AlcaldeALCALDE (from the Arabic al-cadi, the judge), an official title given in Spain to various classes of functionaries entrusted with judicial duties. Criminal judges, members of courts of appeal, magistrates, and even parish officers are all known by the name alcalde - secondary descriptive titles distinguishing their different positions and functions. It is to be observed that the word is entirely d… AlcamoALCAMO, a city of Sicily, in the Italian province of Trapani, is situated 22 miles E. of Trapani, near the Gulf of Castellamare. It lies in a district of peculiar fertility, which produces some of the best wines in the island. The town is pleasantly situated on elevated ground, but its internal appearance is mean and dirty. It contains a very strong castle, and many churches and monasteries. Near … AlcantaraALCANTARA, a seaport of Brazil, in the province of Maranhao, on the bay of San _Marcos. Alcantara, KnightsALCANTARA, KNIGHTS or (la Caballeria de Alcantara), an order of knights of Spain, instituted about 1156 A.D. by the brothers Don Suarez and Don Gomez de Barrientos for protection against the Moors. In 1177 they were confirmed as a religious order of knighthood under Benedictine rule by Pope Alexander III. Until about 1213 they were known as the Knights of San Julian del Pereyro; but when the defen… AlcarazALCARAZ, a small town in Spain, in the province of Albacete, 34 miles W.S.W. of the town of that name. AlcavalaALCAVALA, a duty formerly charged in Spain and its colonies on all transfers of property, whether public or private. Alcazar De San JuanALCAZAR DE SAN JUAN, a Spanish town, in the province of Ciudad Real, 45 miles N.E. of Ciudad Real, and on the railway between Alicante and Madrid. Alcazar KebirALCAZAR KEBIR, a city of Marocco in Africa, 80 miles N.W. of Fez. AlcesterALCESTER, pronounced A ester, a market town in the county of Warwick, situated at the junction of the Arrow and Alne, 11 miles W.S.W. of Warwick. Alcestis, Or AlcesteALCESTIS, or ALCESTE, the daughter of Pelias and Anaxibia, and wife of Admetus, king of Plierce in Thessaly. AlchemyALCHEMY, CilE3IY, or HERIIETICS. Considering the present state of the science and the advance of public opinion, the old definition of alchemy as the pretended art of making gold is no longer correct or adequate. Modern science dates from three discoveries - that of Copernicus, the effect of which (to borrow St Simon's words) was to expel the astrologers from the society of astronomers; that of To… Alchemy Cosmogonies And PhilosophiesALCHEMY COSMOGONIES AND PHILOSOPHIES In India, as is well known, the contempt in which the caste of artizans was held was still farther increased by the tendency of religion to consider birth and life, and the actions and desires which are part and parcel of man's life, as an unmixed evil. Consequently, outside the workshop, practical chemistry can have made but little progress. Nevertheless, amon… Alchemy In ArabiaALCHEMY IN ARABIA How the sacred art passed into Moslem lands it is hard, from dearth of evidence, to say. Modern criticism now does more justice to the part which Arabia took in the accumulation of scientific facts, and in the scientific theories which we find in the books of Rhazes and Geber. It is certain that in their treaties with the European Greeks of Constantinople the Arabs always stipula… Alchemy Of The Middle AgesALCHEMY OF THE MIDDLE AGES The care we have taken to note down at the moment of its birth each of the ideas which influenced alchemy, allows us to sketch more rapidly the history of its decline and fall. Albert Groot, commonly known as Albertus Magnus (1193-1280), revived the theory of Geber; and, in spite of the tendencies of the time, entertained the same doubts as his illustrious master on the … Alchemy Paracelsus And His InfluenceALCHEMY PARACELSUS AND HIS INFLUENCE Tempting as the subject is, we must not linger either on the philosophical doctrine or the medical system of this extraordinary man, for fear of encroaching on the article MEDICINE or the article Paracelsus. We only wish to show that he is the pioneer of modern chemists, and the prophet of a revolution in general science. Those who only know Bacon in manuals of… Alchemy The Sacred ArtALCHEMY THE SACRED ART Paganism, at the time when it was engaged in its last struggle with Christianity, had long ceased to be exclusively Greek or Roman. It had assimilated Mithratic, Chaldean, and Egyptian mysteries, and even allied itself to a certain extent with the Helleno-Ilebraism of the Cabala. It was not likely, then, to reject what purer times would have regarded as an utter profanation.… Alciati, AndreaALCIATI, ANDREA, an eminent Italian jurist, born at Alzano, near Milan, on the 12th January 1492, died 1550. AlcibiadesALCIBIADES was born at Athens about 450 B.C. Through his father, Cleinias, he traced his descent from Eurys.aces, the son of Ajax, and through his mother, Deinomache, from Meg,aeles, the head of the Alemmonidw. He was thus related to Pericles, who, after the death of Cleinias at the battle of Coronea (447 B.c.), became his guardian. A youth early deprived of his father's control, possessed of grea… AlcinousALCINOUS, a mythical king of the Plueacians, iu the island of Scheria, was son of Nausithous, and grandson of Neptune and Peribeea. AlciphronALCIPHRON, the most eminent of the Greek epistolary writers, was probably a contemporary of Lucian. AlciraALCIRA, probably the Scetabicula of the Romans, a Spanish town, on an island in the river Xucar, 25 miles S.W. of Valencia, in the province of that name. AlcmanALCMAN, sometimes also called ALCINION, one of the most ancient, and, in the opinion of the Alexandrian critics, the most distinguished of the lyric poets of Greece. According to one account he was by birth a Lydian, while others state that he was a native of Sparta, where, at any rate, he lived from a very early age. The time at which he flourished is uncertain, but it is generally assumed that i… AlcmeneALCMENE, the daughter of Electryon, king of Mycenm, and wife of Amphitryon. Alcoa BayALCOA BAY, an inlet in Cape Colony, on the S.E. coast of Africa, 425 miles east from the Cape of Good Hope. Alcock, JohnALCOCK, JOHN, doctor of laws, and bishop of Ely in the reign of Henry VII., was born at Beverley in Yorkshire before 1440, and educated at Cambridge. He was made dean of Westminster and master of the rolls in 1462. In 1470 he was appointed ambassador to the court of Castile, and in 1471 was consecrated bishop of Rochester. In 1477 he was translated to the see of Worcester ; and in 1486 to that of … AlcoholALCOHOL, a volatile organic body, constantly formed during the fermentation of vegetable juices containing sugar in solution. It is extracted from spirituous liquors of different kinds by successive distillations or rectifications ; the alcohol being more volatile than water, gradually accumulates in the first portion of each distillate. After a few operations the spirit obtained is as strong as i… AlcoyALCOY, one of the most thriving manufacturing cities of Spain, on the river Alcoy, in the province of Alicante, 24 miles N.N.W. of the town of that name. AlcudiaALCUDIA, MalcuEL DE GODOY, DUKE OF, " Prince of the Peace," Spanish statesman, was born of poor but noble parentage at Badajoz on the 12th May 1767 (died 1851). In 1784 he came to Madrid to join the royal bodyguard, and by his handsome. presence and agreeable manners soon attracted notice. The queen regarded him with great favour, and the weak-minded Charles IV. raised him rapidly from dignity to … AlcuinALCUIN, in Latin Albizzus, surnamed Flaecus, an eminent ecclesiastic and a reviver of learning in the 8th century, was born in Yorkshire about. 735 (died 804). He was educated at York under the direction of Archbishop Egbert, as we learn from his own letters, in which he frequently calls that prelate his beloved master, and the clergy of York. the companions of his youthful studies'. Ile succeeded… Alcyonius, Or AlcioniusALCYONIUS, or ALCIONIUS, PETRUS, a learned Italian, born at Venice in 1487 (died 1527). Distinguished as a classical scholar, he was employed for some time by Aldus Manutius as a corrector of the press, and in 1522 was appointed professor of Greek at Florence through the influence of Giulio de Medici. When the latter became pope, under the title of Clement VII., in 1523, Alcyonius followed him to … AldanALDAN, a river of Siberia, in the government of Yakutsk, which rises about 55? N. lat., and 125? E. long., and after flowing more than 300 miles in a north-east direction, turns to the north-west, joining the Lena about 100 miles below Yakutsk. Aldan MountainsALDAN MOUNTAINS, the name usually applied to a branch of the Stanovoi mountains, which strikes off from the main chain in the direction of the Aldan river, or to a part of this range. AldboroughALDBOROUGH, a town of England, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, 16 miles W.N.W. of York. Aldeburgh, Or AldeoroughALDEBURGH, or ALDEOROUGH, a market-town and watering-place in the county of Suffolk, 25 miles E.N.E. of Ipswich. Aldegrever, Or AldegrafALDEGREVER, or ALDEGRAF, HEINRICH, a German painter and engraver, born in 1502 at Paderborn, from which he removed in early life to Soest. AlderALDER, a genus of plants (Abuts) belonging to the order Betulacex, the best known of which is the common alder (A. glutinosa). AldermanALDERMAN, a word derived from the Anglo-Saxon ealdorman, compounded of the comparative degree of the adjective eald (old) and man. The term implies the possession of an office of rank or dignity; and among the Anglo-Saxons, earls, governors of provinces, and other persons of distinction received this title. Thus we read of the alderntannus totius Anglia>, who seems to have corresponded to the offi… AlderneyALDERNEY, one of the Channel Islands, and the most northerly of the four, lies between 49? 41' and 49? 45' N. lat., and 2? 9' and 2? 