Volume 5 [CAN - CLE]: Chamba to Various Theories As To The Invention Of Chess


Tweet 9th Edition of Encyclopedia Britannica - free ninth edition online encyclopedia Britannica Volume 5 [CAN - CLE]: Chamba to Various Theories As To The Invention Of Chess Chamba CHAMBA, a feudatory state of Northern India, subordinate to the Punjab Government, situated between 32? 10' and 33" 9' N. lat., and between 75? 54' and 76' 30' E. long. Chamba is bounded on the N. by a range of mountains, separating it from the province of Zaskdr in Kashmir ; on the E. by the outlying British pargancis of Bangahal and Lahaul, belonging to Kangra district ; on the S. by mountain ra… Chambei4y CHAMBEI4Y (in Italian CIAMBERI), a city of France, capital of the department of Savoy, pleasantly situated in a fertile district, between two hills, on the rivers Laisse and Albana, 46 miles S.S.W. of Geneva. The town, however, is irregularly and ill built, and has only two good streets - the Place Saint-Leger and the Ruc de Boigne, of which the latter is named after a General Boigne who left a fo… Chamberlain CHAMBERLAIN (Latin camerarius, from camera, a chamber; French chambellan), etymologically, and also historically to a large extent, an officer who superintends the arrangement of domestic affairs. Such were the chamberlains of monasteries, and the chamberlains of cathedrals, who had charge of the finances, gave notice of chapter meetings, and provided the materials required for various services. A… Chambers CHAMBERS, EPHRAIm, an English author, was born at Kendal, Westmoreland, in the latter part of the 17th century. Chambersburg CHAMBERSBURG, a town of the United States, the capital of Franklin county, Pennsylvania, is situated about 135 miles west of Philadelphia, in a populous district in the great limestone valley that extends along the east side of the Blue Mountains. Chambers, George CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840), a marine painter, born at Whitby, Yorkshire, was the son of a seaman, and for several years he pursued his father's calling. While at sea he was in the habit of sketching the different classes of vessels. His master, observing this, gratified him by cancelling his indentures, and thus set him free to follow his natural bent. Chambers then apprenticed himself to an old… Chambers, Robert CHAMBERS, ROBERT (1802-1874), author and publisher, distinguished especially for his services to popular literature, was born at Peebles on the 10th July 1802. His parents were of the middle class, but owing to the father's misfortunes in business the family were reduced to poverty, and had to leave Peebles for Edinburgh while Robert was still young. He had before that received such an education a… Chambord CHAMBORD, a magnificent Gothic chtiteau of France, in the department of Loire-et-Cher, 10 miles east of Blois, on the left bank of the Cosson. Chameleon CHAMELEON, the common name of a well-defined family of Lizards, forming the tribe Dendrosanra, and containing the single genus Chanifflo, which includes about twenty known species, bearing a close family resemblance to each other, and differing very widely from all other lizards. They are small creatures, not usually exceeding 7 inches in length exclusive of the tail, which in general is as long a… Chamfort, Nicolas CHAMFORT, NICOLAS (17-11-1794), one of the most famous talkers of a century rich in conversational excellence, was born at a little village near Clermont in Auvergne. The illegitimate child of a dame de compagnie, he never knew his father, and started in life as plain Nicolas, that being the name bestowed on him by his mother. A journey to Paris resulted, through some now unknown influence, in the… Chamisso, Adalbert Von CHAMISSO, ADALBERT VON (1781-1838), poet, botanist, and voyager, was by family, birth, and the education of childhood, a Frenchman, by his after-life, his marriage, and his literary activity, a German. lie was born in 1781 at the castle of Boncourt in Champagne, and traced his descent from a respectable line of French knights, who derived their title from the ancient town of Chamesson or Cambisonu… Chamois CHAMOIS (Rupicapm trugus), the Gemse of the Germans, is the only Antelope found in Western Europe', and forms the type of the Rupicaprine or goat-like group of that family. It resembles the roebuck in size, being about 3 feet long and 2 feet high at the shoulders, and is specially characterized by the form of its horns. These are from 6 to 8 inches long, of a black colour, slender, round, and slig… Chamomile Or Camomile Flowers CHAMOMILE or CAMOMILE FLOWERS, the Mores antkentidis of the Pha-nzacojueia, are the capitula or flower1 heads of al nthemis nobilis (Nat. Ord. Compositcv), a plant indigenous to England and Southern Europe. It is extensively cultivated for medicinal purposes in Surrey, at several places in Saxony, and in France and Belgium, - that grown in England being much more valuable than any of the foreign c… Chamouni CHAMOUNI, or CHAmosix, a celebrated valley and village of the French Alps, in the department of Upper Savoy, and the arrondissement of Bonneville. The village, which is the great centre for tourists in the Mont Blanc district, is situated 22 miles S. of Martigny, and 50 miles E.S.E. of Geneva, at a height of about 3400 feet above the level of the sea. A great part of it was destroyed by fire in 18… Champagne CHAMPAGNE, a former province of the kingdom of France, with an area of about 10,500 square miles, bounded on the N. by Liege and Luxembourg, on the E. by Lorraine, on the S. by Burgundy, and W. by Isle de France and Picardy. It now forms the departments of Ardennes, Marne, Aube, and Haute Marne, with part of Seine-etMarne, Meuse, Aisne, and Yonne. The details in regard to its physical features wil… Champagne, Philippe De CHAMPAGNE, PHILIPPE DE (1602-1674), a celebrated painter, was born at Brussels of a poor family. He was a pupil of Fouquier ; and, going to Paris in 1621, was employed by Du Chesne to paint along with Nicholas Poussin in the palace of the Luxembourg. His best works are to be found at Vincennes, and in the church of the Carmelites at Paris, where is his celebrated Crucifix, a signal perspective suc… Champaran CHAMPARAN, a British district in the Behar Province, under the jurisdiction of the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, lies between 26? and 28' N. lat., and between 84? and 86? E. long. It is bounded on the N. by the independent state of Nepal ; on the E. by the River Brighmatl, which separates it from the district of Tirhut; on the S. by the district of Saran and the Bath Gandak River ; and on the W. … Champeaux, William Of CHAMPEAUX, WILLIAM OF, or Gulle/nues Compellensis, a scholastic philosopher and theologian, so called from his birthplace, the village of Champeaux, near Melun, was born about 1070, and died in 1121. After studying under the realist Anselm of Laon, and the nominalist Roscellin, lie commenced to teach in the school of the cathedral of Notre Dame, of which he was made canon in 1103, Many scholars ga… Champlain CHAMPLAIN, a considerable lake of North America, lying between the States of New York and Vermont, ani penetrating for a few miles into Canada. Champlain, Samuel De CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE (1567-1635), the governor of the first French settlers in Lower Canada, was born at Brouage, in 1567. His father was a sea-captain, and probably he was already skilled in navigation when, while still young, he entered the army of Henry IV. On the conclusion of the war he accompanied a Spanish fleet to Mexico and the West Indies, and on his return wrote an account of the expedi… Champollion-figeac, Jean Jacques CHAMPOLLION-FIGEAC, JEAN JACQUES (1778- 1867), elder brother of Jean Francois Champollion, was born at Figeac, in 1778. Champollion, Jean Francois CHAMPOLLION, JEAN FRANcOIS (1790-1832), one of the earliest and most distinguished of Egyptologists, called le Jenne to distinguish him from ChampollionFigeac, his elder brother, was born at Figeac, in the department of Lot, in 1790. He was educated by his brother Champollion-Figeac, professor of Greek at Grenoble, and was then appointed government pupil at the Lyceum, which had recently been foun… Chancellor CHANCELLOR. Various origins have been attributed to this word, so important in its modern use over the greater part of the civilized world ; but all of them are of a trivial nature, bearing little reference to the subsequent application of the term. The word chancel is connected with the most ordinary and apt of these origins. It supposes the chancellor to have been so called because he sat within… Chancery CHANCERY, the court of the Lord Chancellor, now consolidated along with the other superior courts in the Supreme Court of Judicature by the Act of 1873. Its origin has been briefly noticed under the head of It has been customary to say that the Court of Chancery consists of two distinct tribunals - one a court of common law, the other a court of equity. From the former have issued all the original… Chanda CHANDA, a district of British India, in the Nagpur division of the Central Provinces, situated between 19? 7' and 20? 51' N. lat., and 78' 51' and 80? 51' E. long. It is bounded on the N. by the districts of Rai pur, Bbandara, and Wardlut, on the E. by Bastar and Raipur, on the S. by Sironcha, and on the W. by the Wardha and Pranlifta rivers, which divide it from Berar and the Hyderabad territory.… Chandler, Samuel CHANDLER, SAMUEL, D.D. (1693-1766), a learned Dissenting minister, was born at Hungerford, in Berkshire, where his father was an eminent Nonconformist minister. He was sent to school at Gloucester, where he commenced a life-long friendship v.ith Bishop Butler and Archbishop Seeker ; and he afterwards studied at Leyden. His talents and learning were such that he was elected fellow of the Royal and … Chang-chow CHANG-CHOW, a town of China, in the province of Fuh-keen, on a branch of the River Lung Keang, 35 miles west of Amoy. Channel Islands CHANNEL ISLANDS, a number of islands politically attached to Great Britain, but connected with France by geographical position, being situated in the great bay of St Michael, which is bounded by the coasts of the departments of Manche, Ille-et-Vilaine, and Cotes du Nord. They are naturally divided into four principal groups - the northern, which includes Alderney, Burhou, and the Casquets, lying o… Channing CHANNING, WILLIA3r ELLERY (1780-1842), was the son of William Channing and Lucy Ellery, and was born at Newport, Rhode Island, U.S., on the 7th of April 1780. The place of his birth is situated amidst scenery of great and varied beauty, the influence of which upon his mind may be traced in many allusions in his writings, and in the vivid admiration which he ever expressed for it in after life. To … Chantiban CHANTIBAN, a large town of Siam, the capital of a province of the same name, on the south bank of a small river near its mouth in the Gulf of Siam, 150 miles S.E. of Bangkok, in 12? 45' N. lat. and 102? 18' E. long. Chantilly CHANTILLY, a small town of France, in the department of Oise, 25 miles north of Paris by the main line of the great northern railway. It is finely situated near the River Nonette, and is one of the favourite Parisian resorts. Its name has long been associated with the manufacture of lace and blonde, and it is still more celebrated for its chateaux and pleasure grounds, and as the scene of the grea… Chantrey, Sir Francis CHANTREY, SIR FRANCIS (1782-1841), a sculptor of repute, was born on 7th April 1782, at Norton, near Sheffield, where his father cultivated a small property of his own. His father died when he was eight years of age ; and, his mother having married again, his profession was left to be chosen by his friends. In his sixteenth year he was on the point of being apprenticed to a lawyer in Sheffield, wh… Chapelain, Jean CHAPELAIN, JEAN (1595-1674), a French poet and man of letters, was the son of a notary, and was born in Paris. His father destined him for his own profession ; but his mother, who had known Ronsard (she was the daughter of a certain Michel Corbiere, an intimate friend of the great poet), had determined otherwise. At an early age Chapelain began to qualify himself for literature, acquiring by his o… Chapel-hill CHAPEL-HILL, a village of the United States, in Orange County, North Carolina, 27 miles north-west of Raleigh. Chapman, George CHAPMAN, GEORGE, translator of Homer, dramatist, and gnomic poet, was born in 1559, and died in 1631. At fifteen, according to Anthony Wood, "he being well grounded in school learning, was sent to the university" of Oxford; at thirty-five he published his first poem, Time Shadow of Night. Between these dates, though no fact has been unearthed concerning his career, it is not improbable that he may… Chappe, Claude CHAPPE, CLAUDE (1763-1805), a French engineer, and the inventor of the simple French telegraph, was born in Normandy in 1763. Chaptal, Jean Antoine CHAPTAL, JEAN ANTOINE (1756-1832), count of Chanteloup, an eminent French chemist and statesman, born at Nogaret, Lozere, 4th June 1756. At Montpellier, where he first studied chemistry, he obtained his doctor's diploma in 1777, when he repaired to Paris. In 1781, the States of Languedoc founded a chair of chemistry for him at the school of medicine in Montpellier, where he taught with success the… Chapu CHAPU, an important maritime town of China, in the province of Che-keang, 50 miles N.W. of Chinhai, situated in one of the richest and best cultivated districts in the country. Charade CHARADE, a trifling species of composition, or quasi-literary form of amusement, which may perhaps be best defined as a punning enigma propounded in a series of descriptions. A word is taken of two or more syllables, each forming a distinct word ; each of these is described in verse or prose, as aptly and enigmatically as possible ; and the same process is applied to the whole word. The neater and… Charcoal CHARCOAL, the more or less impure form of carbon obtained from various vegetable and animal materials by their ignition out of contact with air. Wood Charcoal is a hard and brittle black substance, that retains the form and external structure of the wood from which it is made. It rings when struck, amid has a conchoidal fracture ; it is infusible, and is not dissolved by water or acids ; at ordina… Chard CHARD, a municipal borough and market-town of England, in Somersetshi re, with a railway junction, 18 miles south of Bridgewater, and 139 miles from London. Chardin, Sir John CHARDIN, SIR JOHN (1643-1713), a celebrated traveller, was born at Paris in 1643. His father, a wealthy jeweller, gave him an excellent education and trained him in his own art ; but instead of settling down in the ordinary routine of the craft, he set out in company with a Lyons merchant named Raisin in 1665 for Persia and India, partly on business and partly to gratify his own inclination. After… Charente CHARENTE, an inland department in the south-west of France, comprehending the ancient division of Angoumois, and inconsiderable portions of Saintonge, Poitou, and Limousin. It is bounded N. by the departments of Deux-Sevres and Haute-Vienne, E. by those of Vienne and Dordogne, and S. and W. by Dordogne and Charente-Inferieure. The greater part of its area of 2295 square miles consists of the valle… Ch Arent E-inferieure CH ARENT E-INFERIEURE, or LOWER CHARENTE, a maritime department of France, comprehending the old provinces of Saintonge and Aunis, and including the islands of Re, Oleron, Aix, and Madame. It has an area of 2636 square miles, and is bounded N. by Vendee and Deux-Sevres, E. by Charente, S. by Gironde, and W. by the Bay of Biscay. The surface is exceedingly flat throughout the whole department, and … Chariot CHARIOT, in antiquity, was a conveyance used in battle, for the chase, in public processions, and in games. It had two wheels, and was made to be drawn by two horses ; if a third or, more commonly, two reserve horses were added, they were attached on each side of the main pair by a single trace fastened to the front of the chariot, as may be seen on two prize vases in the British Museum from the P… Charities CHARITIES. There are few features of English society more remarkable than the strength of its charitable organization. It is not merely that the voluntary contributions of individuals to the purposes usually described as charitable are on the largest scale, but that endowments in aid of every variety of public use abound in all parts of the country. These endowments are mostly of private foundatio… Chariton CHARITON, of Aphrodisias in Ostia, probably one of the last of the Greek erotic writers, lived about the 5th century A.D., and was the author of a romance entitled The -Loves of Clicereas and Callirrhoe. Charlemagne, Jean Armand CHARLEMAGNE, JEAN ARMAND (1759-1838), a French dramatic author, was born at Bourget in 1759. Charlemagne, Or Charles The Great CHARLEMAGNE, or CHARLES THE GREAT, was born in 742, succeeded his father Pepin as king of the Franks in 768, was crowned emperor of the Romans in 800, and died in 814 after an eventful and beneficent reign of forty-six years. His father had divided the Frankish kingdom between him and his younger brother Carloman, but the latter dying in 771, Charlemagne was proclaimed sole ruler. The monarchy he … Charleroi CHARLEROI, a town of Belgium, in the province of Hainault, about 33 miles south of Brussels, on the Sambre, a navigable tributary of the 'Meuse. It is the seat of a court of primary instance, and possesses a gymnasium, an academy of painting, a hospital, a parish church dating from the time of Louis MN., and a prison erected in 1852 in the style of a feudal castle. Situated in the midst of an exte… Charles CHARLES I., the Bald (823-877), king of France and emperor of the Romans, was son of Louis le Debonnaire, by his second wife Judith. To furnish him with a kingdom, his father deprived his elder brothers of some of the territory he had previously assigned to them, and war ensued, at the end of which, after many failures and successes, Charles was left in possession of a great kingdom in the west of… Charles CHARLES V. (1337-1380), king of France, born in 1337, was the son of John II. His physical weakness, precluding him from the usual ambitions of his rank, led him to cultivate the taste for literature and the political ability which gained for him the title of " the Wise." From the age of nineteen to that of twenty-three, during the exile of his father, a period of great disturbance and difficulty-… Charles CHARLES, count of Anjou and Provence, king of Naples and Sicily, born between the years 1220 and 1226, was the ninth son of Louis VIII. of