Volume 18 [ORN - PHT]: Pathology Errors Of Nervous Control to Yatitt


Volume 18 [ORN - PHT]: Pathology Errors Of Nervous Control to Yatitt

Menu Home Contact & About Privacy Policy	9th Edition of Encyclopedia Britannica - free ninth edition online encyclopedia Britannica Volume 18 [ORN - PHT]: Pathology Errors Of Nervous Control to Yatitt Pathology Errors Of Nervous Control PATHOLOGY ERRORS OF NERVOUS CONTROL - Reference has already been made to the obscure impli-cation of nerve-control in such disorders as Addison's dis-ease, Graves's disease, diabetes, ancl acute yellow atrophy of the liver ; the integrity of the controlling nerve-force may be said to be necessary to the perfect carrying out of the give-and-take of metabolism, or to the full effect of the " ferment… Pathology Errors Of Secretion PATHOLOGY ERRORS OF SECRETION - The pathology of secreting structures is concerned, not only with deviations from their normal activities as de-scribed in physiological treatises, but also with an addi-tional series of phenomena recalling the more elementary or embryonic kinds of cellular activity. Besides those great disorders of glandular structure and function which fall to be considered in the… Pathology Inflammation PATHOLOGY INFLAMMATION - the inflammations may be regarded as an empirically made-up group of disordered states which have somewhat in common. Although inflammation certainly a provisional category, there has always been a tendency to overcrowd it with newly-described morbid conditions, rather than to empty it of its temporary occupants. Whenever patho-logists have become impatient to say the last… Pathology Introduction PATHOLOGY INTRODUCTION - the plan of this article will be to take diseases as they occur in the concrete, and to apply an analytical method to them. In a given disease, or in an individual case of the sante, the object would be to find the point of divergence from the beaten path of health, or, failing that, to seek out the nearest analogies in the physiological life for the unaccustomed and even … Pathology Mesoblastic Tumours PATHOLOGY MESOBLASTIC TUMOURS - No chapter or section treating of tumours as a whole can ' be homogeneous ; and, in order to preserve the develop-mental or evolutional order already sketched, it will be convenient to consider here only a part of the morbid processes which result in tumours, leaving the rest to be introduced at appropriate points in the sequel. The dis-advantage of applying the dev… Pathology Of The Suprarenal And Thyroid PATHOLOGY OF THE SUPRARENAL AND THYROID - (1) Of tke Suprarenal - Addison's Disease. - The peculiar condition of ill health - always fatal - which Addison dis-covered to be associated with caseous degeneration of both suprarenal bodies was described by himself as " anoemia, general languor and debility, remarkable feebleness of the heart's action, irritability' of the stomach, and a peculiar chang… Pathology Process Of Repair PATHOLOGY PROCESS OF REPAIR - the spontaneity of certain polyps under injury is a good example of the indwelling power of all the cells and tissues to return to the established order, to the order and harmony which had been slowly acquired, and of which the memory is vividly retained. Trembley cut a hydra longitudinally, and " in an hour or less," says Paget, " each half had rolled itself and seam… Pathology Progress And Scope PATHOLOGY PROGRESS AND SCOPE - the progress of pathology hitherto has been exactly parallel with the progress of philosophy itself, system suc-ceeding system in genetic order. No other department of biological science has shown itself so little able to shake off the philosophical character, or to run in the career of positivism or pure phenomenalism. This unique position of pathology among the nat… Pathology Specific Infections PATHOLOGY SPECIFIC INFECTIONS - Infective disease of one kind or another stands for a very large part of the total sickness and mortality of man-kind. It is entitled, therefore, to a larger space in a nosological outline than a single section at the end of an article. Each infective disease has to be considerol by, itself, from the natural-history point of view, and the salient facts of its histor… Patidubitz PATIDUBITZ, a town of Bohemia, situated at the confluence of the Elbe and the Chrudinika, 55 miles to the east of Prague. Patmos PATMOS (now pronounced bythe natives "Pat ino"), an island in the east of the 2Egean Sea, one of the group of the Sporades, about 28 miles south-south-west of Sa,mos. It lies in 37? 20' N. hat and 26? 35' E. long. Its greatest length from north to south is about 10 miles, its greatest brea,dth 6, its circumference, owing to the winding nature of the coast, about 37. The island, which is volcanic, … Patna PATNA, chief city of the above district, is situated in 25? 37' 15" N. lat. and 85? 12' 31" E. long., on the right or south bank of the Ganges, and adjoining Bankipur, the civil station and administrative headquarters of the dis-trict. Its central position at the junction of three great rivers, the Son, the Gandak, and the Ganges, where the traffic of the North-Western Provinces meets that of Beng… Patna PATNA, a native state in the Central Province:, of India, lying between 20? 5' and 21? N. lat., and between 82? 45' and 83? 40' E. long., has an estimated area of 2399 square miles, of which 550 are under cultivation, and other 950 are returned a,s cultivable. The country is an undulating plain, rugged and isolated, with ridges of hills crossing it here and there, aud shut in on the north by a lof… Patna PATNA, a district in the lieutenant-governorship of Bengal, and in the division or commissionership of Patna,' lying between 24? 58' and 25? 42' N. lat., and between 84? 44' and 86? 5' E. long., is bounded on the N. by the, river Ganges, which separates it from Saran, Muzaffarpur, and Darbhangah, on the E. by Monghyr, on the S. by Gaya, and on the IV. by the Son, which separates it from Shaliabad.… Patrialicii PATRIAlICII (7.-arpctipvis, lit. the head or ruler of a 7,-urpcci, tribe, family, or clan) occurs four times in the New Testament, being applied to Abraham, the twelve sons of Jacob collectively, and David, and several times in the LXX., where the word is used to denote the officials called by the chronicler "princes of the tribes of Israel," " princes of hundreds," "chiefs of the fathers." Under … Patrician PATRICIAN. The history, in the Roman state, of the hereditary patrician order (patrieii, patres, house-fathers, goodmen) who originally constituted the entire populus Rontanus has been traced in the article NOBILITY (V01. xvii. pp. 52,5-6). With the transference of the imperial capital to Byzantium under Constantine, the title patricius became a personal and not a.n hereditary distinction ; the na… Patrick, Simon PATRICK, SIMON (1626-1707), bishop of Chichester, and afterwards of Ely, author of a number of works in practical divinity, was born at Gainsborough, Lincolnshire, on 8th September 1626, entered Queens' Colleo.e, Cam-bridffe in 1644, and, after taking orders in 165f, became , successively chaplain to Sir Walter St John, and vicar of Battersea, Surrey. He was afterwards (1662) preferred to the rect… Patrick, St PATRICK, ST. In one of the incursions of the Scots and Picts upon the neighbouring Roman province south of the wall of Severus, probably- that of 411 A.n., the year after Honorius had refused aid to the Britons, a youth of about fifteen was carried off with many others from the district in the neighbourhood of the wall at the head of the Solway, and sold as a slave on the opposite coast of Ireland… Patron And Client PATRON AND CLIENT. Clientage appears to have been an institution of most of the GI-tow-Italian peoples in early- stages of their history; but it is in Rome that we , can most easily trace its origin, progress, and decay. 1:ntil the reforms of Servius Tullius, the only citizens proper were the members of the patrician or gentile houses; they alone could participate in the solemnities of the nationa… Patteson PATTESON, Jonif COLERIDGE (1827-1871), bishop of Melanesia, was the eldest son of Justice Patteson and Frances Duke Coleridge, a near relation of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and was born in Gower Street, Bedford Square, 2d April 1827. He was educated at Ottery St Mary, and at Eton, where he greatly distinguished himself on the cricket-field. He entered Balliol College, Oxford, in 1845, and graduated … Pattila PATTiLA, one of the eis-Sntlej states, Punjab, India, lying between 29? 23' 15" and 30? 54' N. lat., and be-tween 74? 40' 30" and 76? 59' 15" E. long., has an area of 5887 square miles, and a population (1881) of 1,467,433. Paul PAUL I., pope from 757 to 767, succeeded his brother Stephen III. on 29th May 757. Paul PAUL was a " Hebrew of the Hebrews," i.e., of pure Jewish descent uninixed with Gentile blood, of the tribe of Benjamin (Rom. xi. 1 ; 2 Cor. xi. 22 ; Phil. iii. 5). In the Acts of the Apostles it is stated that he was born at Tarsus in Cilicia (ix. 11, xxi. 39, xxii. 3); but in the 4th century there still lingered a tradition that his birthplace was Giscala, the last of the fortress-towns of Galil… Paul PAUL V., Camillo Borghese, pope from 1605 to 1621, was born in Rome, 17th September 1552, of a noble family. He followed the study of canon law, and after having filled various important offices was made a cardinal in 1596. He succeeded Leo XI. on 16th May 1605, after an unusually long and stormy conclave, the vicissitudes of which are dramatically narrated in 3.Ir T. A. Trollope's Paul the Pope a… Paul PAUL (1754-1801), emperor of Russia, son of Peter III. 0,nd of Catherine, wa-s born on the 2d of October 1754. During the early part of his life he was treated with great harshness by his mother, who had usurped the throne and did not allow him to take any- part in the government. There is little doubt that she did not intend him to succeed, but her will was burnt by one of Paul's adherents. His d… Paulding, James Kirke PAULDING, JAMES KIRKE (1778-1860), in his day a successful 'politician, and a writer of some distinction, wa-s born in Dutchess county, New York, United States, on 22d August 1778, and, after a brief course of edu-cation at the village school, removed to New York city in 1800, to reside with his brother-in-law, William Irving, a brother of