14' W. long., 7 miles to the westward stormy weather by its conflicting currents; but through it the scattered remnant of the French fleet under Tourville succeeded in escaping after the defeat of La Hogue in 1692. The harbour of Alderney is 20 miles distant from St … Aldershott CampALDERSHOTT CAMP, a standing garrison for a large force, situated about 35 miles,from London, on the confines of Hampshire and Surrey. It was established in May 1855, and was intended as a military training school, especially for officers of the higher grades. Its germ is to be found in the temporary camp on Chobhana Ridges, formed in 1853 by Lord Hardinge, then commander-inchief, the success of wh… Aldhelm, Or AdelmALDHELM, or ADELM, ST, Bishop of Sherborne in the time of the Saxon heptarchy, was born about the middle of the 7th century. He is said to have been the son of Kenred, brother to Ina, king of the West Saxons; but, in the opinion of William of Malmesbury, his father was no more than a distant relation to the king. Having received. the first part of his education in the school of Meildulf, a. learne… AldiniALDINI, GIovANNI, a distinguished physicist, born at Bologna, on the 10th April 1762 (died 1834), was the nephew of Galvani, and brother of the statesman Count Antonio Aldini. Devoted from his youth to the study of natural science, he was chosen in 1798 to succeed his former teacher Canterzani in the chair of physics at Bologna. His most important service consisted in the numerous experiments by w… Aldred, Ealdred, Or AlredALDRED, EALDRED, or ALRED, a prominent ecclesiastic in the 11th century, was successively abbot of Tavistock, bishop of Worcester, and archbishop of York. He was promoted to the see of Worcester in 1046, and in 1050 was sent on a special mission to Rome by Edward the Confessor. In 1054 he went as ambassador to the court of the Emperor Henry III. with the object of negotiating for the return of Edw… AldrichALDRICH, Dr HENRY, theologian and philosopher, was born in 1617 at Westminster, and was educated at the collegiate school there, under Dr Busby. In 1662 he entered Christ Church College, Oxford, with which he continued to be intimately connected during his whole life. He took so conspicuous a part in the controversy with the Roman Catholics during the reign of James II., that at the Revolution the… Aldrovandi, UlisseALDROVANDI, ULISSE, a celebrated naturalist, born of noble parentage at Bologna on the 11th Sept. 1522 (died 1607). While a boy he was page in the family of a rich bishop, and afterwards apprentice to a merchant in Brescia. Commercial pursuits soon became distasteful to him, and he turned his attention to law and medicine, studying first in his native town and afterwards at Padua. In 1550, having … Aldstone, Or Alston MoorALDSTONE, or ALSTON MOOR, a market-town of England, in the county of Cumberland, situated on an eminence near the South Tyne, 19 miles E.S.E. from Carlisle, with which it is connected by railway. The surrounding country, which is bleak and desolate, contains lead mines, mostly belonging to Greenwich Hospital, formerly very valuable, but now almost exhaust-ed. Thread, flannel, and shot are manufact… Aleandro, GirolamoALEANDRO, GIROLAMO (HIERONYMUS), eat-dim], commonly called "the Elder," to distinguish him from his grand-nephew of the same name, was born at Motta, near Venice, on the 13th of February 1480 (died 1542). He studied at Venice, and while still a youth acquired great ' reputation for learning. In 1508 he went to Paris, on the invitation of Louis XII., as professor of belles lettres, and he held for … Ale-connerALE-CONNER., an officer appointed yearly at the courtleet of ancient manors for the assize of ale and ale-measures. AlemanALEMAN, Louis, Archbishop of Arles, and Cardinal of St Cecilia, was born at Bugey in 1390. AlemanniALEMANNI, a large German tribe on the Upper Rhine. They are first mentioned by Dion Cassius, who relates that the Emperor Caracalla gained, in 213 A.D., a victory over them on the banks of the Maine, and thence assumed the surname Alemanni:its. The origin of this tribe, and the country from which they came, are unknown ; but we have a distinct statement, which is apparently confirmed by the very n… AlembicALEMBIC (Arab. alanbiq, cognate to the Greek a?/le), an apparatus for distillation, used chiefly by the alchemists, and now almost entirely superseded by the retort and the worm-still. AlemtejoALEMTEJO (Spanish A/en-ttjo), a province of Portugal, bounded on the N. by Beira, on the E. by Spanish Estremadura and Andalusia, on the S. by Algarve, and on the W. by the Atlantic and Portuguese Estremadura. It lies between 37? 20' and 39? 40' N. lat., and 6' 45' and 8? 53' W. long., and has an area of 10,225 square miles. Alemtejo is traversed by several mountain ranges, whose height does not g… AlenioALENIO, Glum?, a missionary of the Jesuit order, born at Brescia in 1582, died 1649. AlenqonALENQON, the chief town of the French department of Orne, situated in a wide and fertile plain, on the Sarthe, close to its confluence with the Briante. It is a clean, regularly-built town, with broad handsome streets. It is the seat of a bishop; and the Gothic church of Notre Dame, called the cathedral, is a fine building of the 16th century. The only remains of the ancient castle of Alencon are … Aleppo, Or HalebALEPPO, or HALEB, a city of Syria, capital of the Turkish vilayet of the same name, in 36? 12' N. lat., 37? 12' E. long., 70 miles E. of the Mediterranean, near the N.W. extremity of the great Syrian desert. It occupies the site of the ancient Bercea, and is a place of great antiquity. After the destruction of Palmyra it speedily became the great emporium of the trade between the Mediterranean and… Ales, Or AlessALES, or ALESS (ALESIUS), ALEXANDER, a celebrated divine of the school of Augsburg,- was born at Edinburgh on the 23d April 1500 (died 1565). His name was originally Alane, and that by which he is more generally known, (derived from dAceivo) was assumed by him when he went into exile. He studied at St Andrews in the newly-founded college of St Leonards, where he graduated in 1515. Some time afterw… AlessandriaALESSANDRIA, a province of Italy, in the former duchy of Piedmont, bounded on the N. by Novara, on the E. by Pavia, on the S. by Genoa, and on the W. by Turin; with an arca of 1951 square miles. AlessandriaALESSANDRIA, a city of Italy, the capital of the above province, is situated in a marshy district near the confluence of the Tanaro and the Bormida. It is a strongly fortified place, its citadel, on the left bank of the Tanaro, being one of the most important in Europe. The town itself, which lies chiefly on the right bank of the river, is the scat of a bishop, and contains a cathedral and more th… Alessandri, AlessandroALESSANDRI, ALESSANDRO (Alexander ab Alexandro), a learned jnrisconsult, born at Naples about the year 1461 (died 1523). He studied at Naples and Rome, and afterwards practised for a time as advocate in both cities. At Naples he is said to have been royal proto-notary in 1490. Dissatisfied, according to his own account, with the corrupt administration of justice, he at length quitted the bar, and … Alessi, GaleazzoALESSI, GALEAZZO (1500-72), a distinguished architect, born at Perugia, was a pupil of Caporali and a friend of Michael Angelo. Aleutian IslandsALEUTIAN ISLANDS, so called from the Russian word aleut, signifying a bold rock, is the name given by the Russian discoverers to a chain of small islands situated in the Northern Pacific Ocean, and extending in an easterly direction from the peninsula of Kamtchatka, in Asiatic Russia, to the promontory of Alaska, in North America. This archipelago has been sometimes divided into three groups; the … AlexanderALEXANDER I., King of Scotland, son of Malcolm Cann) ore, succeeded his brother Edgar in 1107, and died in 1124. AlexanderALEXANDER I., bishop of Rome, succeeded Evaristus in 108 or 109 A.D., and, according to Eusebius, suffered martyrdom under Hadrian in the year 119. AlexanderALEXANDER V. (Pietro Plenary?, a native of Candia, enjoyed the dignity of Pope for only ten months, from the 26th June 1409 to the 3d May 1410. AlexanderALEXANDER, Josnru ADDISON, D.D., third son of the preceding, one of the most eminent biblical scholars of America, was born in Philadelphia in 1809 (died 1860). He studied at New Jersey, devoting himself specially to Hebrew and other Oriental languages. He graduated in 1826, and from 1830 to 1S33 was adjunct professor of ancient languages and literature in his alma mater. In 1838 he was appointed … Alexander, ArchibaldALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD, D.D., a Presbyterian divine of America, was born of a family, originally Scotch, in Rockbridge county, Virginia, on the 17th April 1772 (died 1851). After completing his preliminary education at Timber Ridge, he came under the influence of the religious movement known as the "great revival," and devoted himself to the study of theology. Licensed to preach in 1791, he was enga… Alexander BatasALEXANDER BATAS (a surname that probably means "lord"), a man of low birth who professed to be the son of Antiochus Epiphanes, and eventually became king of Syria. Alexander IiALEXANDER II., whose family name was Anselmo Baggio, was born at Milan, and occupied the papal chair from 1061 to 1073. Alexander IiALEXANDER II., King of Scotland, was born at Haddington in 1198 (died 1249), and succeeded his father, William the Lion, in 1214. Though still young, he exhibited the same prudence and firmness which marked his whole conduct in life. He was excommunicated in 1216 for associating with the English barons in their opposition to King John; but his prudence enabled him to recover the good opinion of th… Alexander IiiALEXANDER III., King of Scotland, son of Alexander II. by his second wife, Mary de Colley, was born at Roxburgh on the 4th September 1241 (died 