France. He married Beatrice, heiress of Provence, after scattering his rivals by the aid of an army furnished by his brother, Louis IX. Soon after he accompanied the king on a crusade, during which he fought with bravery, but achieved no permanent success, and … Charles CHARLES I. of Spain. See CHARLES V., emperor. Charles assumed the government, and took Don John as his chief adviser. Still Spain continued to suffer in the great European contest ; and in 1678 she was forced, in the treaty of Nimeguen, to cede Franche-Comte and several considerable towns in the Low Countries to France. In the next year she sustained another serious loss in the death of her ablest… Charles CHARLES X (1757-1836), king of France, a younger brother of Louis XVI., known before his accession as Charles Philippe, Count of Artois, was born in 1757 At the age of sixteen he married Maria Theresa of Savoy. His youth was passed in a course of scandalous dissipation ; but for a short time he joined the French army at Gibraltar, and during the disturbances immediately prior to the Revolution he … Charles CHARLES I. (1600-164.9), king of England, born at Dunfermline on the 19th November 1600, was the second and favourite son of James [. By the death of his brother Henry, he became Prince of Wales in 1612, but the first public matter of importance in which he was concerned was the Spanish marriage. At first he was quite indifferent to the affair, and in 1022 he was full of a dream that he would lead… Charles CHARLES, the Bold (1433-1477), duke of Burgundy, born in 1433, was the son of Philip the Good of Burgundy and Isabella of Portugal. Remarkable both for his personal qualities and also for his position as the leader of the last great struggle of the feudal lords against royalty in France, and as the life-long enemy of crafty Louis XI., Charles was the last great figure of the Middle Ages. His physi… Charles Albert CHARLES ALBERT (1798-1849), king of Sardinia, was the son of Charles Emmanuel of Savoy Carignano. In his youth Charles became attached to the national party in Italy, and even formed a connection with the Carbonari. In 1821 Victor Emmanuel, on his abdication, appointed him regent ; and he now availed himself of the opportunity for carrying out a liberal policy. He confirmed the constitution which … Charles Augustus CHARLES AUGUSTUS (1757-1828), grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar, having been early deprived of his father, was educated under the governorship of Count Gortz, and among his tutors were Wieland, Knebel, Seidler, and Hermann. At seventeen he commenced his friendship with Goethe, who afterwards joined Schiller, Wicland, and Herder in forming the company of men of genius that distinguished his court. Charles … Charles Edward CHARLES EDWARD, or, in full, CHARLES EDWARD LOUIS PHILIP CASLVIIR (1720-1788), was born on the 3 Lst December 1720. He was the elder son of James, known as the Pretender and the Chevalier St George. Grandson of James II. and nephew of Anne, he was heir of line of both these sovereigns ; but the hereditary rights of his father and himself had been declared null under the Proclamation of Rights and … Charles Emmanuel CHARLES EMMANUEL I., The Great (1562-1630), duke of Savoy, succeeded his father Philibert Emmanuel in 1580. After having fought in alliance with Spain, France, and Germany, he laid claim to the throne of France on the death of Henry III. He became involved in war with Henry IV. and also with the Swiss, and was defeated at St Joire in 1589. But the peace to which his defeat compelled him was soon b… Charles Gustavus CHARLES GUSTAVUS X. (1622-1660), king of Sweden, was the son of John Casimir, Elector Palatine of the Rhine, and of Catherine, daughter of Charles IX. of Sweden. He studied at Upsala, and travelled in France and Germany, took part in the Thirty Years' War, and fought at Leipsic and elsewhere. On his return to Sweden he sought the hand of his eccentric cousin, Queen Christina, whom he professed to … Charles Ii CHARLES II. (1630-1685), king of England, born in 1630, though the second son of Charles I., was Prince of Wales from his birth. In the earlier and more important campaigns of the Civil War he held a nominal command in the west, but he was too young to take any real part in the conflict. After the battle of Naseby he passed by way of Scilly and Jersey to join his mother at St Germain Till 1649 he … Charles Ii CHARLES II., the Fat (832-888), king of France and emperor of the Romans, was the third son of Louis the German. Charles Ii CHARLES II. (1332-1387), king of Navarre and count of Evreux, was a grandson of Louis Hutin, and possessed a title to the French throne inferior to that of John II. only ou account of the Salic law, and superior to that of Edward III. of England. Handsome, clever, eloquent, and bold, he yet thoroughly deserved the title of " the Bad " with which he mounted the throne in 1349, at the age of sixteen… Charles Iii CHARLES III. (1716-1788), king of Spain, was the second son of Philip V. Parma, Piacenza, and Tuscany, having fallen into the hands of Spain, were bestowed upon Charles, who at the age of fifteen was furnished with an army, and sent to take possession of his principality. At eighteen he conquered the two Sicilies, and the emperor was obliged to recognize him as king. In 1759, by the death of his b… Charles Iii CHARLES III., the Simple (879-929), king of France, was a posthumous son of Louis the Stammerer. On the deposition of Charles the Fat in 887, he was excluded from the throne by his youth ; but during the reign of Eudes, who had succeeded Charles, he obtained the alliance of the emperor, and forced the former to cede Neustria. In 898, by tlr- death of his rival he obtained possession of the whole k… Charles Iv CHARLES IV. (1316-1378), emperor of the Romans, was the son of John of Luxembourg, king of Bohemia. As a child he spent five years at Paris, but at the age of twelve Ile returned to his father's court. While only sixteen he was appointed viceroy of Italy, - a post of the greatest difficulty, from which it was not long before he was obliged to retire. He next took part in the Carinthian war against… Charles Iv CHARLES IV., the Fair (1294-1328), king of France and Navarre, was the third son of Philip the Fair. Charles Iv CHARLES IV. (1421-1461), king of Navarre, was the son of John of Aragon, and of Blanche, daughter and heiress of Charles III., king of Navarre. Charles Ix CHARLES IX. (1550-1574), king of France, was the second son of Henry 1I. and Catherine de' Medici. At the age of ten he succeeded his brother Francis II. His mother became regent, and Anthony of Navarre lieutenant of the kingdom. During Charles's youth there was fierce and continual war between the Huguenots, under Conde and Coliguy and the duke of Guise and his adherents In the second period of t… Charles Ix CHARLES IX. (1550-1611), king of Sweden, WM the fourth son of Gustavus Vasa. His nephew, Sigismund, king of Poland, who inherited the crown in 1592, being a Roman Catholic, Charles was appointed to direct the government, till Sigismund signed a decree establishing Lutheranism as the religion of Sweden. There was also a general feeling against the occupation of the throne of Sweden by a Polish king… Charles Martel CHARLES MARTEL (about 689-741), was an illegitimate son of Pepin d'Heristul, duke of Austrasia and mayor of the palace of the Merovingian kings of France. The wildness of Charles's youth, and most of all the suspicion that he was concerned in the murder of his brother, totally estranged the affection of his father, who left the mayoralty to one of his grandsons, and the regency to his wife. The Au… Charles, Or Charles CHARLES, or CHARLES Lours (1771-1817), archduke of Austria, was the third son of the Emperor Leopold II. He commenced active service against the French at the age of twenty-two, and so distinguished himself that at twenty-five he was intrusted with the supreme command of the army of the Rhine. He defeated Jourdan at Teiningen, Amberg, and Wfirzburg, and Moreau at Rastadt ; and the year after (1797… Charleston CHARLESTON, a city, a seaport, and the capital of Charleston county, South Carolina, United States, is situated in 32? 45' N. lat. and 79? 57' W. long. It stands upon a flat tongue of land pointing south-eastward between the Ashley and Cooper rivers, which hero debonche into a spacious harbour extending about 7 miles south-east to the Atlantic, with an average width of two miles. The harbour is su… Charlestown CHARLESTOWN, formerly a separate city of the United States, in Middlesex county, Massachusetts, but since 1874 incorporated with the city of Boston, with which it had long before been in many respects practically one. Charles Vi CHARLES VI. (1368-1422), king of France, was the son of Charles V., whom he succeeded in 1380, at the age of twelve. The treasure left him by his father was at once seized by his four uncles, the dukes of Berry, Burgundy, Anjou, and Bourbon, whose tyranny and rapacity aroused a general rebellion throughout France. It gained the supremacy in Paris (where the insurgents, from the weapon with which t… Charles Vi CHARLES VI. (1685-1740), emperor, was the second son of Leopold I. As the only male representative of the house of Hapsburg, lie claimed the throne of Spain, which was left by Charles II. to Philip, duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV.; and in order to prevent the predominance of the house of Bourbon, England, Holland, Prussia, Germany, and Portugal gave him their support. In 1703 he was proclaim… Charles Vii CHARLES VII. (1697-1745), emperor, also known by the name of Charles Albert, was the son of Maximilian Emmanuel, elector of Bavaria. He was taken from home while a child by the Emperor Joseph I., who had outlawed his father, and seized Bavaria ; and he was not liberated till the conclusion of the treaty of Rastadt in 1714. He commanded against the Turks in the war which the Emperor Charles VI. und… Charles Vii CHARLES VII. (1403-1461), king of France, the son of Charles VI., was betrothed at ten to Mary of Anjou, daughter of Louis, king of Sicily, whom he married nine years after. He became dauphin at the age of thirteen ; and while only fourteen, on account of the insanity of his father, he held the position of lord-lieutenant of the kingdom. At first the strong hand of Bernard of Armagnac, the constab… Charles Viii CHARLES VIII. (1470-1498), king of France, born in 1470, succeeded in 1483 to the power acquired by the astute policy of his father Louis XI. His sister, Anne of Beaujeu, though only twenty-two, by the firmness and craft which she inherited from her father, gained the supreme authority as regent. She was opposed by the duke of Orleans and Count Dunois, who were supported by the duke of Brittany an… Charles Xi CHARLES XI. (1655-1697), king of Sweden, was five years old at the death of his father, Charles X., and was left under the regency of his mother and of a council. Brought up without care, he arrived at manhood unable even to read. In 1672 he assumed the government, and, under the influence of France, was speedily engaged in the invasion of the electorate of Brandenburg. The elector was assisted by… Charles Xii CHARLES XII., king of Sweden, was born at Stockholm on June 27, 1682. He received an excellent education, and was able to speak German, French, and Latin fluently. In the spring of 1697 his father, Charles XI., died, and the prince, then only in his fifteenth year, was declared of age by the States-General and invested with the royal authority. As might have been expected, the boy-king showed hims… Charles Xiii CHARLES XIII. (1748-1818), king of Sweden, was the second SOD of Adolphus Frederick and of Louisa Ulrica, sister of Frederick the Great. He was educated for the office of high-admiral, and commanded with credit against the Russians. On the accession of his brother Gustavus III., in support of whom he exerted all his influence, he was appointed governor of Stockholm and created duke of Sudermania ;… Charles Xv CHARLES XV. (1826-1872), king of Sweden and Norway, succeeded to the throne in 1859, on the death of his father, Oscar I., son of Charles XIV. His rule was popular and liberal. The most important event in his reign was the change which was effected in 1866 in the constitution of the Storthing, or parliament, which, from that time has consisted not of four but of two chambers - the first being elec… Charlet CHARLET, NicoLAs TOESSAINT, a designer and painter, more especially of military subjects, was born in Paris on 20th December 1792, and died there on 30th October 1845. He was the son of a dragoon in the Republican army, whose death in the ranks left the widow and orphan in very poor circumstances. Madame Charlet, however, a woman of determined spirit and an extreme Napoleonist, managed to give her… Charleville CHARLEVILLE, a handsome and well-built ton n of France, on the left bank of the Meuse, in the department of Ardennes, about one mile north of 111ezires, with which it is connected by a suspension bridge. Charlevoix, Pierre Franc0is Xavier De CHARLEVOIX, PIERRE FRANc0IS XAVIER DE (1C82 - 176 ), a French Jesuit traveller and historian, was born at St Quentin in 1682. Charlottenburg CHARLOTTENBURG, a town of Prussia, in the province of Brandenburg, district of Potsdam, and circle of Teltow, situated on the Spree, four miles west of Berlin, with which a fine promenade connects it. Charlottesville CHARLOTTESVILLE, a town of the United States, the capital of Albemarle county, Virginia, situated about 65 miles north-west of Richmond on Moore's Creek, a tributary of Rivanna river. Charlotte Town CHARLOTTE TOWN, a town of British America, in the Dominion of Canada, the capital of Prince Edward Island, is situated on gently rising ground on the north bank of Hillsborough River, at its junction with York River, not far from the south coast, in 14? 15' N. lat. and 63? 7' W. long. It has a good harbour in Hillsborough Bay, and the river is navigable by the largest vessels for several miles. Be… Charolles CHAROLLES, a town of France, the capital of an arrondissement in the department of Satme-et-Loire, -3 miles by rail W.N.W. of Macon. It has tribunals of primary instance and commerce, an agricultural society, a communal college, a public library, manufactories of potteryware, iron forges, and a considerable trade in corn, wine, cattle, and timber. It was the capital of Charolais, an old division o… Charondas CHARONDAS, a celebrated lawgiver, who legislated not only for his native Catana, but likewise for various cities of Magna Grmcia. By some he is said to have been a disciple of Pythagoras, who flourished 540-510 Jac. ; and according to the common account (as given by Diodorus, xii.), he also drew up a code for the use of the Thurians ; but this statement is scarcely admissible, since Thurii was not… Charpentier CHARPENTIER, Ficaracors (1620-1702), archaeologist and man of letters, was born at Paris. Intended for the bar, he quitted law for literature at an early age, and was employed by the great minister Colbert, who had deter. mined on the foundation of a French East India Company, to draw up an explanatory account of the project for the perusal of Louis XIV. ; to the memoir he thus prepared he afterwa… Charter CHARTER. The word charter, from xc;07-77s, thick paper or parchment, came to be applied, from the substance on which it was written, to a document granted by a prince conferring or acknowledging privileges to be enjoyed by either the whole or a portion of the people under his rule. In England, from the Conquest downwards, there was a struggle between those who sought to enforce the feudal exaction… Charter-party CHARTER-PARTY, a written or partly written and partly printed contract, by which a ship is let or hired for the conveyance of goods on a specified voyage, or for a definite period. By the terms of this contract the owners declare the ship to be "tight, stanch, strong, and every way fitted for the voyage ;" and they are accordingly liable in damages to the merchant or charterer, if the ship be unse… Chartier, Alain CHARTIER, ALAIN, the most distinguished French man of letters during the 15th century, was horn at Bayeux. The date of his birth is not known, but M. Vallet de Viriville places it between 1380 and 1390. After a complete course of study at the university of Paris, he is supposed to have entered the service of Charles VI., who is said to have charged him with important missions. After this, however,… Chartism CHARTISM was a movement for radical reform in English politics, which originated in 1838, reached its culminating point in 1848, and collapsed the same year ; it took its name from the " People's Charter " or "National Charter," the document in which the scheme of reform was embodied. The Reform Bill of 1832 left a large class of the population, especially the working-men, dissatisfied. Accordingl… Chartres CHARTRES, the chief town of the department of Eureet-Loir, 55 miles south-west from Paris by railway, stands on a slope skirted by the River Eure, which flows partly within and partly beyond the ramparts. Its houses are antique and straggling ; but there are four fine squares, in one of which, used as the herb-market, is an obelisk in memory of General Marceau, a native of the town. Chartres is th… Chartreuse CHARTREUSE, or more usually, to distinguish it from other establishments of the order, LA GRANDE CHARTREUSE, a famous Carthusian monastery of France, in the department of Isere, situated about 14 miles north of Grenoble, at a height of 4268 feet above the level of the sea, in one of the upper valleys of a group of calcareous mountains, near the sources of the Guiers Mort and the Guiers Vif, two tr… Chase, Salmon Portland CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND (1808-1873), an American statesman, was born in Cornish, New Hampshire, on the 13th of January 1808. After graduating with distinction at Dartmouth College, at the age of eighteen he opened a classical school at Washington, and commenced the study of law under William Wirt. In 1830 he was admitted to the bar ; and he soon after gained for himself considerable reputation by a… Chastelain, Georges CHASTELAIN, GEORGES (1403-1475), called L'Adventureux, the celebrated Burgundian chronicler, was born at Alost in Flanders. When only seven years old be began the study of letters. This, however, he abandoned to become a soldier, serving first of all as a squire. Particularly favoured by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, he quitted the career of arms towards 1443, and devoted himself to the servi… Chastelard, Pierre Bosco 13el De CHASTELARD, PIERRE BOSCO 13EL DE (1540-1503), a French poet whose name is inseparably connected with that of Mary Queen of Scots, was born in Dauphin6, and was a scion of the house of Bayard. From the service of the Constable Montmorency, Chastelard, then a page, passed to the household of Marshal Damville, whom he accompanied in his journey to Scotland in escort of Mary (1561). He returned to Par… Chateaubriant CHATEAUBRIANT, a town of France, at the head of an arrondissement in the departaient of Loire Inferieure, on the left bank of the Chere, a tributary of the Vilaine, 35 miles N.N.E. of Nantes. Chateaudun CHATEAUDUN, a town of France, capital formerly of the countship of Dunois, and now of au arrondissement in the department of Eure-et-Loir, 28 miles S.S.W. of Chartres. Chateau-gontier CHATEAU-GONTIER, a town of France, at the head of anarrondissement in the department of Mayenue, on the right bank of the Mayenne river, here crossed by a stone bridge, 17 miles S.S.E. of Laval. Chateauroux CHATEAUROUX, a town of France, capital of the department of Indre, is situated in a fine plain on the left bank of the Indre, 90 miles by rail S.W. of Orleans. It is the seat of a court of assize, and tribunals of primary instance and commerce; and it has a castle, now used as the town-ball, a cathedral, erected about 1873, a society of arts and agriculture, a communal college, a theatre, and a pu… Chateau-thierry CHATEAU-THIERRY, a town of France, at the head of an arrondissement in the department of Aisne, on the right bank of the Marne, and connected with an extensive suburb on the opposite bank by a fine stone bridge of three arches. It is the seat of a tribunal of primary instance, and has a communal college, a public library, and manufactures of linen, cotton, leather, and earthenware. It contains a m… Chatellerault CHATELLERAULT, a town of France, at the head of an arrondissement in the department of Vienne, on the right bank of the Vienne, here crossed by a handsome stone bridge, which connects it with the suburb of Chitteauneuf on the opposite side of the river, 24 miles N.N.E. of Poitiers. It stands in a fertile valley, and has several fine promenades, but is irregularly built. It has tribunals of primary… Chatham CHATHAM, a town of England, in the county of Kent, on the south side of the Medway about 15 miles from its junction with the estuary of the Thames, and 27 miles east of London. Though still nominally distinct, it is practically united with Rochester on the west, and is in close proximity to Brompton and Gillingham on the east. In Chatham proper the streets are for the most part narrow, and with th… Chatham Islands CHATHAM ISLANDS, a group in the Pacific, 560 miles east of New Zealand, lying between 43? 