Washington Irving. In connexion with the latter Paulding b… Paulicians PAULICIANS (HavAuct.avot), the name of a religious sect which sprang up in Armenia in the latter half of the ith century. Their founder was Constantine, belong-ing to a village near Samosata called 3Iananalis, where a dualistic, perhaps Marcionite, community had long sub-sisted. About 660 A.D. his attention had been drawn to the New Testament, and especially to the epistles of Paul, whence, he der… Paul Ii PAUL II., Pietro Barbo, pope from 1464 to 1471, was born at -Venice, 28th February 1418. He was on the mother's side the great-nephew of Gregory XII. and the nephew of Eugenius IV., to whose favour lie owed his ele-vation to the cardinalate at the early age of twenty-two. He seems, however, to have made no especial figure at the papal court until the death of Calixtus III. in 14-58, when we hear o… Pauli, Reinhold PAULI, REINHOLD (1823-1882), historian, was born at Berlin on 25th May 1823. Froin his mother, who was of Huguenot descent, he derived a vivacious temperament ; from his father, a minister of the Reformed Church, sprung of a family of clergymen and theological professors, he inherited strong religious convictions. He spent his boy-hood in Bremen, from whose republican citizens he early imbibed a h… Paul Of Samosata PAUL OF SAMOSATA, bishop of Antioch from about 260 A.D., is famous in. church history as the author of the last attempt to replace the doctrine of the essential (phy-sical) divinity of Christ by the old view of the human personality of the Redeemer. The effort was not success-ful even within his own community. At an Oriental general council, held at Antioch as early as the year 264, his teaching w… Paulus Diaconus PAULUS DIACONUS, the historian of the Lombard dominion in Italy, flourished in the 8th century (see LOMBARDS, VOL xiv. p. 813). An ancestor of his named Leupichis entered Italy in the train of Alboin and received an allotment of lands at or near Forum Julii (Friuli). By an invasion of Avars all the five sons of this warrior were swept 'off into Illyria, but one, his namesake, returned through many… Paulus, Heinrich Eberhard Gottlob PAULUS, HEINRICH EBERHARD GOTTLOB (1761-1851), the distinguished representative of the rationalistic school of German theologians of the beginning of this century, was born at Leonberg, near Stuttgart, 1st September 1761. His father, the Lutheran clergyman at Leonberg, was convinced of the immortality of the soul by spirit-ualism, and was deprived of his living in consequence of his belief in the … Paulus, Julius PAULUS, JULIUS. See ROMAN LAW. the other a few days after, his triumph. The veteran was thus left without a son to bear his name ; for of his two sons by his first wife Papiria, the elder had been adopted by Quintus Fabius Maximus, Hannibal's great opponent, and the younger by the son of Scipio Africanus. The latter, known as P. Cornelius Scipio Yanilianus, was the conqueror of Carthage and Numant… Pausanias PAUSANIAS, the general who led the Greeks to vic-tory at Plattea, was a Spartan and a member of the Agid branch of the royal house. In 479 B.C. he succeeded his father Cleombrotus as regent and guardian of his cousin the youthful king Plistarchus, rind in the same year lie was appointed, by virtue of his rank, to lead the army despatched by the Spartans to help the Athenians ag,ainst the Persians … Pausanias PAUSANIAS, a, prose-writer (A.oyoypdq5os) of Greek traditions, mythical and historical, and a critic of Greek art. His important work, in ten books called. TAXaos Hytinnicrls, usually known as PUUSaniX eSCPiptiO G VeeCia7, has come down to us entire. It is strictly an itinerary through the Peloponnesus, including Attica, Lceotia, and Phocis, with a rather slight mention of the adjacent islands and… Pavia PAVIA, a city of Italy, the chief town of a province, and a, bishop's see, is situated at a height of 270 feet above the sea-level, 221 miles by rail south of Milan, on the left bank. of the Ticino, about 2 miles above its junction with the Po. The railway from Milan to Genoa, which is there joined by- lines from Cremona., 47c., crosses the river on a fine bridge constructed in 1865 ; and, farther… Pavlograd PAVLOGRAD, a town of European Russia, at the head of a district in the government of Ekaterinoslaff, on the river Voltch'ya, 13 miles from its junction with the Samara (a tributary of the Dnieper), and a short distance to the left of the railway from Kharkoff to Sebastopol. Pawttjcket PAWTTJCKET, a town of the United States, in Provid-ence county, Rhode Island, 4 miles north-east of Providence by the Providence and Worcester Railroad, is situated on both sides of the navigable Pawtucket river (Blackstone river above the falls), which falls about 50 feet at this point, affording abundant water-power. Paxo, Or Paxos PAXO, or PAXOS, one of the IONIAN ISLANDS (q.v.), about 8 miles south of the southern extremity of Corfu, is a hilly mass of limestone 5 miles long by 2 broad, and not more than 600 feet high. Though it has only a single stream and a few springs, and the inhabitants were often obliged, before the Russians and English provided them with cisterns, to bring water from tbe mainland, Paxo is well cloth… Paxton, Sip, Joseph PAXTON, SIP, JOSEPH (1803-1865), architect and orna-mental gardener, was born of humble parents at Milton Bryant, near Woburn, 13edfordshire, and was educated at the grammar-school of that t,own. Having served his typrenticeship as gardener, he obtained employment at Chiswick, the seat of the duke of Devonshire, and eventually became superintendent of the duke's gardens and grounds at Chatsworth, … Payment PAYMENT, in English law, is one of the modes of per-formance of an obligation, and consists in the discharge of a sum due in money or the equivalent of money. In order that payment may extinguish the obligation it is necessary that it should be ma,de at a proper time and place, in a proper manner, and by and to a proper person. If the sum due be not paid at the appointed time, the creditor is enti… Paysandu PAYSANDU, fornierly SAN BENITO, a port and depart-mental town of Uruguay, is situated on the left bank of the river -Uruguay in 32? 20' S. lat. and 58? l' AV. long., 270 miles by river from Montevideo, and 120 miles by road from Durazno, the present terminus of the railway. Payta, Or Fajta PAYTA, or FAJTA, a town of Peru, in the province of Piura, with only 2390 inhabitants in 1876, but of imare a good harbour and an iron custom-house. Peabody, George PEABODY, GEORGE- (1795-1869), philanthropist, was descended from an old yeoman family of Hertfordshire, England, named Pabody or Pebody, who, six generations before his birth, had emigrated to New England. He was born at Danvers (now Peabody), Massachusetts, 18th February 1795. The only regular education lie received was at the district school, and when only eleven years of are he became apprentic… Peach PEACH. By Bentham and Hooker the peach is included under the genus Prunus (Prunus persica), and its resemblance to the plum is indeed obvious ; others have classed it with the almond, Amygdalus; while others again have considered it sufficiently distinct to constitute a genus of its own under the name Persica. In general terms the peach may be said to be a medium-sized tree, with lanceolate, stipu… Peacock PEACOCK (the first syllable from the Latin Pavo, in Anglo-Saxon Pans', Dutch Pauuw, German Pfau, French Paon), the bird so well known from the splendid plumage of the male, and as the proverbial personification of pride. A native of the Indian peninsula and Ceylon, in some parts of which it is very abundant, its domestication elates from times so remote that nothing can be positively stated on tha… Peacock, George PEACOCK, GEORGE (1791-1858), mathematician, was born at Thornton Hall, Denton, near Darlington, 9th April Peacock was all his life an ardent educational reformer. While still an undergraduate he formed a league with Herschel, Babbage, and .Hanle to conduct the famous struggle of "d-ism versus dot-age," which ended in the introduction into Cambridge of the Continental notation (T,;(11 in the infini… Peacock, Thomas Love PEACOCK, THOMAS LOVE (1785-1866), novelist and poet, was born at Weymouth, 18th October 1785. His father, a glass merchant in London, died soon after his son's birth, and young Peacock received his education at a private school at Englefield Green, where he distinguished himself by unusual precocity. After a brief experience of business he elected to devote himself to study and the pursuit of lite… Pear PEAR (Pyres communis). The pear has essentially the same floral structure as the apple. In both cases the so-called fruit is composed of the flower-tube or upper end of the flower-stalk greatly dilated, and enclosing within its cellular flesh the five cartilaginous carpels which constitute the " core " and are really the true fruit. From the upper rim of the flower-tube or receptacle are given off… Pearl PEARL, Pearls are calcareous concretions of peculiar lustre, produced by certain molluscs, and valued as objects of personal ornament. It is believed that most pearls are formed by the intrusion of some foreign substance between the mantle of the mollusc and its shell, which, becoming a source of irritation, determines the deposition of nacreous matter in concentric layers until the substance is c… Pearson, John PEARSON, JOHN(1612 -1686), a learned English bishop, was born at Great Snoring in the county of Norfolk, on the 28th of February 1612. After attending Eton, he entered Queens' College, Cambridge, 10th June 1631, and was elected a scholar of King's in April following and a fellow in 1634. Entering holy orders in 1639, he was collated to the prebend of Nether-Avon, in the church of Sarum. In 1640 he… Peccary PECCARY. Under this name are included two species of small pig-like animals forming the genus Dicotyles of Cuvier, belonging to the section Suina of the Artiodactyle Ungulates (see MAMMALIA, vol. xv. p. 430). They are peculiar to the New World, and in it are the only surviving members of the large group now represented in the Old World by the various species of swine, babirussas, wart-hogs, and hi… Pedometer PEDOMETER is an apparatus in the form of a watch, which, carried on the person of a traveller, indicates the number of paces made, and thereby approximately the