1286), and succeded to the throne on the death of his father in 1249. The fact that in this case the succession of a minor was unopposed is noteworthy, as showing that the hereditary principle had now established itself. By a provision of the treaty of New… Alexander IiiALEXANDER III. (Rolando Raiwci of Siena), cardinal and chancellor of the Roman church, was elected to the popedom in 1159, and reigned until 1181. His career is of great historical importance on account of the vigour and ultimate success with which he carried out the ideas and policy of Hildebrand in opposition to Frederick Barbarossa and Henry II. of England. Three anti-popes (Victor IV., 1159 ; … Alexander I-vALEXANDER I-V., Count Rinaldo de Segni, cardinalbishop of Ostia, occupied the papal chair from December 1254 till his death in May 1261. He seems to have been of a weak character, and in the struggle against the house of Hohenstaufen, which he inherited from his predecessors, he did little to strengthen the position of the papacy. The opposition which he offered to -Manfred, natural son of Frederi… Alexander JannjeusALEXANDER JANNJEUS, king of the Jews, succeeded his brother Aristobulus in 104 B.C., and died in 79 B.C. Alexander Jaroslawitz NevskiALEXANDER JAROSLAWITZ NEVSKI, SAINT, Grand Duke of Wladimir, second son of the Grand Duke Jaroslaw II., was born at Wladimir in 1219, and died 14th November 1263. He became prince of Novgorod on the resignation of his father in 1239, his elder brother having died. While Batu Khan was sweeping with his Tatars over the south, the Swedes, Danes, and Livonian knights took advantage of this to oppress … Alexander Of TrallesALEXANDER OF TRALLES (ALEXANDER TRALLIANUS), a medical writer, was a native of Tralles, a city of Lydia, and lived probably about the middle of the 6th century. He is the author of a work, divided into twelve books, in which he treats of bodily distempers. He was the first to open the jugular vein, and to use cantharides as a blister for the gout. Dr Freind, in his History of Physic, styles him on… Alexander Or HalesALEXANDER or HALES (ALEXANDER HALENSIS), surnamed Doctor Irrefragabilis and tons Vitce, a celebrated English theologian of the 13th century. Born in Gloucestershire, and trained in the monastery of Hales, from which he takes his name, he was early raised to an archdeaconry. Relinquishing this position, however, he went, like most of the scholars of his day, to study at the university of Paris, whe… Alexander, PauloviciiALEXANDER, PAULOVICII, Emperor of Russia - born on 28th December 1777, died 1825 - was the son of Paul, afterwards emperor, by Maria, daughter of Prince Eugene of Wiirtemberg. His early education was conducted under his excellent mother, and afterwards was carefully directed by his grandmother, the Empress Catherine II., who confided its general superintemience to Frederick Caesar de La Harpe. On … Alexander, Sir WilliamALEXANDER, SIR WILLIAM, earl of Stirling, poet. The family of Alexander of Menstrie - i.e., of the poet - is of ancient lineage, "tracing its descent from Somerled, lord of the Isles, in the reign of Malcolm IV., through a misty Highland genealogy, to John, lord of the Isles, who married the Princess Margaret, daughter of King Robert IL Their son, Alexander, was father of Angus, who founded the fa… Alexander The Great Alexander The IiiALEXANDER THE GREAT ALEXANDER THE III., commonly called "The Great," son of Philip II., king of Macedonia, and of Olympias, daughter of the Molossian chief Neoptolemus, was born at Pella, 356 B.C. His father was a man of fearless courage and the soundest judgment ; his mother was a woman of savage energy and fierce superstition. Alexander inherited the qualities of both his parents, and the result… Alexander ViiALEXANDER VII. (Pablo Chigi), was born at Siena on. the 13th February 1599, and occupied the papal chair from the 7th April 1655 to the 22d May 1667. Before his elevation he had filled successively the offices of inquisitor at Malta, vice-legate at Ferrara, and nuncio to Germany at the conference of Munster. The conclave elected him in the belief that he was strongly opposed to the nepotism and ot… Alexander ViiiALEXANDER VIII. (Pietro Ottoboni), born at Venice in 1610, was raised to the pontificate in October 1689 in succession to Innocent XI. Alexander VlALEXANDER VL (Rodrigo Borgia), memorable as the most characteristic inaa,mation of the secular spirit of the papacy of the 15th century, was born at Xativa, in Valeucia, 1st January 1431. His biographers all but unanimously assert his patronymic to have been Lenzuoli (in its original Valencian form, Llancol), and the name of Borgia (or more properly Borja) to have been assumed on his adoption by h… AlexandriaALEXANDRIA, a city of Lower Egypt, and for a long time its capital, was situated on the Mediterranean, 12 miles west of the Canopic mouth of the Nile, in 31? 11' N. lat., and 29? 52' E. long. The ancient city was oblong in form, with a length from east to west of 3 to 4, a breadth from north to south of 1, and, according to Pliny, a circumference of 15 miles. Lake Mareotis bathed its walls on the … AlexandriaALEXANDRIA, a town of Scotland, in the parish of Bonhill, Dumbartonshire, pleasantly situated on the west bank of the river Leven, about 3 miles from Dumbarton, with which it is connected by a branch railway. AlexandriaALEXANDRIA, the modern city, stands partly on what was the island of Pharos, now a peninsula, but mostly on the isthmus by which it is connected with the mainland. This was originally an artificial dyke connecting the island with the land opposite ; but, through the constant accumulation of soil and ruins, it has attained its present dimensions. The principal public and government buildings are on… AlexandriaALEXANDRIA, a town and port of entry of the United States, capital of Alexandria county, Virginia, is beautifully situated on the right bank of the Potomac, 7 miles below Washington. It is neat and well-built, with a good liar bour, and exports considerable quantities of grain and flour; but its foreign trade has dec?eased. The Chesapeake and Ohio canal begins here, and thc town is connected with … Alexandrian SchoolALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL. Under this title are generally included certain strongly-marked tendencies in literature and science which took their rise in the city of Alexandria. That city, founded by Alexander the Great about the time when Greece, in losing her national independence, lost also her intellectual supremacy, was in every way admirably adapted for becoming the new centre of the world's activit… Alexandrine VerseALEXANDRINE VERSE, a name given to the leading measure in French poetry. It is the heroic French verse, used in epic narrative, in tragedy, and in the higher comedy. There is some doubt as to the origin of the name; but most probably it is derived from a collection of romances, published early in the 13th century, of which Alexander of Macedon was the hero, and in which he was represented, somewha… AlexisALEXIS, an ancient comic poet, born about 391 B.c. at Thurii in Magna Gmcia, the uncle and instructor of Menandcr. AlexiusALEXIUS I., the nephew of Isaac Comnenus, and the most distinguished member of the Comnenus family, was born in 1048, and died in 1118. In early life he signalised himself in the wars against the enemies of his country; but the mean jealousies of the ministers of the emperor Nicephorus (surnamed Botaniates) drove him to take up arms against a sovereign whose cause he had thrice gallantly defended … AlfaniALFANI, DomEnco, an Italian painter, born at Perugia towards the close of the fifteenth century. Al-farabi, Abu NastAL-FARABI, ABU NAST?. MUIIAMMkD Inv TAaKIIAN, one of the earliest Arabian philosophers, flourished during the former half of the 10th century. Philosophy, among the Arabs, was originally an extension of the related sciences of astronomy and medicine, and the first philosophers were physicians. The more eminent of them were court physicians, and to this they doubtless owed their protection against … Alfieri, -VittorioALFIERI, -VITTORIO, chiefly celebrated as the author who raised the Italian tragic drama from its previous state of degradation, was born on the 17th January 1749, at the town of Asti, in Piedmont. He lost his father in early infancy ; but he continued to reside with his mother, who married a seeond time, till his tenth year, when he was placed at the academy of Turin. After he had passed a twclve… Alford, HenryALFORD, HENRY, D.D., Dean of Canterbury, one of the most variously-accomplished churchmen of his day - poet, preacher, painter, musician, biblical scholar, critic, and philologist - was born at 25 Alfred Place, Bedford Row, London, October 7th, 1810 (died 1871). He came of a Somersetshire family, five generations of which, in direct succession, contributed clergymen of some distinction to the Engl… Alfred, Or IelfredALFRED, or IELFRED, THE GREAT, the youngest son 5f ./Ethelwulf, king of the West Saxons, was born at Wantage in Berkshire in 849 A.D. At an early age he was summoned to the assistance of his brother /Ethelred against the Danes. These formidable enemies, whose object hitherto had been mere plunder, were now aiming at a permanent settlement in the country, and after ravaging and subduing Northumbria… Algardi, AlessandroALGARDI, ALESSANDRO, one of the most celebrated sculptors of Italy, was born at Bologna in 1602, and died in 1654. While he was attending the school of the Caracci his preference for the plastic art became evident, and he placed himself under the instruction of the sculptor Conventi. At the age of twenty he was brought under the notice of Duke Ferdinand of Mantua, who gave him several commissions.