and permanently epizoic on the female. In these latter facts we find an analogy in the Copepoda Parasite just noticed. The male has the excretory organ single, median, and probosciform, and placed at the extremity … Vestments In Use In TileVESTMENTS IN USE IN TILE its general bearing, what has been said of the vestments in use in Western Christendom, and particularly in reference to their use during the first eight centuries of our era, with comparatively slight modifications, is also applicable to the official vestments of the church in the East, - the chief distinctions between the vestments of the East and the West, in addition t… Wet ProcessesWET PROCESSES. - Severa] methods of extracting copper by the wet way have been more or less in practice at various periods ; but it is only of recent years that one of these has been established on a scale of great commercial extent and importance. From a very early time it has been known that the water which drained from mines containing pyritous copper ores, and which from the oxidation of the s… William DaniellWILLIAM DANIELL (1769-1837), nephew of Thomas, was born 1769, and was therefore fourteen when he accompanied his uncle to India.
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