distance travelled. The ordinary form has a dial-plate with chapters for yards and miles respectively, but in some, miles and their fractions only are indicated, while others are divided for kilometres, The registration is effected by the … Pedro PEDRO (PETER), the name borne by several sovereigns of Aragon, Castile, and Portugal. Three of them were contemporaries, and, to add to the confusion to which this has given rise, each of them was the son and successor of an Alphonso. Aragon. - PEDRO IV. (1317-1387), surnamed "the Ceremonious," succeeded his father Alfonso IV. in 1336, placing the crown upon his own head at Saragossa to make it qu… Peebles PEEBLES, the county town of Peeblesshire, is finely situated at the junction of the Eddlestone Water and the Tweed, and on the North British and Caledonian Railways, 22 miles south of Edinburgh. The new town, consisting of a main street (High Street) with several streets diverging, is situated on the south side of the Eddlestone Water; and the old town, consisting now of only a small number of hou… Peebles PEEBLES, a midland county of Scotland, is bounded N. and N.E. by Midlothian, E. and S.E. by Selkirk, S. by Dumfries, and W. by Lanark. Its outline is somewhat irregular, the greatest length from north to south being about 30 miles, the greatest breadth about 20, and the smallest about 10. The area is 226,899 acres, or about 355 square miles. From the fact that the county lies within the upper vall… Peekskill PEEKSKILL, a manufacturing village of the United States in Cortlandt township, Westchester county, New York, lies on the east bank of the Hudson, 43 miles above New York city, with which it has communication by rail and (in summer) by river. Peel PEEL, Snit ROBERT (1788-1850), twice prime minister and for many years the leading statesman of England, was cashire), - Chamber Hall itself being at the time under and afterwards of Brookside, near Blackburn, was a calicoprinter, who, appreciating the discovery of his townsman Hargreaves, took to cotton-spinning with the spinning-jenny and grew a wealthy man. His father, Robert Peel, third son of… Peele, George PEELE, GEORGE (1558-1598), was one of the group of university poets with whom Shakespeare entered into competition at the beginning of his career. His exact age has been ascertained and the facts of his life diligently searched out by Mr Dyce, the editor of his works. It appears from a deposition made by him at Oxford that he was twenty-five years old in 1583. He took his bachelor's degree at Oxfo… Peerage PEERAGE, the existence of the peerage, as that word is understood in the three British kingdoms, is something altogether peculiar to those kingdoms, and that it has actually- hindered them from possessing a nobility of the Continental type. Before we try to trace out the 'r history of the British peerage, it will be well to show more fully than was done in that article in what the institution cons… Pegasus PEGASUS, a famous horse of Greek fable, was said to have sprung from the trunk of the Gorgon Medusa when her head was cut off by Perseus. Bellerophon caught him as he drank of the spring Peirene on the Acrocorinthus at Corinth, or (according to another version) received him tamed and bridled at the hands of Athene. Mounted on Pegasus, Bellerophon slew the Chimeera and overcame the Solymi and the A… Pegu PEGU, a division of British Burnish, comprising the districts of Rangoon, Hanthawaddy, Tharawadi, and Prome, has an area of 9159 square miles, with a population (in 1881) of 1,162,393. Pegu PEGU, an ancient town in the Rangoon district of British Burmah, is situated on the Pegu river, 20 miles west of the Tsit-toung, in 17? 20' N. lat. and 96? 30' E. long. Peirce, Benjamin PEIRCE, BENJAMIN (1809-1880), mathematician and astronomer, was born at Salem, Massachusetts, 4th April 1809. Graduating at Harvard College in 1829, he became mathematical tutor there in 1831 and professor in 1833. He had already assisted Bowditch in his translation of the Mecanique Celeste, and now produced a series of mathematical text-books characterized by the brevity and terseness which marks… Peking Or Pekin PEKING or PEKIN, the capital of the Chinese empire, is situated in 39? 54' 36" N. lat. and 116? 27' E. long., and stands on the northern extremity of the groat alluvial delta which extends southwards from its walls for 700 miles. For the last nine centuries Peking, under various names and under the dominion of successive dynasties, has, with some short intervals, remained an imperial city. Its sit… Pelagius PELAGIUS I., pope from 555 to 560, was a Roman by birth, and first appears in history at Constantinople in the rank of deacon, and as apocrisiarius of Pope Silverius, whose overthrow in favour of Vigilius his intrigues pro moted. Vigiliu8 continued him in his diplomatic appointment, and he was sent by the emperor Justinian in 542 to Antioch on ecclesiastical business ; he afterwards took part in t… Pelagius PELAGIUS. Of the origin of Pelagius almost nothing is known. The name is supposed to be a Graicized form of the Cymric Hoructit (muir, sea ; yin, begotten). His contemporaries understood that he was of British birth, and gave him the distinctive appellation Brito. He was a large ponderous person, heavy both in body and mind, if we are to believe Jerome ("stolidissimus et Scotorum pultibus proegrav… Pelagius Ii PELAGIUS II., a native of Rome, but of Gothic descent, was pope from 578 to 590, having been consecrated successor of Benedict I., without awaiting the sanction of the emperor, on 27th November of the former year. Pelaoia, St PELAOIA, ST. An Antiochene saint of this name, a virgin of fifteen years, who chose death by a leap from the housetop rather than dishonour, is mentioned by Ambrose (Be Pirg., iii. 7, 33 sq.,'Ep. xxxvii. act &mid.), and is the subject of two sermons by Chrysostom. More famous is the story of another Pelagic of Antioch, a famous ballet-girl of the town, who, in the full flower of her beauty and gui… Pelew, Pellew, Palau PELEW, PELLEW, PALAU, or PALAO, ISLANDS, a group in the western Pacific at the intersection of 134? 30' E. long. by 7?, 8?, and 9? N. lat., which, as it is often considered part of the Caroline Archipelago, has been described in the article CAROLINE ISLANDS, vol. Y. pp. 125, 126. The name Islas Palaos, by which the islands are first designated, is of doubtful but certainly not of native origin, an… Pelham, Sir Henry PELHAM, SIR HENRY (1696-1751), prime minister of England, was the younger brother of Thomas Hones Pelham, duke of Newcastle, and was born in 1696. He was educated by a private tutor and at Christ Church, Oxford, which he entered in July 1710. As a volunteer he served in Dormer's regiment at the battle of Preston in 1715 ; subsequently he spent some time on the Continent, and in 1718 entered parlia… Pelias, Peliades PELIAS, PELIADES. Pelias, a celebrated character in Greek fable, was the son of Poseidon and Tyro, daughter of Sahuoneus. Because Tyro afterwards married her father's brother Cretheus, king of Iolcus in Thessaly, to whom she bore 2Eson, Pheres, and Amythaon, Pelias was by sonic thought to be the son of Cretheus. He and his twin-brother Neleus were exposed by their mother, but were found and nurtur… Pelican PELICAN (Fr. Pelican, Lat. Pdecaints or Pelicanus), a large fish-eating water-fowl, remarkable for the enormous pouch formed by the extensible skin between the lower jaws of its long, and apparently formidable but in reality very weak, bill. The ordinary Pelican, the Onocrotalus of the ancients, to whom it was well known, and the Pelecanus onocrotalus of ornithologists, is a very abundant bird in … Pelissier PELISSIER, .JEAN JACQUES AMABLE (1791-1864), duke of Malakhoff marshal of France, was born 6th November 1794 at Maromme (Seine Inferieure), where his father was employed in a powder-magazine. After attending the military college of La Fleche and the special school of St Cyr, he in 1815 entered the army as sub-lieutenant in an artillery regiment. A brilliant examination in 1819 secured his promotio… Pell1co PELL1CO, StLvio (1788-1854), Italian dramatist, was born at Saluzzo in Piedmont on 24th June 1788, the earlier portion of his life being passed at Pinerolo and Turin under the tuition of a priest named Manavella. A taste for the drama, fostered by private theatrical recitals, showed itself at the age of ten in the composition of a tragedy under the inspiration of Czesarotti's translation of the Os… Pellagra PELLAGRA (Ital. pelle agra, smarting skin) is the name given, from one of its early symptoms, to a peculiar disease, of comparatively modern origin, occurring among the peasantry in Lombardy and other provinces of northern Italy, and in the Asturias (vial de la rosa), Gascony, Roumania, and Corfu. It is a progressive disease of nutrition tending towards profound paralytic and mental disorders, and… Pellicanus, Conrad PELLICANUS, CONRAD (1478-1556), one of the most interesting minor figures in German theology and scholarship in the great age of the Reformation, was born at Ruffach in Alsace in the winter of 1478. His paternal name was Ktirsner, his father's father having been a currier of Wyl in the Black Forest. The Latin name of Pellicanns was chosen for him by his mother's brother Jodocus Gallus, an ecclesia… Pell, John PELL, JoHN (1610-1685), mathematician, was born on 1st March 1610 at Southwick in Sussex, where his father was minister. He was educated at the free school of Steyning, and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, at the age of thirteen. During his university career he made himself an accomplished linguist, and even before he took his M.A. degree (in 1630) he was engaged in learned correspondence with … Pelopidas PELOPIDAS, a distinguished Greek general, who, in conjunction with Epaminondas, raised his native city Thebes to a pitch of power such as she never attained to before or afterwards. He was the son of Hippoclus and member of an illustrious Theban family. The large property to which he succeeded in his youth, and which he seems to have increased by a brilliant marriage, was liberally employed by him… Pelops PELOPS, a hero of Greek mythology, was the grand-eon of Zeus, son of Tantalus and Dione, and brother of Niche. His father's home was on Mount Sipylus in Asia Minor, whence Pelops is spoken of as a Lydian or a Phrygian, or