… Algarotti, Francesco, CountALGAROTTI, FRANCESCO, COUNT, was born at Venice on the 11th December 1712. AlgarveALGARVE, the most southerly province of Portugal, is bounded on the E. by the Spanish province of Seville, from which it is separated by the river Guadiana ; on the N. by Alemtejo ; and on the W. and S. by the Atlantic Ocean. Its length from east to west is 85 miles, the average width is 22 miles, and the area, according to the most recent measurement, 1865 square miles. In 1868 the population was… Algau, Or AllgauALGAU, or ALLGAU, the name now given to a comparatively small district forming the south-western corner of Bavaria, and belonging to the province of Swabia and Neu-burg, but formerly applied to a much larger territory, which extended as far as the Danube on the north, the Inn on the south, and the Lech on the west. Al-gazali, Abu Hamed MuhammadAL-GAZALI, ABU HAMED MUHAMMAD, usually described as an Arabian philosopher, was really a Moslem theologian who met the heretical philosophers on their own ground. He was born in 1058, and belonged to the sect of the Ascharites, or extreme right of the Motecallemin, who (and not the philosophers) were the real Arabian school-men. At thirty-three he became the head of a theological college at Baghda… Algebra Fundamental OperationsALGEBRA FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS The primary operations in algebra are the same as in common arithmetic - namely, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division ; and from the various combinations of these four, all the others are derived. I. Addition. Rule. Add together the coefficients of the quantities, prefix the common sign to the sum, and annex the letter or letters common to each term. … Algebra HistoryALGEBRA HISTORY At what period and in what country algebra was invented? is a question that has been much discussed. Who were the earliest writers on the subject 4 'What was the progress of its improvement 1 And lastly, by what means and at what period was the science diffused over Europe 4 It was a common opinion in the 17th century that the ancient Greek mathematicians must have possessed an ana… Algebra Mathmatical ScienceALGEBRA MATHMATICAL SCIENCE is that branch of the mathematical sciences which has for its object the carrying on of operations either in an order different from that which exists in arithmetic, or of a nature not contemplated in fixing the boundaries of that science. The circumstance that algebra has its origin in arithmetic, however widely it may in the end differ from that science, led Sir Isaac… Algeciras, Or AlgezirasALGECIRAS, or ALGEZIRAS, a seaport of Spain, in the province of Cadiz, 6 miles W. of Gibraltar, on the opposite side of the bay. The town is picturesquely situated, and its name, which signifies in Arabic the island, is derived from a small islet which forms one side of the harbour. It is supplied with water by means of a beautiful aqueduct. It has a dilapidated fortress, and also a military hospi… Algeria, Or AtALGERIA, or AT,GrEus (French, I; Algt>rie), the largest and most important of the French colonial possessions, is a country of Northern Africa, bounded on the N. by the Mediterranean, W. by the state of Marocco, S. by the desert of the Sahara, and E. by Tunis. The boundaries, however, are in many parts not accurately determined. It extends for about 550 miles along the coast, and stretches inland … Alger OfALGER OF LifcE, known also as ALGER OF CLUGNY and ALGERUS MAGIsmit, a learned French priest who lived in the first half of the 12th century. AlgheroALGHERO, a seaport of Italy, in the province of Sassari, Sardinia, situated on the west coast of the island, 14 miles S.W. of Sassari. It was founded by the Genoese, and was afterwards taken by the Catalonians, whose language is still spoken. Though strongly fortified towards the sea, the landward side of the town is commanded by the overhanging hills. Alghero is an episcopal see, and has a cathed… Algie, Or HydrophytaALGIE, or HYDROPHYTA, a large order of cellular, flowerless, cryptogamic plants, found in the sea (seaweeds), in rivers, lakes, marshes, hot springs, and moist places, all over the world. They consist of a brown, red, or green, flattened, cellular, leaf-like expansion, called a thallus, sometimes stalked, which bears the organs of reproduction. Some have root-like processes by which they are attac… AlgiersALGIERS (Fr. Alger, Arab. Al-Jezair, i.e., The Islands), a city, and seaport of Northern Africa, and capital of Algeria, is situated on the west side of a bay of the same name in the Mediterranean. Lat. (of lighthouse), 36? 47' 20" N., long. 3? 4' 32" E. It is built, in the form of an amphitheatre, on the northern slope of a steep hill rising abruptly from the coast. It ascends the side of the hil… AlhamaALHAMA, a city of Spain, in the province of Granada, 24 miles S.W. of Granada. It is very picturesquely situated on the edge of a gorge in the hills of the Sierra de Alliama, the streets rising in terraces one above another. The river Marchan flows through the chasm, and the mountains behind the town reach a height of 8000 feet. The name Alhama signifies in Arabic " the bath," and is derived from … AlhamaALHAMA, a town in Spain, in the province of Murcia, 13 miles S.W. of the town of that name. AlhambraALHAMBRA, the ancient fortress and residence of the Moorish monarchs of Granada, lies on a hill overlooking the city of Granada, on the north. The name, signifying in Arabic " the red," is derived from the colour of the sundried tapia, or bricks made of fine gravel and clay, of which the outer walls are built. This famous Moorish palace was erected at various dates, chiefly between 1248 and 1354, … AlhazenALHAZEN (full name, ABU ALI AL-HASAN Inv ALHASAN), a mathematician of the 1 1 th century, was born at Bassora, and died at Cairo in 1038. He is to be distinguished from another Alhazen who translated Ptolemy's elimagest in the 10th century. Alhazen having boasted that he could construct a machine for regulating the inundations cf the Nile, was summoned to Egypt by the caliph Bakes; but, aware of t… AliasALIAS, signifying at another time, is used in judicial proceedings to connect the several names of a person who attempts to conceal his true name, or to pass under a feigned one ; as Smith alias Jones, James alias John. Ali BeyALI BEY (1728-73), an adventurer, said to have been a native of the Caucasus, and to have been sold about the age of twelve or fourteen for a slave in Cairo. The two Jews who became his masters presented him to Ibrahim, then one of the most influential men in the kingdom. In the family of Ibrahim he received the rudiments of a literary education, and was also instructed in the military art. Ile gr… AlibiALIBI, in Law, denotes the absence of the accused from the place where he is charged with having committed a crime ; or his being elsewhere, as the word imports, at the time specified. AlicanteALICANTE, a province of Spain, bounded on the N. by Valencia., on the W. by Albacete and Murcia, on the S. by Murcia, and on the S.E. and E. by the Mediterranean Sea. It was formed in 1834 of districts taken from the ancient provinces of Valencia and Murcia, the former contributing by far the larger portion. Its length is about 73 miles, its breadth 68 miles, and the area 2090 square miles. The su… AlicanteALICANTE, the capital of the above province, and, after Cadiz and Barcelona, the most considerable seaport of Spain. It is situated at the head of the bay of Alicante, in the Mediterranean Sea, in 38? 20' N. lat., and 0? 30' "W. long. The city is built on the bay in the form of a half-moon, and is overlooked by a rock 400 feet high, surmounted by a castle, which has been suffered to fall into deca… Alicata, Or LicataALICATA, or LICATA, a seaport of Italy, in the province of Girgenti, Sicily, situated on the south coast, at the mouth of the Salso, the largest river in the island. AlienALIEN, obviously derived from the Latin alienus, is the technical term applied by British constitutional law to any one who does not enjoy the privileges of a British subject. The jealousy which has generally existed against communicating the privileges of citizenship to foreigners has its foundation in mistaken views of political economy. It arose from the impression that the produce of the energ… AligarhALIGARH, a district of British India, in the Meerut division, and under the jurisdiction of the Lieutenant-Governor of the North-West Provinces, lies between lat. 27? 29' and 28? 10' 30" N., and between long. 77? 32' 30" and 78? 42' 30" E. It contains an area of 1954 square miles, of which upwards of two-thirds, or 884,060 acres, are under cultivation. Population in 1865 returned at 925,538 souls,… AlimentALIMENT, in the Law of Scotland, is the sum paid or allowance given in respect of the reciprocal obligation of parents and children, husband and wife, grandparents and grandchildren, to contribute to each other's maintenance. AlimonyALIMONY is, in English Law, the allowance for maintenance to which a wife is entitled out of her husband's estate on a decree, obtained at the wife's instance, for judicial separation or for the dissolution of the marriage. Ali PashaALI PASHA, surnamed Arslan, or " The Lion," was born at Tepelini, a village of Albania, on the Voyutza, at the foot of the Klissoura Mountains, in 1741. He belonged to the Toske tribe, and his ancestors had for some years held the title of Bey of Tepelini, this dignity having become hereditary in his family. His grandfather fell in 1716 at the siege of Corfu, which was then held by the Venetians. … AlisonALISON, Sin ARCHIBALD, Bart., the celebrated historian, younger son of the preceding, was born at Kenley, Shropshire, on the 29th December 1792. He studied at the university of Edinburgh, distinguishing himself especially in the classes of Greek and mathematics. In 1814 he passed at the Scotch bar, but he did not at once enter on the regular practice of his profession. The close of the war had ope… AlisonALISON, REv. ARCHIBALD, an author of great reputation in his own