40' and 45? 20' S. lat., and between 176? 10' and 177? 20' W. long. It consists of three islands, a large one called Wari-Kauri, or Chatham Island, a smaller one, Rangi-Haute, or Pitt's Island, and a third, Rangatira, or South-east Island. There are also several small rocky islets. Chatham Island, according t… Chatsworth CHATSWORTH, the seat of the duke of Devonshire, one of the most splendid private residences in England, is situated in Derbyshire, on the River Dement, 3i miles north-east of the village of Bakewell, and 8 miles west of the town of Chesterfield. It stands on the left bank of the river, opposite the hamlet of Edensor, and as seen from the west presents a magnificent fa?ade in fine relief against th… Chattanooga CHATTANOOGA, a city of the United States, in the county of Hamilton, Tennessee, about 250 miles by water from Knoxville, at the foot of Lookout Mountain, on the left bank of the Tennessee river, which is navigable for steamers during eight months of the year. Chatterton, Thomas CHATTERTON, THOMAS (1752-1770), Among the poets of the 18th century, Thomas Chatterton occupies a place altogether unique. He indeed claims scarcely less the interest of the psychologist as a marvellous example of matured intellectual precocity, than that of the student of English literature as a poet remarkable in an age of varied literary excellence. Fully to estimate the characteristics ? taugh… Chaucer, Geoffrey CHAUCER, GEOFFREY (c. 1340-1400). There are few fields of research in which antiquarians, from Speght to Furnivall, have laboured so zealously and successfully as the life of Chaucer. The secret of their success has been that Chaucer was more actively engaged in public affairs than any poet of celebrity since his time, and has consequently left many traces in official records. The chief biographic… Cha Udes-aigues CHA UDES-AIGUES, an old town of Upper Auvergne in France, in the department of Cantal, 17 miles S.S.W. of St flour. Chaumont CHAUMONT, a town of France, the capital of the department of Haute Marne, on an eminence between the Marne and the Suize, 145 miles S.E. of Paris by the railway, which here crosses a fine viaduct. It is the seat of tribunals of primary instance and commerce, is tolerably well built, and has an elegant town-hall, a court-house, a communal college, a hospital, a theatre, a public library, and a, bot… Chauny CHAUNY, a town of France, in the department of Aisne, 20 miles W.N.W. of Lion, situated partly on the right bank of the Oise and partly on an island at the commencement of the canal of St Quentin. Chauvin, Etienne CHAUVIN, ETIENNE (1640-1725), a celebrated minister of the Reformed religion, was born at Nimes. Chaux De Fonds CHAUX DE FONDS, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of Neuchatel, and ten miles N.W. of the city of that name, at a height of 3200 feet above the level of the sea, in the rugged and narrow valley of the Jura. Chaves CHAVES, a town of Portugal, not far from the frontier, in the province of Tras-os-Montes, on a plain near the right bank of the Tamega, which is here crossed by a fine old Roman bridge of eighteen arches. Check And Checkmate CHECK AND CHECKMATE. - The king can never be captured, but when any piece or pawn attacks him, he is said to be " in check," and the fact of his being so attacked should be announced by the adverse player saying " cheek," whereupon the king must move from the square he occupies, or be screened from the check by the interposition of one of his own men, or the attacking piece must be captured. If, h… Cheduba CHEDUBA, an island in the Bay of Bengal, situated ten miles from the coast of Aracan, between 18? 40' and 18? 56' N. lat., and between 93? 31' and 93? 50' E. long. It extends about 20 miles in length from north to south, and 17 miles from east to west, and its area of 250 square miles supports a population of 10,000. The channel between the island and the mainland is navigable for boats, but not f… Cheese CHEESE, a solidified preparation from milk, the essential constituent of which is the proteinous or nitrogenous substance casein. All cheese contains in addition some proportion of fatty matter or butter, and in the more valuable varieties, the butter present is often greater in amount than the casein. Cheese being thus a compound substance of no definite chemical composition is found in commerce … Cheetah, Or Hunting Leopard CHEETAH, or HUNTING LEOPARD (0 neparda juliata), a Carnivorous Mammal belonging to the family Felidce, but exhibiting in form and habits such a mixture of feline and canine characteristics as have led naturalists to regard it as a transition form between the cat and dog groups. Unlike the typical Felicia, its head is short and round, its legs elongate and slender, and the flesh tooth of the upper … Che-foo, Or Yen-tai CHE-FOO, or YEN-TAI, as it is called by the natives, a seaport town of Northern China, on the southern coast of the Gulf of Pih-chih-li, in the province of Shantung near the mouth of the Yi-ho, and about 30 miles east of the city of Tang-chovi-foo. Till recently it was quite a small place, and had only the rank of an unwalled village ; but it was chosen as the port of Tang-chow opened to foreign t… Cheke, Sir John CHEKE, SIR JOHN (1514-1557), was born of good family at Cambridge, and was educated at St John's College. His learning gained him the position of king's scholar, and in 1540 he was chosen to fill the chair of Greek then instituted by Henry VIII. Together with Sir Thomas Smith he has the honour of being one of the first who revived the knowledge of that language in England. He specially interested … Chelmsford CHELMSFORD, the county-town of Essex, in England, 29 miles N.N.E. of London, with which it is connected by the Great Eastern Railway. It is situated in a valley on the Chelmer, near the confluence of the Cann, and has communication by the river with Malden and the sea, 11 miles to the east. The Cann is crossed by two bridges, one of stone and the other of cast-iron ; and there is also a bridge ove… Chelsea CHELSEA, a city of the United States, in Suffolk county, Massachusetts, forming part of the suburbs of Boston. It is situated on the north bank of the Mystic River, which separates it from Charlestown, while Chelsea creek lies between it and East Boston. It communicates both with Charlestown and with East Boston by bridges. (See plan, vol. iv. p. 731). Its public buildings comprise the city hall,W… Chelsea CHELSEA, formerly a village about two miles west of London, on the left bank of the Thames, but now an integral part of the great metropolis. It gives its name to a parish and a parliamentary borough, the former with 71,089 inhabitants, and the latter, which includes Fulham, Hammersmith, Kensington, and part of Willesden, with 258,050, at the census of 1871. It is connected with the district of Ba… Cheltenham CHELTENHAM, a parliamentary and municipal borough of England, in Gloucestershire, situated about 88 miles N.W. from London, in a valley watered by the Chelt, and sheltered on the E. and N.E. by the Cotswold Hills. Its streets and buildings are spacious and elegant, and its spas and promenades are reckoned among the finest in England. The "Promenade "par excellence, indeed, which extends for more t… Chemnitz CHEMNITZ, a town of the kingdom of Saxony, in the circle of Zwickau, 50 miles W.S.W. of Dresden by rail, in a beautiful plain at the foot of the Erzgebirge, watered by the River Chemnitz, an affluent of the Mulde. It is the first manufacturing town in the country, and in population ranks next to Dresden and Leipsic. Though in general well built and possessing a large number of handsome edifices, i… Chemnitz, Martin CHEMNITZ, MARTIN (1522-1586), probably the ablest Lutheran theologian of the period immediately succeeding that of Luther himself, was born at Treuenbritzen in the mark of Brandenburg, on the 9th November 1522. His father, though of noble rank, was in somewhat straitened circumstances, and Martin's education was frequently interrupted owing to pecuniary difficulties. In his fourteenth year he was … Chenier CHENIER, ANmtA-MARIE DE (1762-1794), French poet, was born at Constantinople, where his father, Louis de Chenier, author of several works on Oriental history, was consul-general. Sent in infancy to France, he lived till his ninth year at Carcassonne, under care of a paternal aunt ; and in 1773, on his father's return, he was placed at the Parisian College de Navarre. At sixteen he was rhyming from… Chenier, Marte-joseph De CHENIER, MARTE-JOSEPH DE (1764-1811), poet and dramatist, was a younger brother of Andre Chenier, and, !Ike him, was born at Constantinople, reared at Carcassonne, and educated at the College de Navarre. Entering the army at seventeen, he left it soon afterwards ; and at twenty he produced Azeinire, a tragedy, which had a languid sort of success. His next venture, Charles IX, which commenced the r… Cheops CHEOPS, the name of an Egyptian king Khufu, called Cheops by Herodotus, Chembes by Diodorus, Souphis by Manetho, and Saophis by Eratosthenes. He was the second king of the fourth dynasty of Manetho, and the builder of the Great Pyramid at Gizeh, 120 stadia distant from Memphis and about 45 from the Nile. According to Diodorus, each side was 7 plethra long, and the height 6 plethra ; or according t… Chephren CHEPHREN, an Egyptian monarch, called in the hieroglyphs Khafra, by Herodotus Chephren, by Diodorus Cephren or Chabrias, by Manetho Souphis II., and by Eratosthenes Saophis II. He was, according to the legends, the son or brother of Cheops, and acted in the same tyrannical manner. Chephren built the second of the great pyramids at Gizeh close to the Sphinx and the Great Pyramid, and was said to be… Chepstow CHEPSTOW, a market-town and river-port of England, in the county of Monmouth, on the Wye, 2 miles from its junction with the Severn, and 135 miles from London. It occupies the slope of a hill on the western bank of the river, and is environed by scenery of much beauty and grandeur. The town is generally well built, and the streets are broad and clean. The church, originally the conventual chapel o… Cheque CHEQUE. " A check on a banker," says Mr Justice Ryles, " is in legal effect an inland bill of exchange drawn on a banker payable to bearer on demand. A check is consequently subject in general to the rules which regulate the rights and liabilities of parties to bills of exchange." Commercial usage has, however, imposed on cheques certain qualities which do not attach to other bills of exchange. Be… Cher CHER, a central department of France, embracing the eastern part of the ancient province of Berry and part of Bourbonnais, bounded N. by the department of Loire, IV. by Loir-et-Cher and Indre, S. by Allier and Creuse, and E. by Nievre and Loire. It is situated between 46? 18' and 47? 41' N. lat, and between 1' 50' and 3? 6' E. long,, and has an area of 2780 square miles. The surface of the departm… Cherasco CHERASCO, a town of Italy, in the province of Cuneo and district of Mondovia, near the junction of the Stura and the Tanaro, 30 miles south-east of Turin, with which it is connected by railway. It is well built and is surrounded by walls. A canal from the Stura supplies it with water. The church of the Madonna del Popolo, which was completed in the 18th century, is worthy of notice ; and there are… Cheribon, Or Sheribon CHERIBON, or SHERIBON, a seaport town on the north coast of Java, capital of a residency of the same name, and the seat of a Dutch governor, is situated at the head of a wide bay 125 miles E.S.E. of Batavia, in 6? 48' S. let. and 108? 38' E. long. It was formerly a place of importance, but it has never fully recovered from the effects of a disastrous plague which visited the place at the beginning… Cherokees, Cherokese CHEROKEES, CHEROKESE, or, in the form employed by themselves, Tsaraghee, or Chelake, a tribe of North American Indians, now settled in the Indian Territory, where they occupy an area of 5960 square miles in the north-east and a strip along the north of about 8500. Before their removal thither they possessed a large tract of country now distributed among the States of Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi,… Cherry CHERRY (Cerasus). As a cultivated fruit-tree the cherry is generally supposed to be of Asiatic origin, whence, according to Pliny, it was brought to Italy by Lucullus after his defeat of Mithridates, king of Pontus, 68 B.C. As with most plants which have been long and extensively cultivated, it is a matter of difficulty, if not an impossibility, to identify the parent stock of the numerous cultiva… Cherso CHERSO, an island of Elyria, included in the government of Trieste, in the Gulf of Quarnero, connected with the island of Osero by a bridge, and separated from the mainland by the channel of Farissina. Chersonese, Chersonesus, Or Cherronesits CHERSONESE, CHERSONESUS, or CHERRONESITS (from Vpo-os, mainland, and lio-os, island), is a word equivalent to peninsula. Cherubim CHERUBIM (plural of cherub) were " celestial genii," and, in M. de Saulcy's opinion, little else can be positively affirmed (ffistoire de Part juddique, p. 24). Fresh light has, however, recently been thrown upon them from the cuneiform inscriptions, and we are no longer reduced to admit that " le vaste champ des hypotheses restera toujours ouvert." According to the Old Testament, the cherub unite… Cherusci CHERUSCI, a tribe of ancient Germany, whose country was bounded on the E. by the Elbe and on the W. by the Weser. Cheshire CHESHIRE, a maritime county in the north-west of England, is bounded on the N. by the Mersey, which separates it from Lancashire, on the N.E. by Yorkshire, on the E. by Derbyshire and Staffordshire, on the S. by Shropshire and Denbighshire, on the W. by Flintshire, and on the N.W. by the Irish Sea. Its greatest length from east to west is about 48 miles, and its greatest breadth from south to nort… Chesney, Charles Cornwallis CHESNEY, CHARLES CORNWALLIS (182G-1876), brevet-colonel in the corps of Royal Engineers, born 29th September 1826, was the third son of Charles Cornwallis Chesney, captain on the retired list of the Bengal Artillery. Educated at Tiverton grammar school and Mount Radford school, Exeter, and afterwards at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, he obtained his first commission as second-lieutenant of … Chess CHESS, simply defined, is an intellectual pastime. It recreates not so much by way of amusement properly so termed, as by taking possession of the mental faculties and diverting them from their accustomed grooves. The cerebral organ, after being much occupied in business, or greatly worried by cares, or in any way beset by painful reflections, finds in the absorbing and abstracting properties of c… Chester CHESTER, a city of the United States, in the county of Delaware, Pennsylvania, on the right bank of the and was the seat of the provisional assembly held by Penn Chester, - a position now held by the city of West Chester. Chester CHESTER, an ancient city of England in West Cheshire, the capital of the county, situated on the river Dee, 20 miles from the open sea, 16 miles S.E. of Liverpool, and 179 miles N.W. of London by rail. The city is divided into four principal blocks by the four principal streets - Northgate Street, Eastgate Street, Bridge Street, and Watergate Street, which radiate at right angles from the Cross, a… Chesterfield CHESTERFIELD, a municipal borough and market-town of England, in East Derbyshire, 12 miles south of Sheffield by the Midland Railway. Chesterfield, Philip Dormer Stanhope CHESTERFIELD, PHILIP DORMER STANHOPE, FOURTH EARL OF (1694-1773), the son of Philip Stanhope, the third earl, and Elizabeth Savile, daughter of the marquis of Halifax, was born in London. Deprived at an early age of his mother, the care of the little Lord Stanhope devolved upon his grandmother, the marchioness of Halifax, a lady of culture and connection, whose house was frequented by the most dis… Chester-le-street CHESTER-LE-STREET, a market-town of England in the county of