even as a Paphlagonian. Tantalus was a friend and companion of the gods, and one day he served up to them his own son boiled and cut in pieces. The gods detected the crime, and n… Pelouze, Theophile Jules PELOUZE, THEOPHILE JULES (1807-1867), French chemist., was born on 26th February 1807 at Valognes in Normandy, where his father was manager of a porcelain manufactory. The elder Pelouze was a man of great ability and energy, but of a peculiarly susceptible temperament, which made it impossible for him to remain long in any position. He gave up his post at Valognes, and found employment successivel… Peltier, Jean Charles Athanase PELTIER, JEAN CHARLES ATHANASE, was originally a watchmaker, but retired from business about the age of thirty and devoted himself to experimental and observational science. He was born at Ham (Somme) in February 1785 ; his death took place at Paris in October 1845. His great experimental discovery was the heating or cootinv of the junctions in a heterogeneous circuit of metals according to the di… Pelusium PELUSIUM, an ancient city of Egypt, at the mouth of the most easterly (Pelusiac) branch of the Nile, was the key of the land towards Syria and a strong fortress, which, from the Persian invasion at least, played a great part in all wars between Egypt and the East. Pemberton PEMBERTON, an urban sanitary district of Lancashire, England, situated on the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway, miles west from Wigan. Pembroke PEMBROKE, a municipal and parliamentary borough of South Wales, is picturesquely situated on an elevated ridge at the head of Pennar Mouth Creek, on the south side of Milford Haven, 30 miles south-west of Carmarthen. The ruins of the ancient castle, originally founded by Arnulph de Montgomery in 1094, occupy the summit of the ridge. The castle was one of the strongest of the ancient fortresses of … Pembroke PEMBROKE, the most westerly county of South Wales, lies to the west of the counties of Cardigan and Carmarthen, and is bounded on three sides by the ocean - on the S. by the Bristol Channel, on the W. by St George's Channel, and on the N. by Cardigan Bay. Its length from Strumble Head to St Gowan's Head is about 30 miles, and its average breadth a little over 20. The area is 393,682 acres, or abou… Pemp1hgus PEMP1HGUS. See SKIN, DISEASES OF. PEN, an instrument for writing or for forming lines with an ink or other coloured fluid. The English word, as well as its equivalents in French (plume) and in German (Feder), originally means a wing-feather, but in ancient times the implements used for producing written characters were not quills. The earliest writing implement was probably the stylus (Gr. o-rii,k… Penance PENANCE. The word " penance " (powitentia) has a double signification, its strict legal meaning of a penalty inflicted by the formal sentence of a spiritual authority in punishment of an offence, and with the primary object of amending and so benefiting the offender ; and its wider and more popular sense of any ascetic practice adopted, whether voluntarily or under compulsion, for the expiation of… Penarth PENARTH, a seaport of Glamorganshire, Wales, is picturesquely situated on rising ground on the south side of the mouth of the Taff opposite Cardiff, from which it is four miles distant by rail and two by steamer. It was a small and unimportant village until an Act was passed in 1856 for making a tidal harbour, The docks (1865-84) are on a very extensive and complete scale, and the town is now an i… Penates PENATES, Roman gods of the store-room and kitchen, derived their name from pouts, "eatables, food." The store-room over which they presided was, in old times, beside the atrium, the room which served as kitchen, parlour, and bedroom in one ; but in later times the storeroom was in the back part of the house. It was sanctified by the presence of the Penates, and none but pure and chaste persons mig… Pencil PENCIL (Lat. penicillus, a small tail), a name originally applied to a small fine-pointed brush used in painting, and still employed to denote time finer camel's-hair and sable - brushes used by artists, has, in English, come commonly to signify solid cones or rods of various materials used for writing and drawing. Some method of producing black or coloured markings with rods of solid material on … Penelope PENELOPE, the faithful wife of the Greek hero Odysseus (Ulysses), immortalized by Homer in the Odyssey. She was the daughter of the Spartan Icarius and Peribcea. Shortly before Odysseus left his native island of Ithaca to war against Troy, Penelope bore him a son, Telemachus. When her husband tarried long many chieftains of Ithaca and the islands round about wooed her to wife ; they behaved wanton… Penguin PENGUIN, the name (of very uncertain origin) of a flightless sea-bird,' but, so far as is known, first given to one inhabiting the seas of Newfoundland, as in Hore's "Voyage to Cape Breton," 1536 (Hackluyt, Researches, iii. pp. 168-170), which subsequently became known as the Great Auk or GARE-FOWL (vol. x. p. 78) ; and, though the French equivalent Pingollin 2 preserves its old application, at th… Pennant, Thomas PENNANT, THOMAS (1726-1798), naturalist and antiquary, was descended from an old Welsh family, who for many generations had resided at Downing, Flintshire, where he was born 14th June 1726. He received his early education at Wrexham and Fulham, and afterwards attended Queen's and Oriel Colleges, Oxford, but did not take a degree. At twelve years of age he was inspired with a passion for natural hi… Pennsylvania PENNSYLVANIA, one of the original thirteen States I of the North American Union, lying between 39' 43' and 42? 15' N. lat., and between 74' 40' and 80' 36' W. long., is 160 miles wide, and more than 300 miles long from east to west, Its northern, southern, and western border-lines were meant to be straight ; the eastern follows the course of the Delaware river. It is bounded by the States of New Y… Penn, William PENN, WILLIAM (1644-1718), the Quaker, was the son of Admiral William Penn and Margaret Jasper, a Dutch lady, and was born at Tower Hill, London, on 14th October 1644. During his father's absence at sea he lived at Wanstead in Essex, and went to school at Chigwell close by, in which places he was brought under strong Puritan influences. Like many children of sensitive temperament, he had times of … Penrith PENRITH, a market-town of Cumberland, England, is situated near the river Eamont, and on the Lancaster and Carlisle section of the London and North-Western Railway, 18 miles south of Carlisle, and 5 north-east of Ullswater. The town consists chiefly of one long and wide street. To the west once stood an ancient castle, erected as a protection against the Scots, on the site of an old Roman encampme… Pensacola PENSACOLA, a city of the United States, capital of Escambia county, Florida, on the north-west coast of Pensacola Bay. The harbour has recently- been improved so as to secure a uniform depth of 24 feet. Pensacola is the terminus of three railway lines which connect it with Mobile, Montgomery, Jacksonville, and Millview, the starting-place of steamers plying to Cedar Keys, dec., and the seat of a l… Pentateuch And Joshua PENTATEUCH AND JOSHUA. The name Pentateuch, already found in Tertullian and Origen, corresponds to the Jewish menu nrcn (the five-fifths of the Torah, or Law) ; the several books were named by the Jews from their initial words, though at least Leviticus, t Numbers, and Deuteronomy had also titles corresponding to those we use, viz., n,inn men, nrilpBri rvnn (Appeo-4,6Kw8Eti,c, Origen, in Eus., H. … Pentecost PENTECOST, a feast of the .Jews, was in its original meaning, as has been explained in PENTATEUCH (supra, p. 511), the closing feast of the harvest gladness, at which, according to Lev. xxiii. 17, leavened bread was presented at the sanctuary as the firstfruits of the new cereal store. Hence the names " Feast of harvest" (Exod. xxiii. 16), " Day of Firstfruits " (Num. xxviii. 26); but the commoner… Penza PENZA, capital of the above province, is situated 410 miles by rail south-east from Moscow. It is mostly built of wood, on the slopes of a plateau 730 feet above the sea, at the confluence of the little Penza with the navigable Suva. The Spasopreobrajensky cathedral was built in the end of the 17th century, the monastery of the same name, which formerly adjoined it, being now in the suburbs. A. fe… Penza PENZA, a government of eastern Russia, bounded on the N. by Nijni Novgorod, on the E. by Simbirsk, and on the S. and W. by Saratoff and Tamboff, and having an area of 15,000 square miles. The surface is undulating, with deep valleys and ravines, but even in its highest parts it does not reach more than 600 to 900 feet above sea-level. It is chiefly made up of Cretaceous sandstones, sands, marls, a… Penzance PENZANCE, a seaport and municipal borough of Cornwall, and the westernmost borough of England, is finely situated on gently rising ground on the north-western shore of Mount Bay, at the terminus of the Great Western Railway, 10 miles east-north-east of Land's End and 20 west-south-west of Truro. It is the nearest port to the Scilly Isles, which are about 40 miles distant to the west-south-west. Th… Peoria PEORIA, a city of the United States, capital of Peoria county, Illinois, lies on the edge of a rolling prairie at the lower end of the so-called Lake Peoria, an expansion of the Illinois river, and is connected by the Michigan Canal with Chicago. Pepper PEPPER, a name applied to several pungent spices known respectively as black, White, Long, Red or Cayenne, Ashantee, Jamaica, and Melegueta Pepper, but derived from at least three different natural orders of plants. Black pepper is the dried fruit of Piper 711.11111M, L., a perennial climbinc, shrub indigenous to the forests of Travancore and -.1-ralabar, from whence it has been introduced into Ja… Peppermint PEPPERMINT, an indigenous perennial herb of the natural order Labiatw, and genus Mentha, the specific name being Men-Ma Piperita, Huds., is distinguished from other species of the genus by its stalked leaves and oblong-obtuse spike-like heads of flowers. It is met with, near streams and in wet places., in several parts of England and on the Continent, and is also extensively cultivated for the sak… Pepper Tree PEPPER TREE. The