day, was born on the 13t11 November 1757 at Edinburgh, of which his father was for a time lord provost. After studying at the university of Glasgow and at Balliol college, Oxford, he took orders in the Church of England, and was appointed in 1778 to the curacy of Brancepeth, near Durham. In 1780 he married Dorothea, youngest daughter… AlizarinALIZARIN, the principal colouring matter of madder, may be obtained by subliming on paper an alcoholic extract of madder, or by exhausting the root with water, precipitating with sulphuric acid, dissolving the moist precipitate in a solution of chloride of alumina, and separating the impure alizarin by the addition of hydrochloric acid. The impure alizarin is dissolved in alcohol, and separated as… AlkaliALKALI, a term originally applied to the ashes of plants, now employed in inorganic chemistry as a generic name given to the group of compounds that have the property of neutralising acids. AlkaloidsALKALOIDS, the name of a group of organic bodies that possess alkaline properties. AlkanetALKANET (Alkanna tinetoria, or Anchusa tinctor-ia), a plant of the order Boraginacece, indigenous to the south of France and the shores of the Levant. Al-kindi, Abu YusufAL-KINDI, ABU YUSUF, &c., styled by pre-eminence " The Philosopher of the Arabs," flourished during the first half of the 10th century, and died at seine unknown date posterior to 961. His literary activity was encyclopmdic, and spread itself over all the sciences, The titles of his works number nearly 200 in the catalogue of Casiri, and amount to 265 in that of Fliirr?el; but the latter appears i… AlkmaarALKMAAR, a town of the Netherlands, in the province of North Holland, situated on the Helder canal and on the railway between Haarlem and the Helder, about 20 miles N.N.W. of Amsterdam. The streets of .Alkmaar are extremely neat and regular, and are intersected by canals lined with trees, while the ramparts of the town have been converted into beautiful boulevards. Many of the public buildings are… Alkmaar, Heinrik VonALKMAAR, HEINRIK VON, the German translator of the celebrated satirical poem Reineke de Fos, flourished in the latter half of the 15th century. AllahALLAH, the Arabic name for the one true God which is employed in the Koran, and has been adopted into the language of all Mahometan nations. AllahabadALLAHABAD, a division, district, and city of British India, under the jurisdiction of the lieutenant-governor of the North-Western Provinces. Allahabad CityALLAHABAD CITY, the capital of the North-Western Provinces, is also the administrative headquarters of the Allahabid division and of the district of the same name. It is situated at the confluence of the Ganges and Jamna rivers, in 25? 26' N. lat., and 81? 55' E. long. Its most conspicuous feature is the fort, which rises directly from the banks of the confluent rivers, and com pletely commands th… Allaiiabad DistrictALLAIIABAD DISTRICT lies between 24? 49' and 25? 44' N. lat., and between 81? 14' and 82?26'E. long. In shape the district is that of an irregular oblong; and it is difficult accurately to describe its boundaries, as at one extremity it wanders into Oudb, while on the south the villages of the state of Rewah and those of this district are hopelessly intermingled. Roughly speaking, however, the bou… Allamand, Jean Nicolas SebastianALLAMAND, JEAN NICOLAS SEBASTIAN, natural philosopher, born at Lausanne in 1713, was educated for the church, and held for a short time a clerical appointment at Leyden. Here he enjoyed the patronage and friendship of the celebrated S'Gravesende, who made him his literary executor. In 1747 he was appointed professor of philosophy and natural history at Franeker, and two years later he was transfer… Allan, DavidALLAN, DAVID, a Scottish historical painter of considerable celebrity, was born at Alloa on the 13th February 1744. At a very early age he gave such proofs of natural artistic talent as led to his being placed under the care of the Messrs Foulis, who some time before had instituted an academy in Glasgow for painting and engraving. On leaving the academy (1762), after seven years' successful study,… Allan, Sir WilliamALLAN, SIR WILLIAM, R.A., and president of the Royal Scottish Academy, was born at Edinburgh in 1782. At an early age he was entered as a pupil in the School of Design established in Edinburgh by the Board of Trustees for Arts and Manufactures, where he had as companions, Wilkie, Burnet the engraver, and others who afterwards distinguished themselves as artists. Here Allan and Wilkie were placed a… AlleghanyALLEGHANY, .ALLEGIIENY, or ALLEGANY MOUNTAINS, is the name often given to the Appalachian Mountains in the United States. AlleghanyALLEGHANY, a river of the United States, which rises in the north of Pennsylvania, and after flowing about 300 miles, first in a northerly, but for the greater part of its course in a westerly direction, during which it passes for a short distance into the state of New York, unites with the Monongahela at Pittsburg to form the Ohio. AlleghenyALLEGHENY, a large suburb of PITTSBURG (q.v.) In 1870 it contained 53,180 inhabitants. AllegianceALLEGIANCE, either derived from the French allegea.nce or taken from the same Latin source, has been used to express that duty which a person possessing the privileges of a citizen owes to the state to which he belongs, and is technically applied in law to the duty which a British subject owes to the sovereign as representing the state. It has been divided by the English legal commentators into na… AllegianceALLEGIANCE, Oath of, an oath of fidelity to the sovereign taken by all persons holding public office. By ancient common law it might be required of all persons above the age of twelve, and it has repeatedly been used as a test for the disaffected. It was first imposed by statute in the reign of Elizabeth (I. c. 1), and its form has more than once been altered since. Up to the time of the 'Revoluti… AllegoryALLEGORY (aXos, other, and CLyope-jo), to speak), a figurative representation conveying a meaning other than and in addition to the literal. It is generally treated as a figure of rhetoric, but the medium of representation is not necessarily language. An allegory may be addressed to the eye, and is often embodied in painting, sculpture, or some form of mimetic art. The etymological meaning of the … Allegri, GregorioALLEGRI, GREGORIO, musical composer, probably of the Correggio family, was born at Rome about 1580. He studied music under Nanini, the intimate friend of Palestrina. Being intended for the church, he obtained a benefice in the cathedral of Fermo. Here be composed a large number of motetts and sacred pieces, which, being brought under the notice of Pope Urban VIII., obtained for him an appointment … AlleineALLEINE, Josmr, Nonconformist divine, the author of An Alarm to the Unconverted - a book which remains as potential as when first modestly sent forth, scarcely second to Richard Baxter's Call to the Unconverted - was otherwise noticeable. Baxter himself wrote a characteristic introduction to his Life fully two centuries ago (1672); while recently (1861) the Rev. Charles Stanford has retold his sto… Alleine, RichardALLEINE, RICHARD, M.A., author of Vindicice Pletatis, was educated at St Albans Hall, Oxford, where Anthony is Wood states he was entered commoner in 1627, aged sixteen ; and where, having taken the degree of B.A., he transferred himself to New Inn, and continued there until he proceeded M.A. He and the like-minded William Albino were sons of Richard Alleine, rector for upwards of fifty years of D… Allen, Bog OfALLEN, BOG OF, the name given to a congeries of morasses in Kildare and King's County, Ireland. Allen, JohnALLEN, JoHN (1770-1843), was born near Edinburgh, land educated at the university of that city, where he took the degree of M.D. in 1791. With youthful enthusiasm, Allen joined the Scottish movement of that period for parliamentary reform. He was an acute metaphysician, and the prelections on physiology which he delivered in Edinburgh are distinguished by clearness and precise philosophical views.… Allen, Or AlleynALLEN, or ALLEYN, THOMAS (1542-1632), a famous English mathematician, was born at Uttoxeter in Staffordshire, 21st December 1542. He was admitted scholar of Trinity College, Oxford, in 1561 ; and in 1567 took his degree of master of arts. In 1580 he quitted his college and fellowship, and retired to Gloucester lIall, where he studied very closely, and became famous for his knowledge of antiquity, … AllentownALLENTOWN, formerly called NORTHAMPTON, a thriving town of the United States, capital of Lehigh county. AllestryALLESTRY, Or ALLESTREE, RICHARD, D.D., was born at Uppingtown in Shropshire in 1619, and educated in the grammar school of Coventry, and afterwards at Christ Church, Oxford. After passing as bachelor of arts he was made successively moderator in philosophy, canon of Christ Church, doctor of divinity, chaplain in ordinary to the king, and regius professor of divinity. His early studies, however, we… Alleyn, EdwardALLEYN, EDWARD, eminent as a stage-player in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I., but better remembered in after-times as the founder of Dulwich college, was born in London, in the parish of St Botolph, Bishopsgate, on the ist of September 1566. When he was only four years old, his father, an innkeeper, died, and his mother soon afterwards married an actor named Browne. This change in his domesti… AllianceALLIANCE, a league between independent states for the purpose of combined action, defensive or offensive, or both - a subject which falls to be treated under the heading Law OF NATIONS. AllierALLIER, a department in the centre of France, so called from the river of the same name ; bounded on the N. by the department of Cher and Nievre, on the E. by those of Saone-et-Loire and Loire, on the S. by that of Puys de Dome, and on the