Durham, near the River Wear, six miles north of Durham, on the North-Eastern Railway. The principal building is the parish church of St Mary and St Cuthbert, an interesting old Gothic structure, restored in 1862, with a tower 156 feet in height. There is a union workhouse at the south end of the town, which consists of two long parallel … Chestnut CHESTNUT. The Spanish or Sweet Chestnut, Castamea vesca (natural order, Corylacecv), is a stately and magnificent tree, native of the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, but also ripening its fruit in sheltered situations as far north as Scotland. It lives very long, attains a large size, spreading its branches widely, and it has large lanceolate serrate leaves, long pendulous male catkins, … Cheviot Hills CHEVIOT HILLS, a range extending a distance of about 35 miles along the confines of England and Scotland, mainly situated in Northumberland, but partly also in Roxburgh. Chezy, Antoine Leonard CHEZY, ANTOINE LEONARD (1773-1832), a French orientalist, was born at Neuilly in 1773. He was intended by his father for the profession of engineering; but his taste was for philology ; and in 17 90 he sought and obtained a post in the Oriental department of the national library. About 1803 he commenced the study of Sanskrit, though he possessed neither grammar nor dictionary, and, by means of gre… Chiabrera, Gabriello CHIABRERA, GABRIELLO (1552-1637), the Italian Pindar, as he is sometimes called, was of patrician descent, and was born at Savona, a little town in the domain of the Genoese republic, twenty-eight years after the birth of Ronsard, with whom he has far more in common than with the great Greek whose echo he sought to make himself. As he has told in the pleasant fragment of autobiography prefixed to … Chiaramonte CHIARAMONTE, a town of Sicily, in the province of Syracuse, and 32 miles west from the city of that name. Chiari CHIARI, an ancient walled town of Italy, in the province of Brescia, and 12 miles west of the city of that name, near the left bank of the Oglio. Chiavari CHIAVARI, a maritime town of North Italy, in the province of Genoa, and 21 miles E.S.E. of the town of that name, on the Gulf of Repoli?, at the mouth of the Sturla. Chiavenna, Or Cla-fes CHIAVENNA, or CLA-FES, a small town of Italy, in the province of Sondrio, in a deep valley on the right bank of the ]Taira, and about seven miles from its entrance into the Lake of Como. From its situation at the junction of the great roads over the Splegen and Septimer, between Germany and Italy, it is a place of considerable trade, especially in the wines of the Valtelline, and the pottery manuf… Chicago CHICAGO, in Cook county, State of Illinois, is probably the fourth city in size, and certainly thesecund in commercial importance, in the United States of America. It is situated on the west shore of Lake Michigan, 960 miles by rail from New York. Dearborn Observatory, 34 miles S. and -1 mile E. from the court-house, is in 41? 50' 1" N. lat. and 87? 34' 8" W. long. The surrounding country is prair… Chichely, Or Chichele CHICHELY, or CHICHELE, HENRY (1362-1443), an English primate, was born at Higham Ferrers, in Northamptonshire, in 1362. Chichester CHICHESTER, a municipal and parliamentary borough, episcopal city, and market-town of England, in Sussex, situated at the foot of a small spur of the South Down Hills, on the widest part of the plain to which it gives name. It is distant about 60 miles S.W. from London, and 14 N.E. from Portsmouth. Chichester still retains its ancient walls, which have a circuit of about a mile and a half, and pro… Chickasaws CHICKASAWS, a tribe of North American Indians, now settled in a reservation of 6840 square miles in the Indian territory on the left bank of the Red River. According to their own tradition and the evidence of philology, they are closely connected with the Creeks and Choctaws .; and they believe that they emigrated along with these tribes from the West, crossed the Mississippi, and settled in the d… Chiclana CHICLANA, a town of Spain in the province of Cadiz, 13 miles south-east from that city, divided by the River Tiro into the Banda and Lugor quarters. Chicopee CHICOPEE, a town of the United States, in Hampden county, Massachusetts, at the confluence of the Chicopee river with the Connecticut, 95 miles by rail W.S.W. of Boston. Chicory CHICORY. The Chicory or Succory plant, Ciehorium Intybus (natural order; Composite), in its wild state is a native of Great Britain, occurrinff? most frequently in dry chalky soils, and by road-sides. It has a long fleshy taproot, a rigid branching hairy stem rising to a height of 2 to 3 feet, - the leaves around the base being lobed and toothed, not unlike those of the dandelion. The flower heads… Chieri CHIERI, a town of Italy, in the province of Turin, and eight miles south-east of the city of that name, with which it is connected by a good carriage road. It stands on the declivity of a hill, and is divided into two parts by a branch of the Tepice. Among its numerous churches and convents, mention may be made of Santa Maria della Scala, which is one of the largest Gothic structures in Piedmont, … Chieroneia CHIERONEIA, a Boeotian town situated on the Thermodon, a tributary of the Cephissus, on a plain which was on the borders of Phocis, and was on the natural route for an army invading Bwotia on that side. Chihuahua CHIHUAHUA, a city of Mexico, capital of the state of the same name, lies in a beautiful valley opening towards the north, and hemmed in on the other sides by arms of the Sierra Madre, 4640 feet above the level of the sea, in 28? 38' N. lat. and 106? 30' W. long. The town is regularly built, and the streets are wide and clean, with many handsome and convenient houses, plentifully supplied with wate… Childers, Robert Cesar CHILDERS, ROBERT CESAR (183S-1876), an eminent Oriental scholar, was the son of the Rev. Charles Childers, English chaplain at Nice. In 1860 he received an appointment in the civil service of Ceylon, which he retained until 1864, when he was compelled to return to England owing to ill health. He had acquired some knowledge of Pali during his residence in Ceylon, but it was not until the autumn of … Chili, Or Chile CHILI, or CHILE, occupies a strip of land on the western side of South America, extending from 24? to 56? 28' 50" S. lat., from the Bay of Mejillones to Cape Horn, a distance of 2270 miles. On the E. it is bounded by the Andes, on the W. by the Pacific Ocean, and on the N. by Bolivia. Its breadth varies from 40 to 200 miles, and its area is computed at 218,925 square miles, with a population of 2,… Chillan CHILLAN, a town of Chili, the capital of the province of Nuble, in a depression in the fertile plain between the rivers Nuble and Chillan, about 120 miles north-east of Concepcion, in 35? 56' S. lat. and 71? 37' W. long. The houses, with but few exceptions, consist of only a ground floor built round a rectangular court, and are constructed of sun-dried or baked bricks. The streets are about 22 yar… Chillianwalla CHILLIANWALLA, a town of British India in the Punjab, situated on the left bank of the River Jhelum, about 85 miles north-west of Lahore, in 32? 40' N. lat. and 73? 39' E. long. Chillicothe CHILLICOTHE, a city of the United States, capital of the county of Ross in Ohio, on the west bank of the River Scioto, 45 miles south of Columbus. Chilmaree CHILMAREE (in Hindustani, Chalantari), a town of British India, in the presidency of Bengal, about 35 miles south-east of Rungpur, on the right bank of the Brahmaputra. Chiloe CHILOE, an island off the coast of Chili, separated from the mainland on the N. by the narrow strait of Chacao, and on the E. by the archipelago of the Gulf of Ancud and Corcovado Bay. It is situated between 41? 45' and 43? 30' S. lat., and extends in length about 120 miles from N. to S. ; its greatest breadth is about 50 miles, and its total area is estimated at 5200 square miles. The western or … Chilon CHILON, one of the seven sages of Greece, was a LacedTmonian by birth His father's name was Damagetos, and he appears to have flourished about the beginning of the 6th century n.e. Chiltern Hills CHILTERN HILLS, a range of chalk hills in England, extending through part of Oxford, Buckingham, and Bedford, and attaining their highest elevation of 904 feet in the neighbourhood of Wendover. At one time the Chilterns were thickly covered with a forest of beech, and the western district of Bernwood was only cleared by James I. The depredations of the bandits, who found shelter within their reces… Chimay CHIMAY, a town of Belgium, in the province of Hainault, on the Eaublanche, or Whits Water, about 23 miles south of Charleroi. It contains 3000 inhabitants, and has ironworks, marble quarries, breweries, and potteries. In 1470 it was raised to the rank of a countship by Charles the Bold, and in 1486 was erected into a principality in favour of Charles of Croy. Since that date it has passed in 1686 … Chimera CHIMERA, in Grecian fable, a monster resembling a lion in the fore part, a goat in the middle, and a dragon behind, and having three heads corresponding to the three parts of her body. China As Known To The Ancients CHINA AS KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS. The spacious seat of ancient civilization which we call China has loomed always so large to Western eyes, and has, in spite of the distance, subtended so large an angle of vision, that, at eras far apart, we find it to have been distinguished by different appellations, according as it was reached by the southern sea-route, or by the northern land-route traversing th… China, Government CHINA, GOVERNMENT. The government may be described as a patriarchal despotism. The emperor is the father of his people, and as a father is responsible for the training and behaviour of his children, receiving blame when they prove unworthy, and reward when they show themselves to be virtuous ; so is the people's welfare the emperor's first care, and their preservation from all harm, both moral and… China History CHINA HISTORY. Far reaching as is the history of China, it yet fails to give us any account of the origin of the Chinese race. Its' first page begins by describing the nucleus of the nation as a little horde of wanderers, roving among the forests of Shan-se, without houses, without clothing, without fire to dress their victuals, and subsisting on the spoils of the chase, eked out with roots and in… China, Language And Literature CHINA, LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. The Chinese language is the chief among that small class of languages which includes the Tibetan Cochin-Chinese, Burmese, Corean, and Chinese, and which is usually described as monosyllabic. It is language in its most archaic form. Every word is a root, and every root is a word. It is without inflexion or even agglutination ; its substantives are indeclinable, and i… China, Social And Domestic Lift CHINA, SOCIAL AND DOMESTIC LIFT. But side by side with all these horrors there is a vast deal of quiet, happy, domestic life in China. It is not every one who gets into the clutches of the mandarins and their satellites, and as long as a man is loyal to the powers that be, and is not over rich, he may expect to be left alone in undisturbed enjoyment of the pleasures within his reach. And in the or… Chincha Islands CHINCHA ISLANDS, three small islands in the Pacific Ocean, about 12 miles from the coast of Peru, opposite the town of Pisco, and 106 miles distant from Callao, in 13? 38' S. lat. and 76? 28' W. long. The largest of the group, known as the North Island or Isla del Norte is only four-fifths of a mile in length, and about a third in breadth; and their whole importance is due to their immense deposit… Chinchew, Or Chinchu CHINCHEW, or CHINCHU, is the name usually given in English charts to an ancient and famous port of China in the province of Fuh-keen, of which the Chinese name is Chwanchow-foo, or Tswanchowfoo (by French scholars written Thsiouan-che'ou-fou). It stands in 24? 57' N. lat. and 118? 35' E. long. It is described by Martini (in the 17th century) as pleasantly situated on a tongue of land between two b… Chinchilla CHINCHILLA, a city of Spain, in the province of Murcia, picturesquely situated on an abrupt hill ten miles south-east of Albacete, in the immediate neighbourhood of the junction of the railway lines from Cartagena and Valencia to the capital. Chinchilla CHINCHILLA (Chinchilla lanigera), a small Mammal belonging to the orderRodentia, inhabits the eastern slopes of the Andes in Chili, Bolivia, and Peru, where it has a vertical range of from 8000 to 12,000 feet. It is very similar in size to the common squirrel, being about 10 inches long exclusive of the tail, and in the form of its head it resembles a rabbit. It is covered with a dense soft fur th… Chingleput CHINGLEPUT, the principal town and fortress of a district of the same name, in the presidency of Madras, in British India, on the left bank of the Palar River, 36 miles S.S.W. of Madras in 12? 91' N. lat. and 80? 2' E. long. Chin-keang-foo CHIN-KEANG-FOO, a maritime city of China, in the province of Keang-soo, at the junction of the Grand Canal with the Yang-tsze Keang, 48 miles E.N.E. of Nanking. Chinon CHINON (in the Middle Ages Castruni Coma), a town of France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Indre-et-Loire, pleasantly situated on the right bank of the Vienne, 28 miles S. Chin-rae, Or Cning-iiai CHIN-RAE, or CnING-IIAI, a district town of China, in the province of Che-keang, at the mouth of the Yung-keang River, 12 miles N.E. of Ningpo, in 29? 58' N. lat. and 121? 45' E. long. Chinsurail CHINSURAIL a town of British India, situated on the western bank of the Hooghly River, 24 miles above Calcutta, and formerly the principal Dutch settlement in Bengal. It was among the cessions on the continent of India made by the king of the Netherlands in 1824 in exchange for the British possessions in the island of Sumatra. The Dutch erected a factory here in 1656, on a clear and healthy spot o… Chios CHIOS. Chiron CHIRON, in Greek mythology, a Centaur, the son of Chronos and Philyra, who dwelt in a grotto at the foot of Mount Pelion, and who was famous as the wisest of his time, as the founder of the healing art, and as the teacher of most of the ancient heroes, including Hercules, Achilles, IEsculapius, Ulysses, Castor and Pollux, ./Eneas, Theseus, Meleager, and Nestor. Chiswick CHISWICK, a village of England, on the north bank of the Thames, in Middlesex, 4i- miles from Hyde Park Corner, on a branch of the South-Western Railway. Chittagong CHITTAGONG, a district of British India, in the division of the same name (which also comprises the districts of Noakhali, Tipperah, Chittagong Hill Tracts, and Independent Hill Tipperah), under the jurisdiction of the lieutenant-governor of Bengal, lies between 20? 45' and 22? 59' N. lat., and 91? 30' and 92? 23' E. long. It is bounded on the N. by Hill Tipperah and the Chittagong Hill Tracts, E.… Chittagong Hill Tracts CHITTAGONG HILL TRACTS, a district on the eastern frontier of British India, in the Chittagong division, lies between 21? 13' and 23? 47' N. let., and 91? 46' and 92? 49' E. long., and is bounded on the N. by the semi-independent state of Tipperah, on the E. and S. by the district of Artikan in British Burmah, and on the W. by the regulation district of Chittagong. The general aspect of the countr… Chittagong Port CHITTAGONG PORT, or Islamabad, the principal town of the above district, is situated on the right bank of the Karnaphuli River, in 22? 20' 55" N. lat. and 91? 52' 35' E. long. Chiusi CHIUSI, a town of Italy, in the Tuscan province of Siena, situated on a hill, and not far from the Lake of Chiusi. Chivasso CHIVASSO, a city of Italy, in the province of Turin, at a railway junction,15 miles north-east of the city of Turin. Chknda CHkNDA, the principal town in the district of the same name, is situated in 19? 57' N. lat. and 79? 