tree usually so called has no real consanguinity with the true pepper (Piper), but is a member of the Anacard family known botanically as Schinus _Stolle or Mit/li, the latter epithet representing, it is said, the Peruvian name of the plant. It is a small tree with unequally pinnate leaves, the segments linear, entire or finely saw-toothed, the terminal one longer than the rest, a… Pepys, Samuel PEPYS, SAMUEL (1633-1703), was the fifth child of John Pepys and Margaret (Perkins ? Diary, 17th September 1663), and was born on 23d February 1632/3. His family was of the middle class, and at this time was in humble circumstances, his father being a tailor in London, while an uncle and an aunt, named Perkins, lived in poverty in the Fens near Wisbeach. His father's elder brother Robert had a sma… Perceval, Amand-pierre Caussin De PERCEVAL, AMAND-PIERRE CAUSSIN DE (1795-1871), Orientalist, was born at Paris, where his father was pro- fessor of Arabic in the College de France, on 13th January 1795. In 1814 lie went to Constantinople as a student interpreter, and afterwards travelled in Asiatic Turkey, spending a year with the Maronites in the Lebanon, and finally becoming dragoman at Aleppo. Returning to Paris, he became pro… Perceval, Spencer PERCEVAL, SPENCER (1762-1812), prime minister of England from 1809 to 1812, was the second son of John, second earl of Egmont, and was born in Audley Square, London, in November 1762. He was educated at Harrow and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated M.A. in 1781. He was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1786. A very able speech in connexion with a famous forgery case having drawn… Perch PERCH (Tercet fluviatilis), a freshwater fish generally distributed over Europe, northern Asia, and North America, and so well known as to have been selected- for the type of an entire family of spiny-rayed fishes, the Percidx, which is represented in European freshwaters by several other fishes such as the pope (Arerina cernua) and the pike-pereh (Lucioperca). It inhabits rivers as well as lakes,… Percival, James Gates PERCIVAL, JAMES GATES (1795-1856), an American writer of many-sided activity, but chiefly remembered by his verses, was born at Berlin, Connecticut, on 15th September 1795, and studied at Yale, graduating in 1815, and taking a medical degree in 1820. Percy PERCY. This family, whose deeds are so prominent in English history, claimed descent from one Manfred de Perci, who was said to have come out of Denmark into Normandy before the adventure of the famous Rollo. But it is more certain that two brothers, William and Serlo de Percy, came into England with William the Conqueror, who endowed his namesake the elder with vast possessions in Hampshire, Linc… Percy, Thomas PERCY, THOMAS (1729-1811), bishop of Dromore, the editor of the Percy Pc!ivies, was born at 13ridgnorth 13th April 1729 and baptized at St Leonard's Church 29th April. His father, Arthur Lowe Percy, a grocer by trade, lived in a large house at the bottom of the street called "The Cartway," and acquired sufficient means to send his son, who had received the rudiments of his education at Bridtmorth … Perdiccas PERDICCAS, son of Orontes, a distinguished Macedonian general under Philip and Alexander the Great, and regent of the empire from the death of the latter till he perished in a mutiny in 321 n.c. Perekop PEREKOP, a town of European Russia, in the Crimea, 60 miles south-east of Kherson on the isthmus which connects the peninsula with the continent, and, as its name (perekop, a cutting) indicates, commanding the once defensive ditch and dyke which cross from the Black Sea to the S?vash lagoon. It was formerly an important place, with a great transit trade in salt (obtained from the great salt lakes … Pereyaslaff PEREYASLAFF, a town of European Russia, in the Poltava government, 175 miles west-north-west of Poltava, at the junction of the Trubezh and the Alta, which reach the Dnieper 5 miles lower down at the town's port, the village of Andrushi. Besides the town proper there are three considerable suburbs. Though founded in 993 (by Vladimir Svyatoslavitch in memory of his signal success over the Petcheneg… Pereyaslavl, Or Pereslavl PEREYASLAVL, or PERESLAVL (called Zalyesskii, or "Beyond the Forest," to distinguish it from the older town in Poltava after which it was named), is one of the earliest and most interesting cities in north-west Russia, situated in Vladimir government, 87 miles east of Moscow on the road to Yaroslavl, and on both banks of the Trubezh near its entrance into Lake Pleshtcheevo. Pereyaslavl was formerl… Perez, Antonio PEREZ, ANTONIO (0. 1540-1611), for some years the favourite minister of Philip II. of Spain and afterwards for many more the object of his unrelenting hostility, was by birth an Aragonese. His reputed father, Gonzalo Perez, an ecclesiastic, has some place in history as having been secretary both to Charles V. and to Philip II., and in literature as author of a Spanish translation of the Odyssey (L… Perfumery PERFUMERY is the art of manipulating odoriferous substances for the gratification of the sense of smell. Perfumes may be divided into two classes, the first of which includes all primitive or simple odoriferous bodies derived from the animal or vegetable kingdom, as well as the definite chemical compounds specially manufactured, while the second comprises the various " bouquets " or " m?langes " m… Pericles PERICLES, a great Athenian statesman, and one of the most remarkable men of antiquity, was the son of Xanthippus, who commanded the Greeks at the battle of Mycale in 479 B.C. By his mother Agariste, niece of Clisthenes, who reformed the democracy at Athens after the expulsion of the Pisistratidu, he was connected both with the old princely line of Sicyon and with the great but unfortunate house of… Peridote PERIDOTE, a name applied by jewellers to the green transparent varieties of olivine. When yellow, or yellowish-green, the stone is generally known as "chrysolite." The colour of the peridote is never vivid, like that of emerald, but is usually some shade of olive-, pistachio-, or leek-green. Although sometimes cut in rose-forms and en cabochon, the stone displays its colour most advantageously whe… Perigord PERIGORD, an old province of France which formed part of the military government of Guienne and Gascony, and was bounded N. by Angoumois, E. by Limousin and Quercy, S. by Agenais and Bazadais, and W. by Bordelais and Saintonge. Perigueux PERIGUEUX, formerly capital of Perigord, now chief town of the department of the Dordogne, France, situated on the slope of an eminence commanding the right bank of the Isle, one of the tributaries of the Dordogne. It is 310 miles by rail south-south-west of Paris and 79 miles east-north-east of Bordeaux. Perigueux is divided into three distinct parts. In the middle, on the slope of the hill, is t… Periodicals PERIODICALS may be broadly divided into two classes, the one chiefly devoted to general literature, apart from political and social news (a subject dealt with under the heading of NEWSPAPERS), and the other more exclusively to science and art, or to particular branches of knowledge or trade. The former class, and those of general interest only, will be principally dealt with in this article, where… Peripatetics PERIPATETICS was the name given in antiquity to the followers of Aristotle, from their master's habit of walking up and down as he lectured conversationally to his pupils. Others derive the name from the repiraros, or covered walk of the Lyceum. An account of the Aristotelian philosophy will be found in the articles ARISTOTLE, ETHICS, LOGIC, and METAPHYSIC. Here it must suffice to recall those fea… Peritonitis PERITONITIS, inflammation of the peritoneum or membrane investing the abdominal and pelvic cavities and their contained viscera. It may exist in an acute or a chronic form, and may be either localized in one part or generally diffused. Acute peritonitis may attack persons of both sexes and of any age. It is sometimes brought on, like other inflammations, by exposure to cold, but it would appear to… Perizonius, Jacob PERIZONIUS, JACOB (1651-1715), classical scholar the most distinguished member of a learned Dutch family of that name (Voorbroek in the vernacular), was the eldest son of Anton Perizonius, author of a once well-known treatise, De ratione studii theologici, and was born at Dam in Groningen on 26th October 1651. He received his school education at Dam and Deventer, and afterwards studied in the univ… Perjury PERJURY is an assertion upon an oath duly administered in a judicial proceeding, before a competent court, of the truth of some matter of fact, material to the question depending in that proceeding, which assertion the assertor does not believe to be true when he makes it, or on which he knows himself to be ignorant (Stephen, Digest of the Criminal Law, Art. 135). In the early stages of legal hist… Perkins, Jacob PERKINS, JACOB (1766-184-9), inventor and physicist, was born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, in 1766, and apprenticed to a goldsmith. Perm PERM, capital of the above government, stands on the left bank of the Kama, on the great highway to Siberia, 930 miles north-east from Moscow. During summer it has regular steam communication with Kazan, 685 miles distant, and it is connected by rail with Ekaterinburg. The town is mostly built of wood, with broad streets and wide squares, and has a somewhat poor aspect, especially when Compared wi… Perm PERM, a government of Russia, on both slopes of the Ural Mountains, with an area of 128,250 square miles. Though Perm administratively belongs entirely to Russia in Europe, its eastern part (about 57,000 square miles) is situated in Siberia, in the basin of the Obi. It is traversed from north to south by the Ural range, a low ridge, from 30 to 45 miles in width, thickly covered with forests, and d… Pernambuco, Or Recife PERNAMBUCO, or RECIFE, a city and seaport of Brazil and the chief town of the extensive province of Pernambuco. As it is situated on the coast in 8? 3' 27" 5: lat. and 34? 50' 14" W. long. (Fort Picao), not far from the point where the continent begins to trend towards the south-west, it is naturally the first port visited by steamers `roar Lisbon to Brazil. The reef, which can be traced more or l… Pernau PERNAU, in Russian PERNOFF, a seaport town and watering-place of European Russia, in the government of Livonia, is situated in 58? 