W. by those of Creuse and Cher ; extending at the widest points 82 miles from E. to W., and 55 from N. to S. ; and containing an area of 2821 square miles. Its … AllierALLIER, the ancient Slaver, a river of France, which rises in the department of Lozere, among the Margerido mountains, a few miles east of the town of Mende, and, after traversing Haute Loire, Puys de Dome, and Allier, forms the boundary between Cher and Nievre, until it falls into the Loire four miles west of Nevers. AlligatorALLIGATOR, (probably derived from the Spanish el lagarto, the lizard), an animal so closely allied to the crocodile that some naturalists have classed them together as forming one genus. It differs from the true crocodile principally in having the head broader and shorter, and the snout more obtuse ; in having a large canine tooth of the under jaw received, not into an external furrow, but into a … AlliterationALLITERATION. As Milton defined rhyme to be "the jingling sound of like endings," so alliteration is the jingle of like beginnings. All language has a tendency to jingle in both ways, evsn in prose. Thus in prose we speak of " near and dear," " high and dry," " health and wealth." But the initial form of jingle is much more common - " safe and sound," " thick and thin," " weal or woe," "fair or fo… Allix, PierreALLIX, PIERRE, a distinguished divine of the French Reformed Church, was born at Alencon in 1641. He was pastor first at St Agobile in Champagne, and then at Charenton, near Paris. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 compelled him to take refuge in London, where, under the sanction of James II., he opened a church for the French exiles. His reputation for learning was such as to obtain f… AlloaALLOA, a seaport town of Scotland, in the county of Clackmannan, situated on the north side of the Firth of Forth, 25 miles from Edinburgh, and 6 below Stirling, with which it is connected by railway. The town as a whole is irregularly built, although in the modern portions there are several spacious streets, with good shops and houses. The parish church, opened in 1819, is a fine Gothic edifice, … Allodium Or AlodiumALLODIUM or ALODIUM denotes lands which are the absolute property of their owner, and not subject to any service or acknowledgement to a superior. Allori, AlessandroALLORI, ALESSANDRO, a painter of the Florentine school, was born at Florence in 1535, and died in 1607. Allori, CristofanoALLORI, CRISTOFANO, son of the preceding, was born at Florence on the 17th October 1577, and died in 1621. He received his first lessons in painting from his father, li but becoming dissatisfied with the hard anatomical drawing and cold colouring of the latter, he entered the studio of Pagani, who was one of the leaders of that later Florentine school which endeavoured to unite the rich colouring … AllotropyALLOTROPY (from (1.XXos, other, and rpO7ros, manner), a name applied to a property, whereby certain substances, chemically simple, assume different forms and conditions without undergoing chemical change. AlloxanALLOXAN, a product of the action of oxidising agents on uric acid, obtained by adding slowly, in small quantities, uric acid to strong nitric acid of specific gravity 1.4, kept cool, and stirring constantly. AlloyALLOY, the name given to a combination obtained by fusing metals with each other. Few metals are employed in the pure state, with the exception of iron, copper, lead, tin, zinc, platinum, aluminium ; metals are more frequently used in the forms of alloys for technical purposes. Every industrial application necessitates special qualities that may not occur in any isolated metal, but which may be pr… All-saints Day, All-hallowsALL-SAINTS DAY, ALL-HALLOWS, or HALLOWMAS, a festival, first instituted about 610 A.D., on the 1st of May, in memory of the martyrs, and celebrated since 834 on the 1st of November, as a general commemoration of all the saints. Allston, WashingtonALLSTON, WASHINGTON, an eminent American Instorical painter and poet, was born 5th November 1779, at Waccamaw, in South Carolina, where Isis father was a planter. He early displayed a taste for the art to which he afterwards devoted himself. He graduated at Harvard in 1800, and for a short time pursued his artistic studies at Charleston with Malbone and Charles Fraser. He then removed to London, a… AlluviumALLUVIUM, soil or land made up of the sediment -deposited by running water. Rivers act on the rocks in their course both mechanically and chemically, and are in consequence always more or less loaded with detritus, which in its turn again aids the water in abrading other rocks. A great proportion of the matter with which rivers are thus charged is carried out to sea. But in level tracts, where the… AlmaALMA, a river of Russia, in the S.W. of the Crimea, which falls into the sea about 16 miles N. of Sebastopol. Almaden, Or Almaden Del AzoqueALMADEN, or ALMADEN DEL AZOQUE (in Arabic, the "Mine of Quicksilver"), a town of Spain, in the province of Ciudad Real, lies in the Sierra Morena, 55 miles S.W. of the town of Ciudad Real. AlmagestALMAGEST, compounded of the Arabic al and duryt'crrri, the name applied by the Arabians to their translation of the Mryari ,-11,.rhel.s of Claudius Ptolemy, which contains a large collection of problems in geometry and astronomy. AlmagroALMAGRO, a town of Spain, in the province of Ciudad Real, 12 miles E.S.E. of the town of that name. Almagro, Diego DeALMAGRO, DIEGO DE, a Spanish commander, the companion and rival of Pizarro, was born at Aldea del Rey in 1475. AlmaliALMALI, a prosperous town of Asiatic Turkey, situated on the river Myra, 25 miles from its mouth, and 50 miles W.S.W. of Adalia. Al-mamunAL-MAMUN (also written AL-MAMOUN, AL-3IAMON, and simply MAmuN), one of the most renowned of the Abbasside dynasty of caliphs, was born in 786 A.D. He was the son of Harun-al-Raschid, whose caliphate is the golden age of lselahometan history. Harun, dying in 808, left the supremacy to his son Al-Amin, Al-Mamun being at the time governor of Khorassan, and favourable to the succession of his brother.… AlmanacALMANAC, a book or table, published from year to year, containing a calendar of the days, weeks, and months of the year, a register of ecclesiastical festivals and saints' days, and a record of various astronomical phenomena, particularly the rising and setting of the sun, the changes and phases of the moon, eclipses of the sun and moon, the times of high water at particular ports, &c. In addition… AlmansaALMANSA, a town of Spain, in the province of Albacete, 35 miles E.S.E. of the town of that name, on the Madrid and Alicante railway. The surrounding plain is very fertile, and irrigated by means of a large reservoir. There are manufactures of linen and cotton fabrics, and also of brandy, leather, and soap. A Moorish castle is to be seen on a hill to the north-west of the town. About a mile from Ah… AlmeidaALMEIDA, a strongly-fortified town of Portugal, in the province of Beira, situated between the Coa and the Dims Casas, a branch of the Agueda, 95 miles N.E. of Coimbra, and 25 miles from the Spanish fortress of Ciudad Rodrigo. Almeida, Don Francisco DeALMEIDA, DON FRANCISCO DE, the first viceroy of Portuguese India, was born at Lisbon about the middle of the 15th century. He was the seventh son of the second Count of Abrantes, and thus belonged to one of the most distinguished families in Portugal. In his youth he took part under Ferdinand of Aragon in the wars against the Moors (1485-92). In March 1505, having received from Emmanuel I. the app… AlmeriaALMERIA, the capital of the above province, lies on the Gulf of Almeria, on the Mediterranean, 72 miles E.S.E. of Granada. From the strength of the port it was deemed by the Moorish kings of Granada one of the most valuable of their fortresses and their best commercial harbour. Sailing hence, their cruisers overawed the Catalans and Italians, and their merchant ships conveyed the produce of the co… AlmeriaALMERIA, a modern province of Spain, comprehending the eastern portion of the ancient kingdom of Granada. It is bounded on the N. by Jaen and Murcia, on the E. and S. by Murcia and the Mediterranean, and on the W. by Granada ; with an area of about 3300 square miles. The province is traversed by mountain ridges, some of them of considerable elevation, with corresponding valleys and plains of great… AlmohadesALMOHADES (Almoahedun, Unitarian), a Mahometan dynasty that flourished in Africa and in Spain during th 1 2 th and 13th centuries. Mohammed-Ibn-Abdallah, the founder of the Almoahedun sect, was the son of a lamplighter in the great mosque at Sous-el-Aksa. He studied at Cordova, and afterwards visited Cairo and Baghdad, where he became the disciple of the famous philosopher Algazali. In order to es… AlmonALMON, JouN, a political pamphleteer and publisher of considerable note, was born at Liverpool about 1738. In early life he was apprentice to a printer in his native town, and he subsequently spent two years at sea. He came to London in 1758, and at once commenced a career which, if not important in itself, had a very important influence on the political history of the county. The opposition, hamp… AlmondALMOND. This is the fruit of Amygdalus comniunis, a plant belonging to the natural order Rosaceme, sub-order Amygdaleae or Drupifer. The tree appears to be a native of Asia, Barbary, and Marocco; but it has been extensively distributed over the warm temperate region of the Old World. It is a tree of moderate size; the leaves are oblonglanceolate, and serrated at the edges; and the flowers, which … AlmondburyALMONDBURY, an extensive parish and township of Yorkshire in England, lying to the S.E. of Huddersfield. As the manufactures of Huddersfield have increased, various outlying districts have been built on, so that the parish of Almondbury now includes a considerable part of that important and flourishing town. The parish contains 28,092 acres. The town lies on the river Calder, 2 miles S.E. of Hudde… AlmonerALMONER, in its primitive sense, denotes an officer in religious houses, to whom belonged the management and distribution of the alms of the house. AlmoraALMORA, the principal town in the British district of Kumaon, within the lieutenant-governorship of the North-Western Provinces, is situated in 29? 