22' E. long., at the junction of the 'Vida and Jharpat rivers. The town is surrounded by a wall of cut stone five and a half miles in circuit, and crowned with battlements still in perfect preservation. The town contains a total population of 16,233 souls, classified as follows : - Hindus, 14,350 ; … Chlamyd Ophore CHLAMYD OPHORE (Chlamydophorus truncates), an Edentate Mammal found at Mendoza, on the eastern slope of the Cordilleras, where it is known as the Pichiciago, but is su seldom seen as to be regarded with curiosity even by the natives. Its total length is from 5 to 6 inches, and its upper surface is covered with a flexible cuirass somewhat resembling the external armature of the Armadilloes - its ne… Chlorine CHLORINE, one of the chemical elements (symbol, Cl), discovered by Scheele in 1774. It was long regarded as a compound ; Scheele termed it dephlogisticated muriatic acid, and Berthollet about 1785 gave it the name of oxygenized inuriatic acid, which Kirwan contracted into oxynturiatic acid. In 1809 an abstract of a paper was published by Gay-Lussac and Thenard, in the 2d vol. of the Metnoires d'Ar… Chloroform, Trichlorometfiane, Terchloride Of Formyl Chltnd, Or Chand CHLTND, or CHAND, or CHANDRA-BARDAT, a Hindu writer belonging to the 12th century, was court-poet to the last of the Hindu sovereigns of Delhi. Chocolate CHOCOLATE is a preparation from the seeds of the cocoa or cacao tree (Theobroma Cacao), used as food. The term is corrupted from the Mexican name chocolatl, and the preparation was in use in Central America before the discovery of the Western Continent by Columbus. For the history of the plant and other details see under Cocoa. At the present day the general distinction between the preparations kn… Choctaws, Or Cliaiitas CHOCTAWS, or ClIAIITAS, a North American tribe, now settled in the Indian Territory along the northern banks of the Red River, where they possess about 10,450 square miles. When first known to Europeans they occupied the district now forming the southern part of Mississippi and the western part of Alabama. On the settlement of Louisiana they formed an alliance with the French, and assisted them ag… Chodowiecki, Daniel CHODOWIECKI, DANIEL .Nieorts (1726-1801), a painter and engraver of Polish descent, was born at Dan tzig. Left an orphan at an early age, be devoted himself to the practice of miniature painting, the elements of which his father had taught him, as a means of support for himself and his mother. In 1743 he went to Berlin, where for some time he worked as clerk in an uncle's office, practising art, h… Choiseul, Cesar CHOISEUL, CESAR, Due DE (1598-1675), commonly known as MARSHAL DU PLESSIS, was born at Paris in 1598. Choiseul, Claude Antoine Garr CHOISEUL, CLAUDE ANTOINE GARR] EL, Duo DE (1760-1838), was born in August 1760. He was brought up at Chanteloup, under the care of his relative, the Duke Etienne Francois, who was childless. The outbreak of the Revolution found him a colonel of dragoons, and throughout those troublous times he was distinguished for his devotion to the royal house. He made a memorable attempt to rescue Louis XVI. f… Choiseul, Etienne Fran CHOISEUL, ETIENNE FRAN-cols, Due DE (1719-1785), a French statesman, was born on the 28th June 1719. Under the name of Count de Stainville, he entered the army, and rose to the rank of lieutenant-general. Having contracted a wealthy marriage, and gained the friendship of Madame de Pompadour, the mistress of Louis XV., he entered political life as envoy, first to Rome, and then to Vienna ; and in N… Cholera CHOLERA (from x0X4, bile, and pear, to flow). Cholula CHOLULA, an ancient town of Mexico, situated on the plateau of La Puebla between Vera Cruz and the city of Mexico. Chons CHONS, an Egyptian deity called also Khons or Khonsou, principally worshipped at Thebes as the great eldest son of Amen Ra and Mut, and identified with .Aah the moon. He had two names in the Thebaid, his second being Neferhotep ; as such he is called the god of two names. By the Greeks he was called Chon, and considered to be a form of Hercules. Like Horns he is represented as a youthful god, his … Chopin, Frederic-franpis CHOPIN, FREDERIC-FRANpIS (1 81 0-1819), a celebrated composer and pianist, was born at Zelazowa-Wola, near Warsaw, on February 8, 1810. His family was of French origin, but in spite of this he has become the greatest and the most national exponent of Slavonic or more especially Polish nationality in music. In looking through the list of his compositions, teeming with mazurkas, valses, polonaises, … Chorley CHORLEY, a manufacturing town of North Lancashire, England, is situated eight miles south-east of Preston on the River Yarrow and the Leeds Canal, and on the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway. The town, which has a weekly market, is well built and is abundantly supplied with water. It contains an old church in the Norman style with some interesting monuments, and several dissenting chapels. A town-… Chouans CHOUANS (a Bas-Breton word signifying screech-owls), the name applied to the royalist insurgents in the west of France, at the time of the Revolution. It has been suggested that the name arose from the cry they used when approaching their nocturnal rendezvous ; but it is also maintained that it was derived from a nickname applied to their leader Jean Cottereau. Originally a contraband manufacturer… Chrestien De Troyes CHRESTIEN DE TROYES, the most eminent of the early French writers of romance, was born at Troyes in Champagne in the 1 1 th century. Nothing whatever is known of his life ; but from the fact that several of his works are dedicated to Philip of Alsace, count of Flanders, it is conjectured that he was attached to the court of that prince. He was much esteemed and highly praised by his contemporaries… Chrestien, Florent CHRESTIEN, FLORENT (1541-1596), a satirist and Latin poet, was the son of Guillaume Chrestien, an eminent French physician and writer on physiology, and was born at Orleans. A pupil of Henri Estienne, the famous Hellenist, and a zealous Calvinist, at an early age he was appointed tutor to Henry of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV., who made him his librarian. De Thou says of Chrestien that he was an e… Christ CHRIST (Xpurr(1s, the Anointed One), the official title given in the New Testament to Jesus of Nazareth, equivalent to the Hebrew Messiah. Christchurch CHRISTCHURCH, the capital of the province of Canterbury, New Zealand, is situated in 43? 34' S. lat. and 172? 35' E. long., on both banks of the small river Avon, about five miles from the sea. It is built upon the great Canterbury plain, which here is a dead level, though the monotony of the site has been much relieved by extensive plantations of English and Australian trees. The town is about a … Christchurch CHRISTCHURCH, a parliamentary borough of South Hampshire, England, is situated at the confluence of the rivers Avon and Stour, 1 miles from the sea, 22 miles S.W. of Southampton, and 111 miles from London by rail. Its history commences in Saxon times, when it was known as Tweonaetea-,n, a name which continued till recently in the form of Christchurch Twineham. The town, which is nominally governed… Christiania CHRISTIANIA, the capital of Norway and of a stift of the same name, is situated about SO miles from the sea, at the head of the Christiania fiord, at the foot of the Egeberg, in a finely-wooded and picturesque neighbourhood, in 59?54' N. lat. and 10? 45' E. long. It is the seat of the king and of the Storthing or Parliament, of the Hoieste-ret or final court of appeal, and of the bishop of the st… Christiansand CHRISTIANSAND, a fortified seaport town of South Norway, capital of a stift of the same name, on a fiord of the Skagerrack, in 58? 8' N. lat. and 8? 3' E. long. The town, which is surrounded on three sides by water, is defended by the fort of Frederiekshohn, at the mouth of a deep and well sheltered harbour. The houses, mostly of painted wood, are regularly built, and the streets are wide. Christi… Christianstad CHRISTIANSTAD, a town in the south of Sweden in 56? 2' N. lat. and 14? 9' E., long., the capital of the laen of the same name, stands on a lake formed by the widening out of the Beige River, in a swampy situation, about ten miles from the shores of the Baltic. Christiansund CHRISTIANSUND, a seaport town on the west coast of Norway, in the amt of Romsdal, 85 miles W.S.W. of Trondhjem, in 63? 3' N. lat. and 7? 40' E. long. Christina CHRISTINA (1626-1689), queen of Sweden, was the second daughter of Gustavus Adolphus and Mary Eleanor of Brandenburg. Disappointed in his hopes of male offspring, her great father reared her in virile fashion, and left her, on his departure for Germany (1630), in the hands of Axel Oxenstiern, the famous chancellor, and of Johannes Matthim, his own almoner, who was to ground her in sciences and in … Christine De Pisan CHRISTINE DE PISAN (1363-1431), though French by education and renown, was of Italian stock, and was born at Venice. When she was five years old, she went to her father, a councillor of the Venetian Republic, at Paris, where he held office as astrologer to Charles V. Educated at that prince's court as completely as the age would allow, at fifteen Christine married Etienne du Castel, Charles's nota… Christmas Day CHRISTMAS DAY (French, Xoel from Dies natalis ; German, Weihnaehtlfest ; Old Eng. and Scand., Yule ; Ang.-Sax,, Ceol), a festival of the Christian church, observed on the 25th of December, in memory of the birth of Jesus Christ. There is, however, a difficulty in accepting this as the date of the Nativity, December being the height of the rainy season in Judea, when neither flocks nor shepherds co… Christopher, Saint CHRISTOPHER, SAINT, according to the legend, was a Christian martyr of the 3d century, and a native of Palestine or of Syria. Glorying in his gigantic strength and stature, he resolved to serve none who owned a superior. His first master was more powerful than any man, but it soon appeared that he was exceedingly afraid of the devil. The devil therefore became the master of the future saint. But e… Chromium CHROMIUM, one of the metallic chemical elements, so called from the Greek xpi;ip.o, colour, in allusion to the fine colours of its compounds ; symbol Cr, atomic weight 52.4. It does not occur in the free state or very abundantly in nature. It is a constituent of the minerals chrome ironstone, Cr2FeO4 ; chrome-ochre, Cr2O3 ; ouvarovite, or chrome garnet, Si3CaCr,0 lo; crocoisite, PbCrO4, in which i… Chronicles, Books Of CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF. In the Hebrew Canon the Chronicles form a single book, entitled Cor.:','�– 1 '7);':1, Events of the Tinier. The full title would be O'n"r1 "In "MD, Book of Events of the Times; and this again appears to have been a designation commonly applied to special histories in the more definite shape - Events of the Times of King David, or the like (1 Chron. xxvii. 24; Esth. x. 2, &c.)… Chronology CHRONOLOGY (from the Greek xpovoXoyia, computation of time) is the science which treats of time. Its object is to arrange and exhibit the various events which have occurred in the history of the world in the order of their succession, and to ascertain the intervals of time between them. The preservation of any record, however rude, of the lapse of time implies some knowledge of the celestial motio… Chronometer CHRONOMETER, a watch of special construction to measure time with great accuracy, chiefly used in determining the longitude at sea. Chrudim CHRUDIM, a town in Bohemia, Austria, situated on the Chrudimka, a tributary of the Elbe, about 63 miles E.S.E. of Prague. Chrysippus CHRYSIPPUS (c. 280-206 mc.), one of the greatest of the Stoics, was born probably in 280 B.C., at Soli, in Cilicia. Being robbed of his property, he visited Athens, and attended the lectures, possibly of Zeno, and certainly of Cleanthes. The latter he succeeded as recognized chief of the school. He is also said to have been instructed in the doctrines of the Middle Academy by Arcesilaus and Bicycl… Chrysoloras, Manuel CHRYSOLORAS, MANUEL (c. 1355-1415), a learned Greek who was instrumental in spreading Greek literature in the West, was born at Constantinople, about 1355, of a distinguished family, which had removed with Constantine to Byzantium. While still very young, he was sent by the emperor John Paheologus to implore the aid of the Christian princes against the Turks. After several years he returned to Con… Chrysostom, St John CHRYSOSTOM, ST JOHN (Xpvo-6orrottos, golden-mouthed), the most famous of the Greek fathers, was born of a noble family at Antioch, the capital of Syria, most probably about 347. At the school of Libanius the sophist he gave early indications of his mental powers, and would have been the successor of his heathen master, had he not been, to use the expression of his teacher, stolen away to a life of… Chubb CHUBB, TnomAs (1679-1746), a well-known deistical writer, was the son of a maltster, Henry Chubb, and was born in the village of East-Harnham, near Salisbury, on the 29th September 1679. His father died in 1688, and left in poor circumstances a widow and four children, of whom Thomas was the youngest. All of them were early sent to work ; and consequently the education which Thomas received in his… Chum Ar, Or Chunaiighuii CHUM AR, or CHUNAIIGHUII, a town and ancient fortress of India, in the district of Mirzapur, in the North-West Provinces, situated on the south bank of the Ganges. The fort occupies a conspicuous site on the summit of an abrupt rock which commands the river. It was at one time a place of great strength, and still contains a magazine, and is fortified with batteries. In the old citadel on the heigh… Chuprah CHUPRAH, a town of India, in the province of Behar, Bengal, situated on the north bank of the Ganges, 35 miles north west of Patna. Church CHURCH. All who call themselves Christians agree in admitting that in the New Testament (and also, though in a more shadowy and less distinct manner, in the Old Testament) there is to be found frequent mention of a corporate body known as the church, - sometimes spoken of more fully as the Church of Cod, or the Church of Christ. It is referred to by its divine Founder as about to be built upon a r… Church History CHURCH HISTORY. In this article we shall consider (1) The Definition, (2) The Sources, (3) The Method, and (4) The Literature of the subject. Considered as a department of universal knowledge, church history forms a special section of the religious history of mankind. It is an account of the growth and the transactions of the religions community which is marked out from others by its attachment to… Churchill, Charles CHURCHILL, CHARLES (1731-1764), the satirist, was born in Westminster, where for many years his father held the curacy and lectureship of St John's. At eight years of age he was sent to Westminster School, where he made no figure except by his irregularities. At nineteen he applied for matriculation at Oxford, but was rejected. He was afterwards admitted of Trinity College, Cambridge, which he qui… Churchyard, Thom As CHURCHYARD, THOM AS (1520-1604), "the Nestor of the Elizabethan heroes," was born at Shrewsbury in 1520, and was educated at Oxford. At seventeen he went to court, where he roistered through such money as he had. He then became attached to the earl of Surrey, applying himself during his three or four years of service to books, music, and the practice of poetry. He served his first campaign in Flan… Chusan CHUSAN, the principal island of a group situated off the eastern coast of China, in 30? N. lat. and 122? E. long., and belonging to the province of Che-keang. It lies N.W. and S.E., and has a circumference of 51 miles, the extreme length being 20, the extreme breadth 10, and the minimum breadth 6 miles. The island is beautifully diversified with hill and dale, and well watered with numerous small … Chutia Or Chota CHUTIA or CHOTA. NAGPUR, a division or coinmissionership of British India, under the lieutenant-governor of Bengal, comprising the districts of Hazarlbdgb, Lohardaga, ManbhUm, and Sinhbhilm, and the seven tributary states which constitute the South-West Frontier Agency, lies between 21? and 25? N. lat. and 82? and 87? E. long. It is ? bounded on the N. by the province of Behar, E. by the Bengal di… Cibber, Colley CIBBER, COLLEY (1671-1757), actor, dramatist, and laureate, was the eldest son of Caius Cibber, and was born in London. Sent in 1682 to the free school at Grantham, he distinguished himself by passing through all its grades, from lowest to highest, and by producing an " Oration" on the death of Charles II. - whom he had seen feeding his ducks in the park - and an " Ode" on the accession of James I… Cibber, Or Cibert CIBBER, or CIBERT, Canis GABRIEL (1630-1700), sculptor, was born at Flensburg in Denmark. He was the son of the king's cabinetmaker, and was sent to Rome at the royal charge while yet a youth. Nothing further is known of his earlier life, save that he came to England duping the Protectorate, or during the first years of the Restoration. By his second wife, Miss Colley of Glaiston, a son was born t… Cicacole CICACOLE, a town of British India, in the presidency of Madras and district of Ganjam, about 58 miles N.E. of the town of Vizagapatam, on the left bank of the River Nagawalli or Naglandi, a few miles from its mouth. Cicero, Marcus CICERO, MARCUS Tullius, born at Arpinum (Arpino) on the northern border of the Volscian territory, 3d January 647 A..II.C., 106 B.C. His family was of equestrian rank, and his father, though living in retirement, was intimate with some of the public men of the day. The orator Crassus took an early interest in the young M. Cicero and his brother Quintus, and directed their education. As an orator, … Cicognara, Leopoldo, Count CICOGNARA, LEOPOLDO, COUNT (1767-1834), archmologist and writer on art, was a native of Ferrara. At an early age he evinced strong predilections for the subjects on which he was to become so high an authority. Mathematical and physical science diverted him a while ; but his bent was decided, and not even the notice of such men as Spallanzani and Scarpa could make a savant of him. A residence of so… Cider CIDER, an alcoholic beverage obtained by the fermentation of the juice of apples. The manufacture is chiefly carried on by the cultivators of the fruit, and it has been conducted from very remote times in Hereford, )Worcester, Gloucester, Somerset, and Devonshire in England, and in Normandy in France. Cider is also largely prepared and consumed in Upper Austria, Wurtemberg, in the districts of the… Cid, The, Rodrigo Diaz De Bivae CID, THE, RODRIGO DIAZ DE BIVAE, the favourite hero of Spain, and the most prominent figure in her literature, has a name so obscured by myth and fable as scarcely to belong to history. So extravagant are the deeds ascribed to him, and so marvellous the attributes with which he has been clothed by the fond idolatry of his countrymen, that by some he has been classed with the Amadises and the Orlau… Cienfuegos CIENFUEGOS, Nicasio ALVAREZ DE (1762-1809), poet and publicist, was born at Madrid. He studied with distinction at Salamanca, where he sat at the feet of the poet Melendez Valdez. The year 1778 saw the first of his poems published, and the attention of his countrymen was immediately attracted. He was appointed editor of the Government organs, the Gaceta and Mercurio, and an article on Napoleon pub… Cigar CIGAR, a form in which tobacco is prepared for smcking without the use of a pipe. Cigars consist of certain portions of small and broken leaf tobacco rolled together in the form of a short stick or rod tapering to a point at one end called the curl or twist, and firmly wrapped round with one or two wrappings of whole leaf tobacco. The manufacture of cigars is conducted by band-labour, and the vari… Cignani, Carlo CIGNANI, CARLO (1628-1719), was born at Bologna, where he studied under Battista Cairo, and afterwards under Albani. Though an intimate friend of the latter, and his most renowned disciple, Cignani was yet strongly and deeply influenced by the genius of Correggio, as a comparison of his drawing and of his manner of treating light and shadow with that of the painter of Parma will prove. His greates… Cigoli CIGOLI, or Crvou, Luici CARDI DA (1559-1613), painter, architect, and poet, was born at Cigoli in Tuscany. Educated under Allori and Santo di Titi, he formed a peculiar style by the study at Florence of Michelangelo, Correggio, Andrea dal Sarto, and Pontormo. Assimilating more of the second of these masters than of all the others, he laboured for some years with success ; but the attacks of his en… Ciiarenton-le-pont CIIARENTON-LE-PONT, a town of France in the department of Seine, situated on the right bank of the Maine, near its confluence with the Seine, a short distance south-east of Paris, of which it may almost be regarded as a suburb. It derives the distinctive part of its name from the stone bridge of ten arches which crosses the Marne and unites the town with the village of Alfort, famous for its veter… Cijutterpur CIJUTTERPUR, a city of British India, in the province of Bundelcund, 180 miles S.E. of Agra, and 140 S.W. of Allahabad. It was established by the Rajah Chutter Sal, the founder of the short-lived independence of Bundelcund, and the resolute opponent of the Mogul empire in the 17th century. Situated but a short distance from the diamond mines of Pannah, and forming an important entrepot in the trad… Cilicia CILICIA, one of the most important provinces in the ancient division of Asia Minor, partly represented by the modern province of Adana. It comprised a large part of the southern coast of that country, extending from Pamphylia on the W. to Mount Amanus and the frontiers of Syria ou the E. Throughout this extent it was bounded by the central ridge of Mount Taurus on the N. and by the Mediterranean o… Cimabue CIMABUE, GtovAYNT (1240 to about 1302), painter, was born in Florence of a creditable family, which seems to have borne the name of Gualtieri, as well as that of Cimabue (Bullhead). He took to the arts of design by natural inclination, and sought the society of men of learning and accomplishment. Vasari, the historian of Italian painting, zealous for his own native state of Florence, has left us t… Cimarosa, Domenico CIMAROSA, DOMENICO (1749-1801), an Italian musical composer, was born at Aversa, in the kingdom of Naples. His parents were poor but anxious to give their son a good education; and after removing to Naples they sent him to a free school connected with one of the monasteries of that city. The organist of the monastery, Padre Polcano, was struck with the boy's intellect, and voluntarily instructed h… Cimbri, Or Cimbrians CIMBRI, or CIMBRIANS (Greek, KiNepoc), an ancient nation of unknown affinity, which was one of the most formidable enemies of the Roman power, and has proved one of the most difficult subjects for the historical investigator. About 113 B.C., in company with the Teutones, they defeated the consul Papirius Carbo near Noreia in Styria; and in 109 B.C. they routed another army under the consul Silanus… Cimmerii CIMMERII, or Cimmerians, a nomadic people of antiquity who dwelt near the Palus Mmotis or Sea of Azoir, iu the Tauric Chersonese or Crimea, and in the Asiatic Sarrnatia or the country of the lower Volga. They are said to have desolated Asia Minor prior to the time of Homer ; and ill their second invasion they penetrated as far westward as iliolis and Ionia, captured Sardis the capital of Lydia in … Cimon CIMON, an Athenian statesman, was the son of Miltiades. Cinchona CINCHONA, the generic name of a number of trees belonging to the Natural Order Rubiacem, but which, with a few allied genera, have been by some authorities established as a distinct order under the name Cinchonacem. Botanically the genus includes trees of varying size, some reaching an altitude of 80 feet and upwards, with evergreen leaves and deciduous stipules. The flowers are arranged in panicl… Cincinna CINCINNA.TI, an important city of the United States, situated in the S.W. part of Ohio, on the N. bank of the Ohio River, in 39? 