23' N. lat. and 24? 30' E. long., 155 miles north of Riga, on the left bank of the Pernau or Pernova, which about half a mile farther down enters the Bay of Pernau, the northern arm of the Gulf of Riga. The town proper is well and regularly built, and contains two publ… Perne, Andrew PERNE, ANDREW (1519-1589), a notable character in 16th-century history, was born at East Bilney in Norfolk in 1519. He received his education at St John's College, Cambridge, was afterwards a fellow of Queens' College, and finally master of Peterhouse in the same university. He is best known as a remarkable example of the tergiversation in reference to religious profession which, owing to the sudd… Peronne PERONNE, chief town of an arrondissement of the department of the Somme, France, and a fortified place on the right bank of that river at its confluence with the stream called the Doingt or Cologne, lies 94 miles north-north-east of Paris on the railway from Paris to Cambrai. Wet moats surround the ramparts, which are built of brick. The church of St Jean (1309-1525) was greatly damaged during the… Pero Olesi PERO OLESI (or BERGOLES4 GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1710-1736), Italian musical composer, was born at Jesi, Ancona, 3d January 1710, and educated at Naples in the Conservatorio dei Poveri di Gesu Cristo, where he studied the violin under Domenico de Matteis, and counterpoint under Gaetano Greco, Durante, and Francesco Feo. While learning all he could from these great teachers he struck out from the very f… Perpetual Motion, Or Perpetuum Mobile PERPETUAL MOTION, or PERPETUUM MOBILE, in its usual significance does not mean simply a machine which will go on moving for ever, but a machine which, once set in motion, will go on doing useful work without drawing on any external source of energy, or a machine which in every complete cycle of its operation will give forth more energy than it has absorbed. Briefly, a perpetual motion usually mean… Perpignan PERPIGNAN (Spanish, Perpiiian), the ancient capita] of Roussillon, and now the chief town of the department of Pyrenees Orientales, France, and a first-class fortress, stands about 66 feet above sea-level, on the right bank of the Tet, 7 miles above the point where it falls into the Mediterranean. The streets of Perpignan are narrow and crooked, and the houses have no architectural pretensions. Th… Perrault, Charles PERRAULT, CHARLES (1628-1703), the most prominent author of France in a specially French kind of literature - the fairy tale - and one of the chief actors in the famous literary quarrel of ancients and moderns, was born at Paris on 12th January 1628. his father, Pierre Perrault, was a barrister, all whose four sons were men of some distinction, - Claude, the second, who was first a physician and t… Perrone, Giovanni PERRONE, GIOVANNI (1794-1876), Roman Catholic theologian, was born at Chieri (Piedmont) in 1794, studied theology at Turin, and in his twenty-first year went to Lome, where he joined the Society of Jesus, and, after his ordination to the priesthood, became a teacher in the Collegium liomanum. Perry PERRY, an alcoholic beverage, obtained by the fermentation of the juice of pears. The manufacture is in all essentials identical with that of CIDER (q.v.), though there are some variations in detail arising from the more abundant mucilage of the pear. The clearest and most concise account of making cider and perry is contained in the fourth part of the Herefordshire Pomona for 1881 (p. 133 sri.). … Persepolis PERSEPOLIS. In the interior of Persia proper, some 40 miles north-east of Shiraz, and not far from where the small river Pulwar flows into the Kur (Kyrus), there is a large terrace with its east side leaning on Kiihi Rahmet (" the Mount of Grace "). The other three sides are formed by a retaining wall, varying in height with the slope of the ground from 14 to 41 feet ; and on the west side a magni… Perseus PERSEUS, a hero of Grecian fable, son of DAYAE (q.v.) and Zeus. When Perseus was grown to manhood Polydectes, the wicked king of Seriphus, cast his eye on Danae; and, that he might rid himself of the son, he exacted of him a promise that he would bring him the head of the Gorgon Medusa. Now the dreadful Gonnoss (q.v.) dwelt with their sisters the Gran (the Gray Women) by the great ocean, far away … Persia PERSIA, or ink-N. In modern political geography these two terms are synonymous ; the kingdom which we call Persia the Persians themselves call Iran. But each of the words has a somewhat complicated history, a brief sketch of which will best explain the connexion between the several subjects which, in an encyclopmdic treatment, naturally demand notice under one or other of the names which head this… Persia Geography And Statistics PERSIA GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTICS - prior to the Christian era the satrapies of Cyrus comprehended roughly an immense range of territory, from the Mediterranean to the Indus and from the Caucasian chain and Jaxartes to the Persian Gulf and rlt abian Ocean. In the 17th and 18th centuries A.D. the conquests of 'Abbas and Nadir kept up these boundaries more or less on the east, but failed to secure the… Persia Greek And Parthian Empires PERSIA GREEK AND PARTHIAN EMPIRES - after the decisive battle of Gaugamela, (331 u.c.) Alexander proclaimed himself king of Asia.3 He never accepted the compromise recommended by Parmenio, which would have left to the Persians the upper satrapies east of Mount Zagrus, and established a sharply-marked natural and ethnographic frontier. Soon a symbolic act, the burning of the palace of Persepolis, a… Persia History PERSIA HISTORY - oriental history, as told by Oriental historians, is for the majority of readers in Europe a study of little attraction. Its genealogies and oft-repeated names are wearisome ; its stories of battle, murder, and rapine are monotonous and cast in one mould ; the mind cannot readily impart life to the dry bones of the more prominent dra7naas persons by conceiving for them any flesh-a… Persia Language PERSIA LANGUAGE - Under the name of Persian is included the whole of that great family of languages occupying a field nearly coincident with the modern Iran, of which true Persian is simply the western division. It is therefore common and more correct to speak of the Iranian family. The original native name of the race which spoke these tongues was Arian. King Darius is called on an inscriptim " a… Persia Literature PERSIA LITERATURE - Persian historians are greatly at variance about the origin of their national poetry. Most of them go back to the 5th Christian century and ascribe to one of the Sasanian kings, BahranigUr or Babram V. (420-439), the invention of metre and rhyme ; others mention as author of the first Persian poem a certain Abulhafs of Soghd, near Samarkand. In point of fact, there is no doubt … Persia Sasanian Empire PERSIA SASANIAN EMPIRE - of the minor kings who ruled in Persis, in the Arsacid period, in real or nominal allegiance to the Parthian "king of kings " we know some names from coins or ancient writers, but we cannot tell whether they were all of one dynasty. In the beginning of the 3d century the kings, who then belonged to a dynasty of which the name probably was Bazrangik, had lost much of their … Persigny, Jean Gilbert Victor Fialin PERSIGNY, JEAN GILBERT VICTOR FIALIN, Due DE (1808-1872), the most devoted servant of Napoleon III., who with the due de Morny and Marshal Saint-Arnaud formed the triumvirate which established the second empire, was born at Saint-Germain Lespinasse (Loire) on 11th January 1808. He came of a pod family, but not a noble one, and, as his father had been killed at the battle of Salamanca in 1812, he w… Persimmon PERSIMMON, the name given to the fruits of Diospyros virginiann in the United States. The tree which bears them belongs to the order Ebenacex, and has oval entire leaves, and moncecious flowers on short stalks. In the male flowers, which are numerous, the stamens are sixteen in number, arranged in pairs, and with the anthers opening by slits. The female flowers are solitary, with traces of stamens… Persius PERSIUS (A. PERSIUS FLACCUS) stands third in order of time of those recognized by the Romans as their four greatest satirists. These represent four distinct periods of the national development - the revolutionary era of the Gracchi, the years immediately preceding the establishment of the monarchy, the first years of the reign of Nero, the age of Domitian and the dawning of the better era which fo… Personal Estate PERSONAL ESTATE. Strictly speaking, the term ESTATE (q.v.) is confined in English law to the extent of interest which can exist in real property. But "personal estate " is a term often conveniently, if not accurately, applied to all property that is not real property. The division of property into real and personal represents in a great measure the division into immovable and movable incidentally … Perth PERTH-, a city of Australia, capital of the colony of IrVestern Australia, is picturesquely situated on the Swan river, 31? 57' 10" S. lat., 115? 52' 20" E. long., 12 miles above Freemantle and l 700 west-north-west of Melbourne. Perth PERTH, an inland county of Scotland, is situated almost in the centre of the country between 56? 4' and 56? 57' N. lat., and between 3? 4' and 4? 