35' N. lat., and 79? 42' E. long. The town is built on the crest of a ridge of the Himalayas, running east and west, and 5337 feet above sea-level. It consists chiefly of a single street, about 50 feet wide and three-quarters of a mile long, closed by … AlmoravidesALMORAVIDES, a family of Mahometan princes who reigned in Africa and in Spain between 1073 and 1147 A.D. This appellation was derived from the sect of AlMorabethun (Dedicated to the service of God), which arose about the middle of the 11th century, among a poor ignorant tribe of Berbers inhabiting the mountains of Atlas, on the shores of the Atlantic Ocean. At the request of a sheik of Lamtouna, w… Almqvist, Karl Jonas LudwigALMQVIST, KARL JONAS LUDWIG, one of the most 'extraordinary figures that the history of literature can produce, was born at Stockholm in 1793. He began life under highly favourable auspices ; but becoming tired of a university career, he threw up the position he held in the capital to lead a colony of friends to the wilds of Worm-land. This ideal Scandinavian life soon proved a failure ; Almqvist … Almug Or Algum TreeALMUG or ALGUM TREE. AlmunecarALMUNECAR, a small seaport town of Spain, in the province of Granada, about 33 miles south of the town of that name. AlnwickALNWICK, the county town of Northumberland, is situated on the south bank of the river Alne, 310 miles N. of London, 34 N. of Newcastle, and 29 S. of Berwick. There are remains of the old wall which surrounded the town, and one of the four gates still exists; but most of the houses are comparatively modern, and are laid out in well-paved spacious streets. In the market-place there is a large town-… AloeALOE. Aloes is a medicinal substance used as a purgative, and produced from various species of aloe, such as A. spicata, vulgaris, socotrina, indica, and puiTurascens, all belonging to the natural order Liliacem. Several kinds of aloes are distinguished in commerce - Barbadoes, socotrine, hepatic, Indian, and Cape aloes. The first two are those commonly used for medicinal purposes. Aloes is the in… Aloidle, Or AloiadxALOIDLE, or ALOIADX, the designation of Otus and Ephialtes, sons of Poseidon by Iphimedea, wife of Aloeus. Alompra, Aloung PALOMPRA, ALOUNG P'uouRA, founder of the reigning dynasty in Burmah, was born in 1711 at Monchaboo, a small village 50 miles north-west of Ava. Of humble origin, he had risen to be chief of his native village when the invasion of Birmah by the king of Pegu in 1752 gave him the opportunity of attaining to the highest distinction. The whole country had tamely submitted to the invader, and the leading… Alost, Or AalstALOST, or AALST, a town of Belgium, on the eastern frontier of the province of East Flanders, about midway between Ghent and Brussels. AlpacaALPACA is a name applied generally to several, allied South American wool-bearing animals, but more properly restricted to one of the species. It is further used to distinguish the wool obtained from these animals, and the woven textures manufactured from the wool are also known as alpacas. The alpacas or llamas are natives of the lofty table-lands and mountain-range of the Andes in Peru and Chili… Alp Arslan Or AxanALP ARSLAN or AXAN, MOHAMMED BEN DAOUD, tho second sultan of the dynasty of Seljuk, in Persia, and greatgrandson of Seljuk, the founder of the dynasty. He was born in the year 1029 A.D., 421 of the Hegira. He assumed the name of Mohammed when he embraced the Mussulman faith; and on account of his military prowess he obtained the surname Alp Arslan, which signifies " a valiant lion." He succeeded h… AlpesALPES, the name of three departments in the southeast of France, - Basses Alpes, Ilautes Alpes, and Alpes Maritimes. Alpes MaritimesALPES MARITIMES, bounded on the N. by Basses Alpes and the kingdom of Italy, which also forms its boundary on the E.; on the S. by the Mediterranean Sea; and on the W. by Var and Basses Alpes. It extends at the widest points 55 miles from N. to S., and 50 from E. to W.; and contains an area of 1517 square miles. The surface of this department, like that of the two former, is more or less mountaino… Alpha And OmegaALPHA and OMEGA (A and Si), the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, frequently employed to symbolise the idea of completeness or infinity. AlphabetALPHABET A LIST OF SYMBOLS an alphabet we mean a list of symbols which represent conventionally to the eye the sounds which are heard in the speech of a nation. An alphabet will therefore be perfect if the number of its symbols exactly corresponds to the number of simple sounds which are commonly distinguishable in the spoken language. But this perfection has probably never yet been reached ; all … AlpheusALPHEUS, (AX(/)ELOs.), the chief river of Peloponnesus, now called Rufia or Rouphi. AlphonsoALPHONSO V., _African?, was born in 1432, and succeeded his father Edward in 1433. Durino. his minority he was placed under the regency, first of his mother, and latterly of his uncle, Don Pedro. In 1448 he assumed the reins of government, and at the same time married his cousin Isabella, daughter of Don Pedro. In the following year, being led by what he afterwards discovered to be false represent… AlphonsoALPHONSO V. succeeded his father Bermudo II. in 999, being then about five years of age. AlphonsoALPHONSO V. of Aragon, I. of Sicily and Sardinia, and latterly I. of Naples, was born in 1385, and succeeded his father, Fernando the Just, as king of Aragon and of Sicily and Sardinia, in 1416. In 1420 Joanna I. of Naples offered to make Alphonse her successor if he would assist her against Louis of Anjou. This he did; but, owing to misunderstandings, the queen revoked her adoption of .Alphonso i… Alphonso, Alfonso, A-lonzoALPHONSO, ALFONSO, A-LONZO, AFFONSO, or ILDEFONSO. Alphonso IiALPHONSO II., "The Fat," was born in 1185, and succeeded his father, Sancho I., in 1211. Alphonso IiALPHONSO II., surnamed "The Chaste," King of the Astu- rias, the son of Fruela I., was but a child when his father was assassinated in 768, and consequently his claims to the throne were passed over in favour of Aurelio, who was probably a cousin of Fruela. Alphonso was invested with regal authority by Silo, the successor of Aurelio ; on whose death, in 783, he became sole ruler. He was afterwards… Alphonso IiiALPHONSO III., surnamed "The Great," King of the Asturias, was born in the year 848, and succeeded his father Ordorio I. in 866. In the following year, Fruela, count of Galicia, disputed Alphonso's right of succession, and forced him to retire to Alava ; but Fruela's tyranny so exasperated the people that he was assassinated before he had been a year in power, and they gladly recalled Alphonso to … Alphonso IiiALPHONSO III., son of Alphonse II., was born in 1210, and succeeded his brother, Sancho II., in 1248. Alphonso IvALPHONSO IV., " The Monk," King of Leon, succeeded Fruela II., his uncle in 924. Alphonso IvALPHONSO IV. was born in 1290, and in 1325 succeeded his father, Dionis, whose death he had hastened by his intrigues and rebellions: Hostilities with the Castilians and with the Moors occupied many years of his reign, during winch he gained some successes; but by consenting to the barbarous murder of Iiiez de Castro, who was secretly espoused to his son Pedro, he has fixed an indelible stain on his character. Alphonso IvALPHONSO IV., son of Jay-me II., was born in 1299, and ascended the throne in 1327. Alphonso ViALPHONSO VI. of Leon, and eventually I. of Castile, surnamed " The Valiant," was born in the year 1030. His father, Fernando the Great, who in his own right was king of Castile only, but succeeded to the throne of Leon in right of his wife, died in 1065, leaving his kingdom divided among his children. Sancho, the eldest son, received as his portion Castile ; to Alphonso was given the kingdom of Le… AlphonsusALPHONSUS A SANCTA MARIA, or ALPHONSO DE CARTAGENA., a celebrated Spanish historian, was born at Carthagena in 1396, and died on the 12th July 1456. Alpiionso IxALPIIONSO IX. (VIII.), King of Leon only, succeeded his father Fernando in 11S8. In 1190 he sought to strengthen his position by marrying his cousin Teresa of PortugaL This marriage, being within the forbidden degrees, was pronounced null by t-he pope (Celestine III.), who excom. municated Alphonso and his queen until 1195, when they agreed to separate. In 1197 Alphouso a second time defied the pa… Alpiionso ViALPIIONSO VI., the second king of the house of Braganza, was born in 1643, and succeeded his father in 1656. Alpiionso ViiiALPIIONSO VIII. of Leon (or VII., according to those who do not consider Alphonso of Aragon as properly a king of Leon) .and II. (or III.) of Castile, often called Alphonso liaymond and " The Emperor," was born in the year 1106. He was the son of Urraca, daughter of Alphonso VI., and Raymond of Burgundy, her first husband. In 1112 he was proclaimed king of Galicia, by whom it does not clearly a,pp… AlpiniALPINI, Prtosrnue (in Latin Prosper Alpinus), a celebrated physician and botanist, was born at Marostica, in the republic of Venice, on the 23,1 November 1553. In his youth he served for a time in the Milanese army, but in 1574 he quitted it, and went to Padua to study medicine. He was admitted to the degree of doctor of physic in 1578, soon after which he left the university, and settled as a phy… Alps European Mountain ChainALPS EUROPEAN MOUNTAIN CHAIN taking a general view of the earth's surface, the continent of Europe appears to be no more than a great peninsula extending westward from the