6'N. lat. and 84? 26'W. long. It is the capital of Hamilton county, and in size is the first city in the State, while, according to the Federal census of 1870, it is the eighth in the United States. It was first settled in 1788 by persons from New Jersey, and is said to … Cincinnatus CINCINNATUS, the hero of one of the early Roman legends, was born about 519 B. C. According to the story, he was ruined by the fine which was imposed on his son ems? for the murder of a plebeian during the commotions caused by the introduction of a bill by Terentilius Arsa. This measure, which proposed the creation of a code of written laws applicable to plebeian and patrician alike, was also stro… Cineas CINEAS, a Thessalian, the chief adviser of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. Cinnabar CINNABAR, the Ktvvciieapts of Theophrastus, is the native sulphide of mercury, and the only commercial source of that metal and its compounds. It crystallizes in the rhombohedral form, in which condition it is sometimes found; but generally it occurs in fibrous or amorphous masses bedded in slate rocks and shales, and more rarely in veins in granitic or porphyritic rocks. In hardness it is interme… Cinna, Lucius Cornelius CINNA, LUCIUS CORNELIUS, a Roman patrician, conspicuous in the contest between Marius and Sulla. Cinnamon CINNAMON is the inner bark of Cinnamomunt Zeylanisum, a small evergreen tree belonging to the Natural Order Lauracece. The leaves are large ovate-oblong in shape, and the flowers, which are arranged in panicles have a greenish colour and a rather disagreeable odour. Cinnamon has been known from the most remote antiquity, and it was so highly prized among ancient nations that in very small quantiti… Cinq-mars, Henri Coiffier De 1zuze CINQ-MARS, HENRI COIFFIER DE 1ZUZE, MARQUIS DE (1620-1642), French courtier, was born in 1620. Cinque Ports CINQUE PORTS. The Cinque Ports, or Five Ports, is the name of an ancient jurisdiction in the south of England, which is still maintained with considerable modifications and diminished authority. As the name implies, the original members of the body were only five in number - Hastings, Romney, Hythe, Dover, and Sandwich ; but to these were afterwards added the " Ancient Towns" of Winchelsea and Rye… Cintra CINTRA, a town of Portugal in the province of Estremadura, 14 miles north-west of Lisbon, with about 4500 inhabitants. It stands at the foot of a rocky mountain of an altitude varying from 1800 to 3000 feet, and is remarkable for the picturesque beauty of its situation and the salubrity of its climate, which render it a favourite resort of the wealthier inhabitants of Lisbon. On one of the adjacen… Cipriani, Giovani CIPRIANI, GIOVANI,.TI BATTISTA (1727-1785), painter and draughtsman, was of Pistoian descent, but was born at Florence, where he studied design and colour under Heckford and Gabbiani. Circar CIRCAR is an Indian term applied to the component parts of a Subah or province, each of which is administered by a deputy-governor. In English it is principally employed in the name of the Northern Circars, used to designate a now obsolete division of the Madras presidency, which consisted of a narrow slip of territory lying along the western side of the Bay of Bengal from 15? 40' to 20? 17' N. la… Circassia CIRCASSIA. The name of Circassia is commonly given to the whole of the north-western portion of the Caucasus, including the district between the mountain range and the Black Sea, and extending to the north of the central ridge as far as the River Kuban. In this sense the term is still in use as a geographical appellation, though the Circassians, as a nation, may be regarded as extinct. The region … Circe CIRCE, in classical mythology, the daughter of So] and Perse, or of Hyperion and Aerope, or, according to some, of Aetes, king of Colchis (whom others call her brother), was a famous sorceress. Circeii CIRCEII, a town of ancient Italy, in Latium, at the foot of Mons Circeius, or Cape Circello, a short distance from the sea, and 10 or 12 miles along the coast from Terracina. Circuit CIRCUIT, a law term, signifying the periodical progress of a legal tribunal for the sake of carrying out the administration of the law in the several provinces of a country. It has long been applied to the journey or progress which the judges have been in the habit of making twice every year, through the several counties of England, to hold courts and administer justice, where recourse could not h… Circumcision CIRCUMCISION. The importance of this rite is so largely due to its quasi-sacramental character in Judaism, that any inquiry into its history and meaning must be prefaced by a reference to the Old Testament. I. There are three distinct narratives in the sacred literature of the Jews which claim to be considered. It is related in Gen. xvii. that when Abram the Hebrew was ninety-nine years of age, he… Circus CIRCUS, in Roman Antiquity, was a building for the exhibition of horse and chariot racing. It consisted of tiers of seats running parallel with the sides of the course, and forming a crescent round one of the ends. The other end was straight and at right angles to the course, so that the plan of the whole had nearly the form of an ellipse cut in half at its vertical axis. Along the transverse axis… Cirencester, Or Cicester CIRENCESTER, or CICESTER, a parliamentary borough and market-town of England, iu the county of Gloucester, 16 miles south-east of the town of that name, and 88 miles by road and 95 by the Great Western Railway from London. It returns one member to Parliament, and is a polling-place for East Gloucestershire. Not being incorporated, it is governed by two high constables and 14 wardsmen, elected annu… Cirillo, Domenico CIRILLO, DOMENICO (1734-1799), physician and patriot, was born at Grugno in the kingdom of Naples. Elected while yet a young man to the botanical chair left vacant by the death of Pedillo, Cirillo went some years afterwards to England, where he was made member of the Royal So;-;iety, and to France, where he became the friend of Buffon, Diderot, D'Alembert, and others of like mark. On his return to… Cirta CIRTA, an ancient city of Numidia, in Africa, in the country of the Massyli. Cis-sutlej States CIS-SUTLEJ STATES. This term has for many years been obsolete, as inapplicable to modern territorial arrangements. It came into use in 1809, when the Sikh chiefs south of the Sutlej (Satlaj) passed under British protection, and was generally applied to the country south of the Sutlej and north of the Delhi territory, bounded on the E. by the Himalayas, and on the AV. by Soislr District. Prior to 1… Cistercians CISTERCIANS, a religious order of the rule of St Bene- dict, founded in 1098, by St Robert abbot of Molesme. It was so named from its original convent in the forest of Citeaux (Cistercium), about 14 miles north-east of Beaune. This order became so powerful that it governed almost all Europe both in temporal and spiritual concerns, and through the exertions of St Bernard of Clairvaux had increased … Citron CITRON, a species of Citrus (C. medica, Risso), belonging to the Natural Order A urantiacem, which furnishes also the orange, lime, and shaddock. The citron-tree is an evergreen growing to a height of about 8 feet ; it has long, pendent. and, in the wild varieties, spiny branches, pale-green, oblong, and sub-serrate leaves, and flowers purple without and white within. The fruit is ovate or oblong,… Citta Df CITTA DF.LLA PIEVE, a town of Italy, in the province of Umbria and district of Orvieto, about six miles from the station of Chinsi on the railway between Siena and Rome. Citta Di Castello CITTA DI CASTELLO, a town of Italy, pleasantly situated on the left bank of the Tiber, in the province of Perugia, 25 miles N. by W. from the town of that name. It has a cathedral, dedicated to St Floridus and dating from 1503, a large number of interesting churches with valuable paintings, a communal palace of the 13th century, an episcopal palace remodelled since 1789, and no fewer than four man… Cit'ta Vecchia CIT'TA VECCHIA, on CITTA. NOTABILE, a fortified city of Malta, situated about six miles west of Valetta, on high ground which affords a view of a large part of the island. It is the seat of a bishop, and contains an episcopal seminary and a handsome modern cathedral, which is said by tradition to occupy the site of the house of the governor Publius, who welcomed the apostle Paul. In the rock benea… City CITY. This word, derived through the French cite from the Latin civitas, is used in England with considerable laxity as little more than a synonym for town ; while at the same time there is a kind of traditional feeling of dignity connected with it. It was maintained by Coke and Blackstone that a city is a town incorporate which is or has been the see of a bishop ; and this opinion has been very g… Ciudadela CIUDADELA, a city, formerly the capital of Minorca, at the head of a deep and narrow bay on its west coast, 25 miles north-west of Mahon. Ciudad Real CIUDAD REAL, the chief town formerly of La Mancha, and now of the province of Ciudad Real, in Spain, 97 miles south from Madrid, on a plain between the Jabalon and Guadiana. Ciudad Rodrigo CIUDAD RODRIGO, a town of Spain, on the Agueda, in the province of Salamanca, near the frontier of Portugal. Civet CIVET ( Viverre), a genus of Carnivorous Mammals forming with the genet and ichneumon the family Viverrida., and characterized by the possession of a deep pouch situated in the neighbourhood of the genital organs (divided into two sacs each about the size of an almond), into which the substance known as civet is poured from the glandular follicles secreting it. This fatty substance is at first sem… Cividale CIVIDALE, or more precisely CIVIDALE DEL FRiuni, a town of Italy, in the province of Udine, and about ten miles east of the city of that name, on the right bank of the Natisone, over which there is a bridge 250 feet in length. It has an interesting collegiate church founded in 750, an antiquarian museum, and a military training college. The archives of the " doom " contain various manuscripts of v… Civil Law CIVIL LAW. This phrase, and its Latin equivalent jus civile, have been used in a great variety of meanings. ins civile was sometimes used to distinguish that portion of the Roman law which was the proper or ancient law of the city or state of Rome from the jus gentium, or the law common to all the nations comprising the Roman world, which was incorporated with the former through the egency of the … Civita Castellana CIVITA CASTELLANA, a town of Italy, in the province of Rome, 17 miles E.S.E. of Viterbo, situated on a volcanic plateau surrounded on all sides but one by deep ravines which send down their streamlets to the Tiber. The road from Borghetto crosses the gorge by a magnificent bridge erected in 1712 by Cardinal Imperiali. The town is a bishop's see, and has a cathedral dating from 1210, with beautiful… Civita Di Penne CIVITA DI PENNE, an episcopal town of Italy, at the head of a district in the province of Abruzzo Ulteriore I., 19 miles west of Pescara. Civita Vecchia CIVITA VECCHIA, a maritime city and port of the Roman territory, which gives its name to a " delegation," or province. It is the best and almost the only port on the coast of the former territories of the church, and is about 24 miles to the west of Rome. The city occupies the site of the ancient Centum Cellce, so called from a palace which the Emperor Trajan built there. That place, which after T… Clackmannan CLACKMANNAN, a county of Scotland, on the north bank of the River Forth, situated between 56? 5' and 56? 14' N. lat., and 3? 33' and 3? 56' W. long., is bounded on the S.W. by the Forth, W. by Stirlingahire, N. and N.W. by Perthshire and a detached portion of Stirling, E. by Fife, and N.E. by a detached portion of Perth. It is the smallest county in the United Kingdom, is irregular in form, and oc… Clairault, Or Clairaut CLAIRAULT, or CLAIRAUT, ALEXIS-CLAUDE (1713 - 1765), a French mathematician, was born on May 7,1713, at Paris, where his father was a teacher of mathematics. Under his father's tuition lie made so rapid progress in mathematical studies, that in his thirteenth year he read before the French Academy an account of the properties of four curves which he had then discovered. When only sixteen, be finis… Clamecy CLAMECY, a town of France at the head of an arrondissement, in the department of Nievre, at the confluence of the Yonne and Beuvron, 38 miles N.N.E. of Nevers. Clan CLAN. The Goidelic word eland or clann (in Welsh, plant) signifies seed, and in a general sense children, descendants. In the latter sense it was used as one of many terms to designate groups of kindred in the tribal system of government which existed in Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland. Through the latter country the word passed into the English language, first in the special sense of the Hi… Clapabede, Jean Louis Rene Antoine CLAPABEDE, JEAN LOUIS RENE ANTOINE .gDOUARD, (1832-1870), an eminent naturalist, was born at Geneva, April 24,1832, and belonged to an ancient family of that city. His father was pastor of the parish of Chancy, and Edouard's early years were spent in that village. After a distinguished course at the classical college, the gymnasium, and the academy of his native city, he repaired in 1852 to the un… Clapperton, Hugh CLAPPERTON, HUGH (1788-1827), an African traveller, was born in 1788 at Annau, Dumfriesshire, where his father was a surgeon. In his youth he gained some knowledge of practical mathematics and navigation ; and while still very young he was apprenticed on board a vessel which traded between Liverpool and North America. After having made several voyages across the Atlantic, he was impressed for the … Clare CLARE, a maritime county in the south-west of Ireland, in the province of Munster, bounded N.W. by the Atlantic, S. by the estuary of the Shannon, S.E. and N.E. by Limerick, Tipperary, Lough Dearg, and Galway, having an area of 1293 square miles, or 827,994 acres. Although the surface of the county is hilly, and in some parts even mountainous, it nowhere rises to a great elevation. Much of the wes… Clare, John CLARE, JOHN (1793-1864), commonly known as " the Northamptonshire Peasant Poet," was the son of a farm labourer, and was born at Helpstone, near Peterborough, on 13th July 1793. At the age of seven he was taken from school to tend sheep and geese ; five years after he wrought on a farm, paying with his own meagre savings for the education lie received in the evening. He endeavoured to enter a lawy… Clarendon, Edward Hyde CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE, FIRST EARL OF (1609-- 1674), historian and statesman, born at Dinton in Wiltshire, on the 18th February 1609, was the third son of Henry Hyde, a gentleman belonging to an ancient Cheshire family. The profession first chosen for him was the church ; and consequently, after being educated at home by the vicar of the parish up to the age of thirteen, he was sent to Magdalen Co… Clarendon, George William Frederick Villiers CLARENDON, GEORGE WILLIAM FREDERICK VILLIERS, FOURTH EARL OF, diplomatist and statesman, was born in London 12th January 1800, and died 27th June 1870. He was the eldest son of the Honourable George Villiers, brother of the third earl of Clarendon (second creation), by Theresa, only daughter of the first Lord Boringdon, and granddaughter of the first Lord Grantham. The earldom of the Lord Chancell… Clari, Giovanni Carlo Maria CLARI, GIOVANNI CARLO MARIA, chapel-master at Pistoia, was born at Pisa in 1669. Clarke, Adam CLARKE, ADAM (C. 1760-1832), a Wesleyan divine, distinguished for his varied learning, was horn at Moybeg, in the north of Ireland in 1760 or 1762. After receiving a very limited education he was apprenticed to a linen manufacturer, but,finding the employment uncongenial, he soon abandoned it, and devoted himself to study. His parents belonged to a Methodist congregation