50' W. long. The larger part of its border-line is formed of natural boundaries, the Grampians separating it on the west and north from Argyll, Inverness, and Aberdeen, while the Ochils and the Firth of Tay in the south-east divide it from Kinross, Clack… Perth PERTH-, an ancient city, a royal and parliamentary burgh, and the chief town of the above county, is beauti-fully situated at the foot of Iiinnoul chiefly on the west bank of the Tay, about 40 miles north of Edinburgh and about 20 west of Dundee. It is substantially built of stone, and contains a number of good public buildings, while the lower slopes of Kinnoul Hill are studded with villas emboso… Peruzzi, Baldassare PERUZZI, BALDASSARE (1481-1536), architect and painter of the Roman school, was born at Ancajano, in the diocese of Volterra, and passed his early life at Siena, where his father residod. While quite young Peruzzi went to Rome, and there studied architecture and painting ; in the latter he was at first a follower of Perugino. The choir-frescos in San Onofrio on the Janiculan usually attributed to … Peryigilium Yeneris PERYIGILIUM YENERIS, the Vigil of Venus, a short Latin poem, in praise of spring as the season of love and flowers. Written professedly in early spring on the eve of a three-nights' festival (Vigil) in honour of Venus (probably April 1-3), it describes in warm and poetical lan-guage the annual awakening of the vegetable and animal world in spring through the all-pervading influence of the foam-bor… Pesaro PESARO, a city and seaport of Italy, the capital of the province of Pesaro and Urbino, lies on the coa-st of the Adriatic 36 miles north of Ancona and 20.4 south of Rimini on the right bank of the Foglia, the ancient Pisaurus. The ground on which it is built is only from 10 to 40 feet above the sea, but it is surrounded by hills, - on the east by Monte Ardizio, on the west by Monte Accio or San Ba… Peshawar PESHAWAR, chief town in the above district, situated in 34? 2' N. lat. and 71? 37' E. long., is about 14 miles east of the Khyber Pass, and distant from Lahore 276 miles and from Cabul 190 miles. Peshawar PESHAWAR,' or PESHAW1JR, a district in the lieu-tenant-governorship of the Punjab, with an area of 2504 square iniles, situated in the extreme north-western corner of British India, between 33? 50' and 34? 30' N. lat. and 71? 30' and 72? 50' E. long. Except on the south-east, where the Indus flows, it is encircled by mountains, and is bounded on the N. by the Mohmand, Utman Khel, and other hills E… Pessimism PESSIMISM is a word of very modern coinage, employed to denote a mode of looking at and estimating the world, enormous surplus of pain over pleasure, and that man in particular, recognizing this fact, can find real good only by- abnegation and self-sacrifice. As a speculative theory optimism is chiefly associated with the q'lleodi4e of Leib-nitz (1710), while pessimism is the work of Schopenhauer … Pessinus, Or Pesinus Heo PESSINUS, or PESINUS HEo-tvois3), an ancient city of Galatia in Asia Minor, situated on the southern slope of Mount Dindymus. It stood on the left bank of the river Sangarius, about 150 stadia (17 miles) from its source, and 16 miles south of Germa on. the road from Ancyra to Amorium. It was the capital of the Tolistobogii and the chief commercial city of the district. It was fainous for its worsh… Peter PETER I., ALEXEIEVICH, surnamed THE GREAT (1672- 1725), czar of Russia, was born at AIoscow on 1 lth June 1672. His mother, Natalia Narislikina, was the second wife of the czar Alexis. He was taught reading and writing, and the limited range of subjects which then con-stituted education in Russia, by the deacon Nikita Zotoff. He came to the throne in the year 1682, on the death of his elder brothe… Peter PETER. Simon Peter was " an apostle of Jesus Christ " (1 Peter i. 1). His two names are both found in two forms : of the one the full form is Symeon which is found in the speech of James, Acts xv. 14, and in most MSS. of 2 Peter i. 1), the shorter and more usual form being Simon ; the other is found both in its Greek form Peter (I-Nrpos) and in the Graecized form Cephas (liTgis) of the Aramaic Kep… Peterborough PETERBOROUGH, a city and municipal and parlia-mentary borough, chiefly in Northamptonshire, but partly in Huntingdonshire, is situated on the river Nene, 76 miles north of London by the Great Northern Railway. The town is also a station on the London and North-Western, the Great, Eastern, and the Midland systems. It is built chiefly along the river on the north side, the streets being straight and… Peter, Epistles Of PETER, EPISTLES OF. Peter.-The first of the two canonical epistles which be4.-Lr the name of St Peter is addressed " to the elect who are sojourners of the disper-sion in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia., and Bithynia." Most commentators in both ancient and modern times (e.g., of the former, Atlianasius?Jeroine, Epiphanius ; of the latter, Lange, Weiss, and Beyschlag) have interpreted this phras… Peterhead PETERHEAD, a seaport, market town, burgh of barony-, and parliamentary burgh of Aberdeenshire, Scotland, is situated on a rocky peninsula on the North Sea, about 30 miles north-north-east of Aberdeen and 2 north of Buchan Ness. It has railway- communication by a section of the Great North of Scotland line, opened in 1862, The town is built of the red granite of the district. At the extrem-ity of t… Peterhof PETERHOF, a town of European Russia, in the govern-ment of St Petersburg, and 18 miles west of the capital, on the south coast of the Gulf of Finland, has grown up round the palace built by- Peter the Great in 1711, was constituted a, district town in 1848, and has increased its population from 7647 in 1866 to 14,298 in 1881. It is almost exclusively a residential town, but is garrisoned by a cava… Peter Ii PETER II., ALEXEIEVICII (1715-1730), son of Alexis and grandson of Peter the Great, was born at St Peters-burg in 171.5, and ascended the throne in 1727. Peter, Iii PETER, III., FEODOROVICH (1728-1762), was son of Anna, daughter of Peter the Great, who had married the duke of Holstein. He was born at Kiel in 1728, his real names being Karl Peter Ulrich ; he went to Russia in 1742 on being named heir to the throne. In 1745 he married Sophia Augusta, princess of Anhalt-Zerbst, wlao, on entering the Greek Church, took the name of Catherine. They lived very unhap… Peter, Of Blois PETER, OF BLOIS, otherwise known as PETRUS BLESENSIS, a writer of the 12th century, was born at Blois in I'rance about the year 1120. He studied theology at Paris, where one of his teachers was John of Salisbury-, who exercised a, considerable intim:mice over him ; he afterwards resided for some time as a student of law at Bologna. I-Te 1N-as then appointed preceptor to William IL of Sicily', and … Peters PETERS, or PETElt, HUGH (1598-1660), a man whose name has for three centuries been rarely mentioned except in terms of infamy, was the son of Thomas Dyckwoodeatias Peters, by 'lartlia, daughter of John Freffry of Fowey, Corn-wall, and was baptized in Fowey pa,rish church 29th June 1598. His parents were in. good circumstances, and they sent him to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took the degr… Petersburg PETERSBURG, a city and port of entry of the -United States, in Dinwicldie county, -Virginia, lies 23 miles south of Richmond on the south side of the Appomattox river, which is navigable for large vessels from the James river up to the falls opposite the city, and for flat boats 107 miles above the falls to Farrnville. Petersburg Is au important railway junction, manufactures tobacco, cotton goods… Peter The Hermit PETER THE HERMIT, tlIC apostle of the first crusade, was born of good family, it is supposed, in the diocese of Amiens about the year 1050. Peterwardein PETERWARDEIN (Hungarian Peterivicq(1, Servian Petrontraclin), a town and strong fortress of Hungary, is situated on a promontory formed by a loop of the Danube, .45 miles to the north-west of Belgrade. It is connected with Neusa,tz on the opposite bank by a bridge of boats 800 feet long. The fortifications consist of the upper fortress, on a lofty serpentine rock rising abruptly from the plain on … Pethopavlovsk PETHOPAVLOVsK is also the name of a. Petion De Villeneuve PETION DE VILLENEUVE, JEitemE (1753-1794), was the son of a proeureur at Chartres, where he waa born in 1753. He himself became an avocat in his native place in 1778, and at once began to try to make a name in litera-ture. His first printed work was an essay, Sur les -ifoyens de proven& l'Infanticide, which failed to gain the prize for which it was composed, but pleased Brissot so much that he pri… Petis De La Croix PETIS DE LA CROIX, FRAscots (e. 1633-1713), the best representative of Oriental learning in France during the last decades of the 17th century and the beginning of the 18th century, was born in Paris about 1653. He was son of the Arabic inteipreter of the French court, and inherited this office at his father's death in 1695, after-wards transmitting it to his own son, Alexandre Louis Marie. At an … Petition PETITION is an application for redress by a person aggrieved to an authority capable of relieving him. It may be made in the United Kingdom to the crown or its delegate, or to one of the houses of parliament. The right of petitioning the crown was recognized in-directly as early as _Magna Charta in the famous clause, Xulli rendemus, negatimus (tut diferemus, rectum. aut justitiam, and directly at … Petra PETRA ()) TUTpa, in ecclesiastical writers also ca, MTpat), the capital city of the NABATJEANS (q.v.), and the great centre of their caravan trade, is described by Strabo (xvi. p. 779) as lying in a level place, well supplied with water for horticulture and other uses, but encircled bya girdleof rocks, abrupt towards the outer side. The surrounding country was barren, especially towards Julea ; th… Petrarch PETRARCH (130,1-1374). Francesco Petrarca, eminent in the history of literature both as one of the four classical Italian poets and also as the first true reviver of learning in mediveval Europe, was born at Arezzo on 20th July 1304. Ilis father Petracco held a post of notary in the Florentine Rolls Court of the Riforinagioni ; but, having espoused the same cause as Dante during the quarrels of th… Petrel PETREL, the name applied in a general way to a group of Birds (of which more than 100 species are recognized) from the habit which some of them possess of apparently walking on the surface of the water as the apostle St Peter (of whose name the word is a diminutive form) is recorded (Matt. xiv. 29) to have done. For a long while the Petrels were ranked as a Family, under the name of Procellariida.