much vaster continent of Asia. Its shores are deeply indented by two inland seas connected by narrow straits with the Atlantic Ocean, and these in their turn are divided into gulfs that penetrate still more deeply into the land,… Alptionso XlALPTIONSO XL, " The Avenger," was an infant when he succeeded his father, Ferdinand 1V., in 1312. During his long minority the kingdom was cruelly distracted by intestine warfare. Assuming the reins of government in 1324, he strove to repress the turbulent spirit of the nobility, and to put down that system of brigandage to which it had given rise, acquiring by his inflexible severity the title of… Alpujarras, Or AlpuxarasALPUJARRAS, or ALPUXARAS, a mountainous district in the south of Spain, in the province of Andalusia, lying between the Sierra Nevada and the Sierras Lugar and Contraviesa, and consisting principally of valleys, which descend at right angles from the crest of the Sierra Nevada. Alredus, Alured, Or AluredusALREDUS, ALURED, or ALUREDUS, of Beverley, one of the earliest English historians, was born at Beverley, in Yorkshire. Ile wrote in the reign of Henry I., but little is known with certainty of his life. It is generally believed that he was educated at Cambridge, and afterwards became one of the canons and treasurer of the church of St John's at Beverley. We learn from a note in Bishop Tanner's Bib… AlresfordALRESFORD (NEw), a market town in Hampshire, so named from a ford on the river Arle, a tributary of the Itchin, on which it is situated. AlsaceALSACE (Germ. Elsass), a former province of France, divided after the Revolution into the departments of Haut Rhin and Bas Rhin, and incorporated since the war of 1870 with the German empire. It is bounded on the north by the Rhine palatinate, on the east by the Rhine, on the south by Switzerland, and on the west by the Vosges Mountains ; and it comprises an area of 3314 English square miles. The … AlsenALSEN, an island in the Baltic, situated off the coast of Schleswig, in the Little Belt. Alsop, VincentALSOP, VINCENT, a celebrated Nonconformist divine, was educated in St John's College, Cambridge. He received deacon's orders from a bishop, whereupon he settled as assistant-master in the free school of Oakham, Rutland. He was recovered from indifferent associates here by a very worthy minister, the Rev. Benjamin King. Subsequently he married Mr King's daughter, and " becoming a convert to his pri… Alsted, Joiiann HeinrichALSTED, JOIIANN HEINRICH, a German Protestant divine, and one of the most voluminous writers of the 17th century, was born in 1588. Alston, CharlesALSTON, CHARLES, M.D., a botanical and medical writer, was born in the west of Scotland in the year 1683. Alstroemer, JonasALSTROEMER, JONAS, a Swedish industrial reformer, was born at Alingsaes, in West Gothland, on the 7th Jan. 1685. He left his native village at an early age, and in 1707 became clerk to Alberg, a merchant of Stockholm, whom he accompanied to London. After carrying on business for three years, Alberg failed, and Alstrum (as the clerk then called himself) engaged in the business of shipbroker on his … Altai MountainsALTAI MOUNTAINS, a group of mountains in central Asia, separating the table-lands of Mongolia from Siberia. AltamuraALTAMURA, a cathedral town in the south of Italy, province of Terra di Bari, 28 miles S.W. of Bari. AltarALTAR, in Classical Antiquity, was a solid base or pedestal on which supplication was made and sacrifice offered to the gods and deified heroes. According to this difference in the service for which they were employed, altars fell into two classes, of which the one, smaller and lower so that the suppliant could kneel upon it, stood inside temples, in front of the sacred image ; while the other, de… Altdorfer, AlbrechtALTDORFER, ALBRECHT, a painter and engraver of the early German school, was born at Regensburg, not later than 1480, and died in 1538. Altdorf, Or AltorfALTDORF, or ALTORF, a town in Switzerland, capital of the canton of Uri, situated at the northern end of the pass of St Gotthard, near the lake of Lucerne. AltenburgALTENBURG, a town in Germany, capital of the duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, situated near the river Pleisse, about 24 miles south of Leipsic. The town, from its hilly position, is irregularly built ; but many of its streets are wide, and contain a number of large and beautiful buildings. Its ancient castle is picturesquely situated on a lofty rock, and is memorable as the place from which, in 1455, Kunz… Alten Getting, Or AltoettingALTEN GETTING, or ALTOETTING, a small market town in Upper Bavaria, situated on the Morn, not far from its junction with the Inn. AltensteinALTENSTEIN, a castle upon a rocky mountain in Saxe-Meiningen, on the south-western slope of the Thiiringer Wald, not far from Eisenach. AltinALTIN, a lake of Siberia, which gives rise to the Bija, one of the head streams of the Obi, is situated among the Altai mountains, 320 miles south of the city of Tomsk. Alting, HeinrichALTING, HEINRICH, a German divine, was born at Embden in 1583. His father, Menso Alting, was minister of Embden, and early destined his son to the same profession. He studied with great assiduity and success at the universities of Herborn and Groningen. In 1608 he was appointed tutor of Frederick, afterwards elector-palatine, at Heidelberg, and in 1612 accompanied him to England. Returning in 1613… Alting, JacobALTING, JACOB, son of the preceding, was born at Heidelberg in 1618. He studied theology and the Oriental languages at Groningen, and in 1638 he put himself under the tuition of a Jewish rabbi at Embden. In 1640 he went to England, and was admitted to clerical orders by Dr Pricleaux, bishop of Worcester; but an offer of the Hebrew professorship in the university of Groningen induced him to return … AltonALTON, a town in Madison county, Illinois, United States, stands on a high bluff on the left bank of the Mississippi, 21 miles above St Louis, and 3 above the mouth of the Missouri. AltonALTON, a town of Hampshire, on the Wey, 17 miles E. of Winchester, and 47 S.W. of London by road; by the London and South-Western Railway it is 60 miles from London. AltonaALTONA, the richest and most populous city of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, is situated on the north bank of the Elbe, so close to Hamburg that the two cities are virtually one. The rise of Altona to its present position has been rapid, at least for a continental city, and is mainly due to the fostering care of the Danish government, who established it as a rival to Hamburg. In 1640… AltoonaALTOONA, a town of the United States, in Blair county, Pennsylvania, on the Central Railway, 244 miles west of Philadelphia, situated near the eastern base of the Alleghany Mountain, where the railroad begins to ascend it. Alt, Or AlutaALT, or ALUTA, a tributary of the Danube, which, rising in the eastern Carpathian mountains, flows through Transylvania and Wallachia, entering the latter by the pass of Rothenthurm, and joins the Danube opposite Nicopoli, after a course of more than 300 miles. Alto-rilievoALTO-RILIEVO (high relief) is the term applied to sculpture that projects from the plane to which it is attached to the extent of more than one-half the outline of the principal figures. AltringhamALTRINGHAM, or ALTRINCHATic a market town in the north of Cheshire, 8 miles south of Manchester, with which it is connected by railway. AlumALUM, a compound salt employed in dyeing and various other industrial processes. It is soluble in water, has an astringent, acid, and sweetish taste; reddens vegetable blues, and crystallises in regular octahedrons. When heated, it liquefies ; and if the heat be continued, the water of crystallisation is driven off, the salt frothes and swells, and at last a white matter remains, known by the name… AlumbagiiALUMBAGII, the name of a large park or walled enclosure, containing a palace, a mosque, and other buildings, as well as a beautiful garden, situated about 4 miles from Lucknow, near the Cawnpore road. AluminiumALUMINIUM, a metallic substance, first separated from the chloride by WV filer in 1828. It remained a laboratory product until Deville, about 1858, succeeded in improving the mode of production, so as to render the operations capable of management on the manufacturing scale. The process consists in heating to a red heat a mixture of the double chloride of aluminium and sodium, or the double fluori… AlvaALVA, a village in Stirlingshire, Scotland, situated at the foot of Craigleith, one of the Ochil range, 7 miles N.E. of Stirling, with which it is connected by railway. Alva, Or AlbaALVA, or ALBA, FERNANDO ALVAREZ DE TOLEDO, Duke of, born in 1508, was descended from one of the most illustrious families in Spain. His grandfather, Ferdinand of Toledo, educated him in military science and politics ; and he was engaged with distinction at the battle of Pavia while still a youth. Selected for a military command by Charles V., he took part in the siege of Tunis (1535), and successf… Alvarado, Pedro DeALVARADO, PEDRO DE, one of the Spanish leaders in the discovery and conquest of America, was born at Badajoz about 1495. He held a command in the expedition sent from Cuba against Yucatan in the spring of 1518, and returned in a few months, bearing reports of the wealth and splendour of Montezuma's empire. In February 1519 he accompanied Hernando Cortez in the expedition for the conquest of Mexico… AlvarezALVAREZ, FRANusco, born at Coimbra after 1460, a priest and almoner to Dom Manuel, king of Portugal, was sent in 1515 as secretary to Duarte Galvao, on an embassy to David, kinn. of Abyssinia. The expedition having been delayed by the way, it was not until 1520 that he reached Abyssinia, where he remained six years, returning to Lisbon in 1527. In 1533 he was sent to Rome on an embassy to Pope Cle…
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