under the pastoral charge … Clarke, Dr Samuel CLARKE, DR SAMUEL (1675-1729), a celebrated English philosopher and divine, was the son of Edward Clarke, alderman of Norwich, who had represented that city in parliament for several years. He was born October 11, 1675; and having finished his education at the free school of Norwich in 1691, removed thence to Caius College, Cambridge, where his uncommon abilities soon began to display themselves. … Clarke, Edward Daniel CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL (1769-1822),LL.D., an English traveller, was born at Willingdon, Sussex, June 5, 1769. In 1786 he obtained the office of chapel clerk at Jesus College, Cambridge, but the loss of his father at this time involved him in many difficulties. In 1790 he took his degree, and soon after became private tutor to the Honourable Henry Tufton, nephew of the duke of Dorset. In 1792 he obt… Clark, Sir CLARK, SIR. JAMES (1788-1870), an English physician, was born at Cullen, in Banffshire. He was educated at the grammar-school of Fordyce, and at the universities of Aberdeen and Edinburgh, at the former of which he took the degree of -MLA., at the latter that of M.D. He served for six years as a surgeon in the navy ; he then spent some time in travelling on the Continent, in order to investigate t… Clarkson, Thomas CLARKSON, THOMAS (1760-184G), was born on the 28th March 1760, at Wisbeach, in Cambridgeshire, where his father was head-master of the free grammar school. He was educated at St Paul's School and at St John's College, Cambridge. Having taken the first place among the middle bachelors as Latin essayist, he succeeded in 1785 in gaining a similar honour among the senior bachelors. The subject appoint… Clark, Thomas CLARK, THOMAS (1801-1867), a distinguished chemist, was born at Ayr, on the 31st March 1801. His father was captain of a merchant vessel, and his mother began the Ayrshire needlework. He was educated at the Ayr Academy, a school of great efficiency and repute. In 1816 he entered the counting-house of Charles Macintosh & Co., the inventors of the waterproof cloth, but soon obtained the more congeni… Clauberg, John CLAUBERG, JOHN (1622-1665), one of the most noted of the immediate followers of Descartes, was born at Solingen, in Prussia, in the year 1622. After travelling in France and England, he came to Leyden, where he studied philosophy under the Cartesian John Ray. He became professor of philosophy at Herborn, and afterwards at Duisburg, and was one of the earliest teachers of the new doctrines in Germa… Claude, Jean CLAUDE, JEAN (1619-1687), a famous French Protestant preacher and controversialist, was born at Sauvetat near Agen, where his father was a Protestant minister. He held for eight years the office of professor of theology in the Protestant college of Nimes ; but in 1661, having opposed a suggestion which was made at a provincial synod for reuniting Catholics and Protestants, he was forbidden to prea… Claude Of Lorraine CLAUDE OF LORRAINE, Or CLAUDE GELiE (1600-1682), the celebrated landscape-painter, was born of very poor parents at the village of Chamagne in Lorraine. When it was discovered that he:made no progress at school, he was apprenticed, it is commonly said, to a pastry-cook, but this is extremely dubious. At the age of twelve, being left an orphan, he went to live at Freiburg with an elder brother, Jea… Claudet, Antoine Fra CLAUDET, ANTOINE FRA.NVIS (1797-1867), an eminent photographer, was born at Lyons. Shortly after the publication of Daguerre's results (1839), Claudet, by the addition of bromide and chloride of iodine to the iodide of silver employed by the former discoverer, greatly accelerated the process of production. This, with the use of iodide of gold in fixing the image, may be said to have completed the … Claudianus, Claudius CLAUDIANUS, CLAUDIUS, the gifted poet who shed lustre on the last decrepid era of Roman literature, was, as we learn from himself (Epist. 1), an Egyptian by birth, and probably a native of Alexandria. It may be conjectured from his name that he was of Roman extraction, and it is hardly possible that he should have acquired such mastery over the Latin language if it had not been familiar to him fro… Claudius CLAUDIUS, MARcus Aunmaus, Gonficus, the second of the Roman emperors of the name of Claudius, was born in Elyria or Dardania in the first half of the 3d century. On account of his military ability he was placed in command of an army by Decius ; and Valerian appointed him general on the Illyrian frontier, and ruler of the provinces of the lower Danube. During the reign of Gallienns, be was called t… Claudius, Appius CLAUDIUS, APPIUS CRAssus, was, according to Livy, a patrician notorious for his pride and cruelty and his bitter hatred of the plebeians. Twice they refused to fight under him, and, fleeing before their enemies, brought upon him defeat and disgrace. He retaliated by decimating the army. At length they effected his banishment, but he quickly returned, and again became consul. In the same year (451 … Claudius, Appius CLAUDIUS, APPIUS C/ECUt, a Roman patrician and author of the 4th century B.C. In 312 B.C. he was elected censor without having passed through the office of consul. His censorship was remarkable for the actual or attempted achievement of several great, constitutional changes. He filled vacancies in the senate with men of low birth ; and when his list was rejected, and C. Plautius, his colleague, re… Claudius, Or Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus CLAUDIUS, or TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS DRUSUS NERO GERMANICUS (10 B.C.-54 A.D.), the first Roman emperor of the name, born at Lugdunum (Lyons), in 10 B.C., was the son of Drusus and Antonia, and grandson of Livia, the wife of Augustus. Paralyzed and lame, and unable to speak with distinctness, he was an object of scorn even to his mother ; and the natural diffidence and timidity of his character were incr… Clavijo CLAVIJO, R Y GONZALEZ DE, a Spanish traveller cf the 15th century, whose narrative is the first important one of its kind contributed to Spanish literature. lie was a native of Madrid, and belonged to a family of some antiquity and position. On the return of the ambassadors Solomayor and Palazuelos from the East, Henry- III. determined to send another embassy to the court of Timur, who had just ri… Cl Azomenje CL AZOMENJE, now KELISMAN, a town of Ionia., and a member of the Ionian Dodecapolis, or Confederation of Twelve Cities, on the Gulf of Smyrna, about 20 miles from that city in a south-west direction. It stood originally on the isthmus connecting the mainland with the peninsula on which were Erythrm and other towns of note ; but the inhabitants, alarmed by the encroachments of the Persians, abandon… Cleanthes CLEANTHES, a Stoic philosopher, born at Assos in Asia Minor, about 300 B. C. , was originally a boxer. lie first listened to the lectures of Crates the Cynic, and then to those of Zeno, the Stoic, supporting himself meanwhile by working all night as water-carrier to a gardener. His apparent idleness aroused suspicion, and he was summoned before the Areopagus; but when his story became known the co… Clearchus CLEARCHUS, a Spartan general of the 5th century B.C. After serving in the Hellespont and at the battle of Cyzicus, he became harmost of Byzantium; but, during his absence, the town was surrendered, and he was consequently punished by a fine. He continued, however, to be employed in matters of importance ; but at length, after being sent into Thrace to protect the Greek colonies, he was recalled by… Clemens Alexandrinus CLEMENS ALEXANDRINUS. The little we know of Clemens Alexandrinus is mainly derived from his own works. The earliest writer after himself who gives us any information with regard to him is Eusebius. The only points on which his works now extant inform us are his date and his instructors. In the Stromata, while attempting to show that the Jewish Scriptures were older than any writings of the Greeks,… Clement CLEMENT V. (Bertrand de Goth, archbishop of Bordeaux) is memorable in history for his suppression of the order of the Templars, and as the Pope who removed the seat of the Roman see to Avignon. He was elected in June 1305, after a year's interregnum occasioned by the disputes between the French and Italian cardinals, who were nearly equally balanced in the conclave. According to Villani be had bou… Clement CLEMENT X. (Emilio Altieri) was elected in April 1670, at the age of eighty. Clement, Francois CLEMENT, FRANcOIS (1714-1793), a French historian, was born at Breze, near Dijon, and was educated at the Jesuit College at Dijon. Clementi CLEMENTI, Muzio (1752-1832), an Italian pianist and composer, was born at Rome in 1752. His father, a jeweller, encouraged his son's musical talent, which was evinced at a very early age. Buroni and Cordicelli were his first masters, and at the age of nine Clementi's theoretical and practical studies had advanced to such a degree that he was able to compete successfully for the position of organis… Clement Iii CLEMENT III. (Paulino Scolari, bishop of Prxneste) was elected Pope in December 1187, and died in March 1191. Clement Il CLEMENT IL (Suidger, a Saxon, bishop of Bamberg) was chancellor to the Emperor Henry III., to whom he was indebted for his elevation to the Papacy upon the abdication of Gregory VI. (December 1046). Clement Iv CLEMENT IV. (Gui Foulques, archbishop of Narbonne) was elected Pope in February 1265. Before taking orders lie had been successively a soldier and a lawyer, and in the latter capacity had acted as secretary to Louis IX. of France, to whose influence he was chiefly indebted for his elevation. At this time the Holy See was engaged. in a conflict with Manfred, the usurper of Naples ; and Clement, who… Clement Ix CLEMENT IX. (Giulio Rospigliosi) was elected Pope in June 1667. Clement Vi CLEMENT VI. (Pierre Roger, archbishop of Rouen), the fourth of the Avignon popes, was elected in May 1342. Like his immediate predecessors, he was devoted to France, and he further evinced his French sympathies by refusing a solemn invitation to return to Rome, and by purchasing the sovereignty of Avignon from Joanna, queen of Naples, for 80,000 crowns. The money was never paid, but Clement may ha… Clement Vii CLEMENT VII. (Giulio de' Medici), the most unfortunate of the Popes, was the son of Giuliano de' Medici, assassinated in the conspiracy of the Pazzi, and consequently nephew of Lorenzo the Magnificent and cousin of Pope Leo X. Upon the latter's accession to the Papacy, Giulio became his principal minister and confidant, especially in the maintenance of the Medici interest at Florence. At Leo's dea… Clement Viii CLEMENT VIII. (Ippolito Aldobrandiui) was elected in January 1592. The most remarkable event of his reign was the reconciliation to the church of Henry IV. of France after long negotiations carried on with great dexterity by Cardinal D'Ossat. Europe is principally indebted to this Pope for the peace of Vervins (1598), which put an end to the long contest between France and Spain. Clement also anne… Clement Xi CLEMENT XI. (Giovanni Francesco Albani) was elevated to the pontificate in November 1700, and died in March 1721. The most memorable transaction of his administration was the publication in 1713 of the bull Unigendus, which so greatly disturbed the peace of the Gallican church. By this famous document 101 propositions extracted from the works of Quesnel were condemned as heretical, and as identica… Clement Xii CLEMENT XII. (Lorenzo Corsini) was Pope from July 1730 to February 1740. Clement Xiii CLEMENT XIII. (Carlo Rezzonico, bishop of Padua) was elected in July 1758. Clement Xiv CLEMENT XIV. (Giovanni Vincenzo Antonio Ganganelli), the best and most calumniated of the popes, was born in 1705, and was originally a Franciscan monk. Having acquired a great reputation as a preacher, he became the friend and confidant of Pope Benedict XIV., and was created a cardinal by his successor. He was elected Pope on May 19,1769, after a conclave extremely agitated by the intrigues and p… Cleobulus CLEOBULUS, one of the Seven Sages, was son of Evagoras, and a native of Lindus, which town he ruled, though whether as monarch or as head of a republic is uncertain. Cleomenes CLEOMENES (KXEop,6/775), the name of three kings of Sparta, the 16th, 25th, and 31st of the Agid line. Cleomenes CLEOMENES lir. the last of the Agid line, succeeded 240 B.C.,-a king of strong and determined character, who wished to restore at Sparta the old constitution and discipline of Lycurgus, and to destroy the Achman League. He met Aristomachus, the " captain " of the League, with a force of 5000 men against 25,000 at Palantium, but the Achmans, even with this advantage, declined the engagement. The ne… Cleomenes CLEOMENES I. succeeded as one of the two joint kings about 519 B.C. He led a Spartan force to Athens in 510 to aid the Alcinceonids and their followers in the expulsion of Hippias. He was called in subsequently to support the oligarchical party there, headed by Isagoras, against the party of Clisthenes. He forcibly expelled from the city, on a technical charge of pollution, no less than 7000 famil… Cleon CLEON (KA.Lv), one of those popular leaders who rose to great temporary influence at Athens during the Peloponnesian War, and especially after the death of Pericles. He was emphatically a man of the people, sprung from their own ranks, his father Clemnetus having been a tanner or leather-dresser. He possessed considerable ability and was a powerful public speaker, though coarse and violent in mann… Cleopatra CLEOPATRA (KAcomirpa), the name of several Egyptian princesses of the house of the Ptolemies. The best known was the daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, born 69 B.C. Her father left her, at the age of seventeen, heir to his kingdom jointly with her younger brother Ptolemy, whose wife, iu accordance with Egyptian custom, she was to become. A few years afterwards her brother, or rather her guardians, depri… Clepsydra CLEPSYDRA (from ai7rrav, to steal, and iC80ip, water), the chronometer of the Greeks and Romans, which measured time by the flow of water. In its simplest form it was a short-necked globe of known capacity, pierced at the bottom with several small holes, through which the water placed in it escaped or stole away. The instrument was employed to set a limit to the speeches in courts of justice, henc… Clergy CLERGY, a collective term signifying the body of " clerks," that is, in English, men in holy orders. Clericits, however, has, both itself and its equivalents in the languages of the Catholic countries of the Continent, a wider ecclesiastical signification ; while in England a use of the word, originally abusive, but now so entirely accepted as to constitute a proper secondary meaning of the term, … Clergy, Benefit Of CLERGY, BENEFIT OF, an obsolete but once very important feature in the English criminal law. It was a relic of the claim of exemption from the authority of the common law tribunals on the part of the clergy, and marked the extent to which the demand was acceded to in England. The conclusion of the protracted conflict was that the common law courts abandoned the extreme punishment of death assigned… Clermont En Beauvoisis CLERMONT EN BEAUVOISIS, frequently but by mistake called CLERMONT sun OISE, a town of France, at the head of an arrondissement in the department of Oise, is situated about 36 miles by rail to the north of Paris, near a small tributary of the Oise, called the BrOche. The town-hall and the church of St Samson date from the 13th century, and the la on which the town is built is surmounted by an old c… Clermont-l'herault, Or Clermont De Loddve CLERMONT-L'HERAULT, or CLERMONT DE LODdVE, a town of France, in the department of HOrault, and about ten miles by rail south of Lodeve, is built on the slope of a hill which is crowned by an ancient castle and skirted by the Ydromiel, a tributary of the Ergue or Lergue. Clermont, Or Clermont Ferrand CLERMONT, or CLERMONT FERRAND, a city of France, formerly the chief town of Basse Auvergne, and now of the department of Puy-de-Dome, is situated on a hill composed chiefly of volcanic tufa, in the fertile district of Limagne, and surrounded on the S. and W. by a line of mountains, of which the Puy-de-Dome is the culminating point. It lies in 45? 46' N. lat. and 3? 5' E. long., and is 220 miles S.… Cleveland CLEVELAND, a city and lake-port, and the capital of Cuyahoga county, in the State of Ohio, situated at the mouth of Cuyahoga River, on the S. shore of Lake Erie, in 41? 30' N. let. and 81? 47' W. long. Next to Cincinnati, it is the largest and most important city in the State. It was founded in 1796, and named in honour of General Moses Cleveland of Connecticut, who then had charge of the surveyin… Cleveland, Jolin CLEVELAND, JOLIN (1613-1658), a poet and satirist, was born at Loughborough. He was educated at Hinckley school, whence he repaired to Cambridge, becoming in 1634 a fellow of St John's, amt? being appointed college-tutor and reader in rhetoric. The Latinity and oratorical ability displayed by him in the exercise of the latter function were warmly praised by Fuller, who also commends the " lofty fa… Cliolet CLIOLET, a town of France, in the south of the department of Maine-et-Loire, on the right bank of the Moine. Cowl COWL' ? ides of many of the acids are known. Oxalates may be formed from cyanogen compounds (see p. 554). Series C?11?.._1(H0)(00211)2, Malic Series : - Tartronic or oxymalonic acid CH(H0)(CO211)2 Malic or oxysuccinic acid C2113(H0)(CO2H)2 Citrainalic and glutanic acids . C3II5(H0)(CO211)2 Oxyadipic acid 04H7(110)(CO5H)2 Oxysuberic acid 06Hii(H0)(CO2II)5 Malic acid is found free or combined in the… Cuci CUCI A gC1 AuCI elle' A gC1 AuCl Cuprous chloride. Aruntic chloride. Aurous chloride. But it has been pointed out that certain of the silver compounds are isomorphous with the corresponding sodium and potassium compounds, and as there is no reason to suppose that the argentic compounds generally are not of similar constitution to argentic chloride, the conclusion that there are two atoms of silver… Cyanogen And Its Compounds CYANOGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS. The compound which in its chemical behaviour most closely resembles inorganic substances, and which forms as it were a connecting link between these and organic bodies, is the radicle cyanogen. Before proceeding, therefore, to the systematic consideration of the great organic families, cyanogen and its compounds may be conveniently treated of. Cyanogen,1 CN or Cy, in th… Des Cartes DES CARTES was, in the full sense of the word, a partaker of the modern spirit. He was equally moved by the tendencies that produced the Reformation, and the tendencies that produced the revival of letters and science. Like Erasmus and Bacon, he sought to escape from a transcendent and unreal philosophy of the other world, to the knowledge of man, and the world he lives in. But like Luther, he fou… Drawn Game DRAWN GAME. - This arises from a stalemate (noticed above), or from either player not having sufficient force wherewith to effect checkmate, as when there are only two kings left on the board, or king and bishop against king, or king and one or even two knights against king. Earl Of EARL OF (1797-1868), and Baron Brudenell in the peerage of England, lieutenant-general, was the eldest surviving son of the sixth earl, and was born at Hambledon in Hamp? shire, October 16, 1797. He studied for several terms at Christ Church, Oxford; and in 1818 entered Parliament as member for the borough of Marlborough under the patronage of Lord Ailesbury. He entered the army in 1824 as cornet … End-games And END-GAMES AND PRommis. - Considerable attention has been devoted by writers on chess to the examination of end-games, and many of the particular combinations of forces that are apt to occur have been fully and carefully analyzed. Era Of Actium ERA OF ACTIUM, AND ERA OF AUGUSTUS. This era was established to commemorate the battle of Actium, which was fought on the 3d of September, in the year 31 B.C., and in the 15th of the Julian era. By the Romans the era of Actium was considered as commencing on the 1st of January of the 16th of the Julian era, which is the 30th B.C. The Egyptians, who used this era till the time of Diocletian, dated … Era Of Alexander ERA OF ALEXANDER. Era Of Alexandria ERA OF ALEXANDRIA. The chronological computation of Julius Africanus was adopted by the Christians of Alexandria, who accordingly reckoned 5500 years from the creation of Adam to the birth of Christ. But in reducing Alexandrian dates to the common era, it must be observed that Julius Africanus placed the epoch of the Incarnation three years earlier than it is placed in the usual reckoning, so that… Era Of Constantinople ERA OF CONSTANTINOPLE. This era, which is still used in the Greek Church, and was followed by the Russians till the time of Peter the Great, dates from the creation of the world. The Incarnation falls in the year 5509, and corresponds, as in our era, with the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad. The civil year commences with the 1st of September; the ecclesiastical year sometimes with the 21st of Ma… Era Of Diocletian ERA OF DIOCLETIAN, OR ERA OF MARTYRS. It has been already stated that the Alexandrians, at the accession of the Emperor Diocletian, made an alteration in their mundane era, by striking off ten years from their reckoning. At the same time they established a new era, which is still followed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It commences with the 29th of August (the first day of the Egyptian year) of the… Era Of Nabonassar ERA OF NABONASSAR. This era is famous in astronomy, having been generally followed by Hipparchus and Ptolemy. It is believed to have been in use from the very time of its origin ; for the observations of eclipses which were collected in Chaldea by Callisthenes, the general of Alexander, and transmitted by him to Aristotle, were for the greater part referred to the commencement of the reign of Nabo… Era Of Spain ERA OF SPAIN, OR OF THE CCESARS. The conquest of Spain by Augustus, which was completed in the thirty-ninth year n.c., gave rise to this era, which began with the first day of the following year, and was long used in Spain and Portugal, and generally in all the Roman provinces subdued by the Visigoths, both in Africa and the South of France. Several of the councils of Carthage, and also that of Ar… Era Of The Armenians ERA OF THE ARMENIANS. The epoch of the Armenian era is that of the Council of Tiben, in which the Armenians consummated their schism from the Greek Church by condemning the acts of the Council of Chalcedon ; and it corresponds to Tuesday, the 9th of July of the year 552 of the Incarnation. In their civil affairs the Armenians follow the ancient vague year of the Egyptians ; but their ecclesiastica… Era Of The Creatio Of The World ERA OF THE CREATIO OF THE WORLD. As the Greek and Roman methods of computing time were connected with certain pagan rites and observances, which the Christians held in abhorrence, the latter began at an early period to imitate the Jews in reckoning their years from the supposed period of the creation of the world. The chronological elements on which both Jews and Christians founded their computati… Era Of The Foundation Of Rome ERA OF THE FOUNDATION OF ROME. After the Olympiads, the era most frequently met with in ancient history is that of the foundation of Rome, which is the chronological epoch adopted by all the Roman historians. There are various opinions respecting the year of the foundation of Rome. 1st, Fabius Pictor places this event in the latter half of the first year of the eighth Olympiad, which corresponds w… Era Of The Seleucidie ERA OF THE SELEUCIDIE, OR MACEDONIAN ERA. The era of the Seleucidm dates from the time of the occupation of Babylon by Seleucus Nicator, 311 years before Christ, in the year of Rome 442, and twelve years after the death of Alexander the Great. It was adopted not only in the monarchy of the Seleucidw but in general in all the Greek countries bordering on the Levant, was followed by the Jews till th… Era Of Tyre ERA OF TYRE. First Imperial Census FIRST IMPERIAL CENSUS. In 1871 the first Imperial census of the British empire was taken, and the population was found to amount to 234,762,593, living upon 7,769,449 square miles of territory ; comprising England and Wales, with a population of 22,856,161 ; Scotland, 3,392,559 ; Ireland, 5,4,19,186 : islands in the British seas, 117,470 ; and British Colonies and Possessions (exclusive of the arm… Giovanni Domenico Cassini GIOVANNI DOMENICO CASSINI, the first and most famous, was born at Perinaldo, near Nice, on 8th June 1625, and died on 14th September 1712. He was educated by the Jesuits of Genoa, among whom he gained some reputation as a writer of Latin verse. His study of astronomy was introduced by a fancy for astrology ; but, notwithstanding the success of several of his predictions, he became convinced of the… Indian Chronology INDIAN CHRONOLOGY. The method of dividing and reckoning time followed by the various nations of India resembles in its general features that of the Chinese, but is rendered still more complex by the intermixture of Mahometan with Hindu customs. Like the Chinese, the Hindus have a solar year, which is generally followed iu the transaction of public business, especially since the introduction of Eur… Indiction INDICTION. The cycle of Indiction, already explained at p. 670 of vol. iv., was very generally followed in the Roman empire for some centuries before the adoption of the Christian era. Three Indictions may be distinguished ; but they differ only in regard to the commencement of the year. The Constantinopolitan Indiction, like the Greek year, commenced with the month of September. This was followed… Instability Of INSTABILITY OF A JET OF LIQUID. When a liquid flows out of a vessel through a circular opening in the bottom of the vessel, the form of the stream is at first nearly cylindrical though its diameter gradually diminishes from the orifice downwards on account of the increasing velocity of the liquid. But the liquid after it leaves the vessel is subject to no forces except gravity, the pressure of the… Jacques Cassini JACQUES CASSINI (1677-1756), was the son of Domenico Cassini. After his father's death he became director of the Observatory at Paris, and was also appointed to the post of maitre des comptes. His work, like his father's, was purely that of an observer, and he does not appear to have had any adequate knowledge of the state of philosophic thought in his own science. Though he had some personal acqu… Johann Benedict Carpzov JOHANN BENEDICT CARPZOV (1607-16.37), fifth son of the first Benedict, was born at Rochlitz in 1607, became professor of theology at Leipsic, made himself known by a Systema Theologic.em, in two volumes, and died at Leipsic, October 22, 1657, leaving five sons, all of whom attained some literary eminence. Johann Benedict Carpzov JOHANN BENEDICT CARPZOV (1720-1803), grandson of the first Johann Benedict, was a distinguished classical scholar. Johann Gottlob Carpzov JOHANN GOTTLOB CARPZOV (1679-1767), grandson of the preceding, was born at Dresden in 1679. Julian Period JULIAN PERIOD. Laws LAWS. - The laws of chess differ, although not very materially, in different countries. Various steps have been taken, but as yet without success, to secure the adoption of a universally authoritative code. In competitions among English players the particular laws to be observed are specially agreed on, - the regulations most generally adopted being those laid down at length in Staunton's Chess Pr… Lino Da Pistoia LINO DA PISTOIA (1270-1336), a poet and jurist, whose full name was GUITTONCINO DE' SINIBULDI, was born in Pistoia, of a noble family. He studied law at Bologna under Dinus and Franciscus Accursius, and in 1307 is understood to have been assessor of civil causes in his native city. In that year, however, Pistoia was disturbed by the Guelf and Ghibelline fend. The Ghibellines who had for seine time… Literature Of The Ga-me LITERATURE OF THE GA-ME. The number of works that have been written upon chess in various languages is very large ; and only a few of the principal books on this subject can be cursorily alluded to here. Confining ourselves to those authors who have treated of the practice and science of the game, we may begin with Jacobus de Cessolis, otherwise Jacopo Dacciesole, whose main object, however, thoug… Malignant Cholera MALIGNANT CHOLERA (synonyms, Asiatic Cholera, Indian Cholera, _Epidemic Cholera, Algide Cholera) is probably the most severe and fatal of all diseases. This form of cholera belongs originally to Asia, more particularly to India, where, as well as in the Indian Archipelago, epidemics are known to have occurred at various times for several centuries. It was not, however, till 1817 that the attention… Modern History Of Cfiess MODERN HISTORY OF CFIESS. - The remarkable, not to say revolutionary, changes which, commencing about the middle of the 15th century, transformed the medimval shatranj into our modern chess, took place most probably first in France. and thence made their way into Spain, where the new game was called Axedrez de la Dama, being also adopted by the Italians under the name of chess alla rabiosa. This r… Modes MODES of NOTATION. - The English and German systems of notation (i.e., the manner of describing the moves made in a game) are different.. According to the English method each player counts from his own side of the board, and the moves are denoted according to the names of the files and the numbers of the squares. Thus when a player for his first move advances the king's pawn two squares, it is des… Moves Of The Different Chessmen MOVES OF THE DIFFERENT CHESSMEN. - Briefly described, the powers of the various pieces and of the pawns are as follows. The king may move in any direction - forward, back the game a peculiar privilege called castling, which will be explained further on. The queen moves in any straight or diagonal direction, whether forward, backward, or laterally. There is no limit to her range, except when her pr… Mundane Era Of Antioch MUNDANE ERA OF ANTIOCH. The chronological reckoning of Julius Africanus formed also the basis of the era of Antioch, which was adopted by the Christians of Syria, at the instance of Panodorus, an Egyptian monk, who flourished about the beginning of the 4th century. Panodorus struck off ten years from the account of Julius Africanus with regard to the years of the world, and he placed the Incarnati… Olympiads OLYMPIADS. The Olympic games, so famous in Greek history, were celebrated once every four years, between the new and full moon first following the summer solstice, on the small plain named Olympia in Elis, which was bounded on one side by the River Alpheus, on another by the small tributary stream the Cladeus, and on the other two sides by mountains. The games lasted five days. Their origin, lost … On The Rise Of ON THE RISE OF A LIQUID IN A TUBE. Let a tube (fig. 5) whose internal radius is r, made of a solid substance c, be dipped into a liquid a. Let us suppose that the angle of contact for this liquid with the solid c is an acute angle. This implies that the tension of the free surface of the solid. c is greater than that of the surface of contact of the solid with the liquid a. Now consider the tensio… Other Chess Terms OTHER CHESS TERMS. - A "minor piece" means either a knight or bishop. " Gaining the exchange" signifies giving a minor piece in exchange for a rook. A "passed pawn" is one that has no adverse pawn either in front or on either of the adjoining files. It may be as well to explain that a " file " is simply a line of squares extending vertically from one end of the board to the other. There. are there… Oxygen OXYGEN. Symbol, 0 ; Atomic wt., 15'96 ; Molecular wt., 31.92 ; Valency,'. Oxygen was first isolated by Priestley in 1774; its name is derived from Oe.6s-, sour, and ymnica, to generate, in allusion to the circumstance that many of the bodies formed by combining it with other elements dissolve in water, prodncing sour or acid solutions. It was long believed, in fact, that oxygen was a constituent o… Principal Works On Chronology PRINCIPAL WORKS ON CHRONOLOGY. To meet the wants of those who may desire to enter more fully into chronological studies, we subjoin a list of the leading works on the subject. In addition to the early Greek writings already named, there are the forty books (some fifteen only extant in their entirety) of universal history compiled (about 8 D.c.) by Diodorus Siculus, and arranged in the form of anna… Simple Cholera SIMPLE CHOLERA (synonyms, Cholera Europwa, British Cholera, Summer or Autumnal Cholera) is the cholera of ancient medical writers, as is apparent from the accurate description of the disease given by Hippocrates, Celsus, and Aratmus. Its occurrence in an epidemic form was noticed by various physicians in the 16th century, and an admirable account of the disease was subsequently given by Sydenham i… Stability Of STABILITY OF A PLANE SURFACE. We shall next consider the limiting conditions of stability of the horizontal surface which separates a heavier fluid above from a lighter fluid below. Thus, in an experiment of M. Duprez,' a vessel containing olive oil is placed with its mouth downwards in a vessel containing a mixture of alcohol and water, the mixture being denser than the oil. The surface of separa… Stalemate STALEMATE. - When the king is not in check, but his owner has no move left save such as would place the king in check, this is " stalemate," and the game is drawn. CAsTraNG. - This is a peculiar move permitted to the king once in the game ; it is performed in combination with either the king's rook or the queen's rook, and in either case by the king being moved two squares laterally, while the roo… Sulphuric Acid, H2so4 SULPHURIC ACID, H2SO4. Of all chemical compounds this is probably the most important, on account of its numerous practical applications, and enormous quantities of it are now manufactured. The method employed consists essentially in oxidizing sulphurous acid by atmospheric oxygen, which is accomplished with the aid of nitric oxide gas in the following manner. Sulphur dioxide gas is prepared by bur… Sulphur Trioxide, So2 SULPHUR TRIOXIDE, SO2. Taking En Passant TAKING EN PASSANT. - ThiS is a privilege possessed by any of the pawns under the following circumstances : - If a pawn, say of the white colour, stands upon a fifth square, say upon K 5 counting from the white side, and a black pawn in the supposed case moves to Q 4 or K B 4 counting from the black side, the white pawn can take the black pawn " en passant." For the purposes of such capture the latter is dealt with as though he had only moved to Q 3 or K B 3, and the white pawn taking him diagonally then occupies the square the captured pawn would have reached had he moved but one square. The Christian Era THE CHRISTIAN ERA. The Christian or vulgar era, called also the era of the Incarnation, is now almost universally employed in Christian countries, and is even used by some Eastern nations. Its epoch or commencement is the 1st of January in the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad, the 753d from the foundation of Rome, and the 4714th of the Julian period. It is usually supposed to begin with the year … The Elements THE ELEMENTS. The examination of all the various substances met with in nature has led to the discovery of sixty-four different bodies, from which it is impossible by any means 71.0211 at our disposal to separate simpler substances ; they are consequently termed "elementary or simple bodies," or " elements." It is not asserted that such substances are absolutely simple, or that they may not be fou… The Imperial Family THE IMPERIAL FAMILY. - The present imperial family, on gaining possession of the throne on the fall of the TaMing, or " Great Bright " dynasty, assumed the dynastic title of Ta-Tsing, or " Great Pure," and the first emperor, who was styled She-tsu-chang Hwang?te, adopted the title of Shun-che for his reign, which began in the year 1614. The legendary progenitor of these Manchoo rulers was Aisin Gi… Value Of The Pieces VALUE OF THE PIECES. - The relative worth of the chessmen cannot be definitely stated on account of the increase or decrease of their powers according to the position of the game, but striking an average, and taking the pawn as the unit, the following will be an estimate near enough for practical purposes :-.--pawn 1, bishop 3.25, knight 3.25, rook 5, queen 9.50. Various Theories As To The Invention Of Chess VARIOUS THEORIES AS TO THE INVENTION OF CHESS.-The origin of the game of chess is lost in obscurity, a fact which has rather invited than repelled learned speculations on the subject. The invention of the pastime has been variously ascribed to the Greeks, Romans, Babylonians, Scythians, Egyptians, Jews, Persians, Chinese, Hindus, Arabians, Araucanians, Castilians, Irish, and Welsh. Not content wit… Volume 6 [CLI-DAY]: Albert to Coustou [next] [back] Volume 4 [BOK-CAN]: Acalendar to Bugenhagen Copyright © 2013 Net Industries and its Licensors – All Rights Reserved – Terms of Use Share this page: Tweet More To Explore	Contact & About Privacy Policy