… Petrie, George PETRIE, GEORGE (1790-1866), Irish antiquary, was the son of James Petrie, a native of Aberdeen, who had settled in Dublin as a portrait and miniature painter. He was born in Dublin in January 1790, and was educated to become a painter. Besides attaining considerable reputa-tion as a landscape painter of Irish scenes, he devoted much of his artistic skill to the illustration of the anti-quities of … Petroleum PETROLEUM. The word " petroleuni " (rock-oil ; Germ., erdol, steinii1) is used to designate the forms of bitumen that are of an oily consistence. It passes by insensible gradations into the volatile and ethereal naph-thas on the one hand and the semi-fluid malthas or mineral-tars on the other. History. - Petroleum has been known by civilized man from the dawn of history. Flerodotus wrote of the sp… Petronius PETRONIUS. Petronius Arbiter, although excluded from the list of classical writers available for the purposes of education, is one who enjoyed a great reputation, especi-ally in France, at a time when Latin authors were, more read as literature than they are in the present day. A recent critic of Petronius has stated, though with evident exaggeration, that no ancient writer except Aristotle has fo… Petropavlovsk PETROPAVLOVSK, a district town of western Siberia, in the government of Akmolinsk, is situated on the right bank of the Ishim river, 185 miles to the west of Omsk. The old fort occupies a hill about 100 feet high, which slopes abruptly to the Ishirn, while the v,-ooden houses and the broad, unpaved, but regular streets of the town occupy partly the declivities of the hill and partly the (sometimes… Petropolis PETROPOLIS, a town of Brazil, in the province of Rio de Janeiro, lies at a height of 2400 feet above the sea on a beautiful and healthy plateau, surrounded by the wooded heights of the Serra da Estrella, which lie between it and the coast region. Petrovsk PETROVSK, a town of European Russia, in the pro-vince of Saratoff, lies on both banks of the Medvyeditza, a tributary of the Don, 64 miles north-north-west of Saratoff on the Volga by the highway to Moscow. Petrozavodsk PETROZAVODSK, a town of Russia, capital of the government of Olonctz, lies on the western shore of Lake Onega, 300 miles to the north-east of St Petersburg. The small river Lososinka divides it into two parts, - the town proper and the iron-works. Two cathedrals built towards the end of last century, two lyceums for boys and girls, a mining school, an ecclesiastical seminary, and several primary s… Petty, Sir William PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687), statistician and political economist, and author of the Down Surrey of Irish _Lands, was born on 26th May 1623. lie was the son of a clothier at Romsey in Hampshire, and received his early education at the grammar-school there. About the age of fifteen lie went to Caen (Normandy-), taking with him a little stock of merchandise, on which he traded, and so maintained … Petunia PETUNIA. Pewter PEWTER' is a generic term for a variety of alloys, which all agree in this, that tin forms the predominating com-ponent. The finest pewter (somethnes called " tin and temper ") is shalply tin hardened by the addition of a trifle of copper. Ordinary pewter is tin alloyed with lead, which latter ingredient is added chiefly on account of its cheapness, and therefore often in excessive proportion. The… Pfaff PFAFF, JollANN FRIEDRICH (1765-1825), German mathematician, was born on 22d December 1765 at Stutt-gart. Ile received his early education at the Carlsschule, where Schiller, afterwards his life-long friend, was a school-companion. His mathematical capacity was early noticed ; Histor,y of Mathenzatics ; and in 1787 he went to Berlin and studied practical astronomy under Bode. in 1788 Pfaff became p… Pfaff PFAFF, CllursrrAN HEINRICH (1773-1852), chemist and physicist, younger brother of J. F. Pfaff noticed below, took his degree as doctor of medicine at Stuttgart in 1793. He travelled with a noble family as physician, and practised for a time at, Heidenheim ; but he afterwards became pro-fessor (extraordina,ry in 1797, ordinary in 1801) of medi-cine, physics, and chemistry at the university of Kiel.… Pfalzburg PFALZBURG, a town of German Lorraine, lies high on the west slopes of the Vosges, 25 miles to the north-north-west of Strasburg. Pfeiffer, Franz PFEIFFER, FRANZ (1815-1868), an eminent writer on medival German literature and on old forms of the German language, was born at Solothurn on the 27th of February 1815. Having studied at the university of -Munich, lie went to Stuttgart, where in 1846 he became librarian at the royal public library. In 1857, having established his fame as one of the foremost authorities on his special subject, he w… Pfeiffer, Ida Laura PFEIFFER, IDA LAURA (1797-1858), traveller, was born at Vienna, the daughter of a merchant named _Beyer, 14th October 1797. Ida was the only sister of six brothers, and in her youth acquired masculine habits. Her training was Spartan, and accustomed her to the endurance of hard-ships and deprivations. On 1st May 1820 she married Dr Pfeiffer, a prosperous advocate of Lemberg, twenty-four years olde… Pforzheim PFORZHEIM, one of the chief industrial towns in the grand-duchy of Baden, is pleasantly situated at the con-fluence of the Nagold, the Warm, and the Enz, on the northern margin of the Black Forest, 15 miles to the south-east of Carlsruhe. The most prominent buildings are the old palace of the inargraves of Baden-Durlach and the Schlosskirche, the latter an interesting edifice of the 12th to the 15… Phaethon PHAETHON ("the shining one"), in Homer an epithet of the sun, and used by later writers as a name for the sun, is more generally known in classical mythology- as a son of the Sun and the ocean nymph Clymene. He persuaded his father to let him drive the chariot of the sun across the sky, but he lost control of the horses, and driving too near the earth scorched it ; mountains were set on fire, rive… Phalanger PHALANGER. Among the anonymous additions to Charles PEcluse's posthumous work Cum,. posteriores ; seu plurimarum non ante cognitarum aut descriptarum . . . anintalium nom descriptiones, published at Leyden in 1611, occurs the following : - " In our third expedition, under Admiral Van der Hagen, there was seen at Amboyna a rare and truly marvellous animal. The cousa,' as it is called by the natives… Phalaris PHALARIS, a Greek- ty-rant, who ruled Agrigentum (Acragas) in Sicily for sixteen years (probably between c. 571 and. 549 B.c.). He wa-s the son of Laodamas, and his family belonged to the Dorian island of Asty-palam, near Cnidus. As a leading man in the new city (for Agrigentum had been founded by- the neighbouring city- of Gela only a few years before, 5S2 B.c.) Phalaris was entrusted with the bu… Pharaoh PHARAOH (riinn; (13apcm;), which the Old Testament often uses as if it were a proper name, applicable to any king of Egypt, though sometimes such a distinguishing name as liophra (Apries; Jer. xliv. 30) or Necholi (Nekos) (2 Kings xxiii. 29) is added, is really an Egy-ptian title of the monarch (Pefaa or Phuro), often found on the monu-ments. Pharisees PHARISEES (r.,';:1-1, (1)apnram), the Jewish party of the scribes, the opponents of the Sadducees. See ISRAEL, VOI. xiii. p. 423 sq., and MESSIAH. PHARMACOP(EIA (lit. the art of the 4,appakoz-mOs, or drug-compounder) in its modern technical sense denotes a book containing directions for the identification of simples and the preparation of compound medicines, and published by- the authority of a Go… Phcebus PHCEBUS (4)oi,Pos, the bright or pure), a common epithet of AroLLo (q.v.). Phcenicia PHCENICIA (Gr. (I)otrix7i) forms part of the seaboard of SYRIA (q.v.), extending along the Mediterranean (some-times called the Plicenician Sea) from the mouth of the Eleutherus in the north to Mount Carmel in the south, a distance of rather more than tl,vo degrees of latitude. In early times Phcenicians were settled beyond this district, but for the Persian period Dor may be taken approximately a… Phcenix PHCENIX. Herodotus (ii. 73), speaking of the animals in Egypt, mentions a sacred bird called "phoenix," which he had only seen in a, picture, but which the Heliopolitans said visited them once in five hundred years on the death of its father. The story was that the pluenix came from Arabia, bearing its father embahned in a ball of myrrh, and buried him in the temple of the sun. Herodotus did not b… Pheasant PHEASANT, Middle-English Fesaulit and Fesaun, German _Masan and anciently Pasant, French Faisan - all from the Latin Phasianu.s or l'hasiana (sc. aris), the Bird brought from the banks of the river Phasis, now the Rioni, in Colchis, where it is still abundant, and introduced by the .Argonauts, it is said, in what passes for history, into Europe. As a matter of fact nothing is known on this point ;… Phebecrates PHEBECRATES, one of the chief poets of the Old Attic Comedy, was a contemporary of Cratinus, Crates, and Aristophanes, being older than the last and younger than tbe two former. Pherecydes Of Syros PHERECYDES OF SYROS, one of the earliest Greek philosophers, was the son of Babys and a Dative of the island of Syros. The dates of his life are variously stated, but there seems to be no doubt that he lived in the 6tb century B.C. ; amongst his contemporaries were Thies and Anaximander. He was sometimes reckoned one of the Seven Wise Men, and a very uniform tradition repre-sented him as the teach… Phidias PHIDIAS (.1)?c8i.as), the most famous of Greek sculptors, was born about 500 p.c., and began his artistic career, probably under the guidance of his father, Charmides of Athens, with the study of painting, an art which at that time had attained a singular largene-ss and dignity of style, while in sculpture these qualities were as yet being sought for with only a somewhat bold and rude result, as m… Phigalia PHIGALIA (cPcyciActa, also called cbtaXia), a, city in the south-west angle of Arcadia, situated on an elevated rocky site, among some of the highest mountains in the Peloponnesus, - the roost conspicuous being Mount Cotylium and Mount Elocum ; the identification of the latter is uncertain. In 659 B. C. Phigalia was taken by the Lacedwmonians, but soon after recovered its independence; it was on t… Philadelphia PHILADELPHIA, the name of several cities of anti-quity, of which the two rnost important have been noticed under ALA-SIIEIIR, VOI, p. 443, and .A.MMONITES, V01. i. p. 743. . PHILADELPHIA, the chief city of Pennsylvania, and the second city in the -United States of America, is situ-ated (39? 57' 7.5" N. lat., 75? 9' 23.4" W. long.) on the west bank of the Delaware river, 96 miles from the Atlantic … Philemon PHILEMON, the oldest poet of the New Attic Comedy, was the son of Damon, and was born at Soli in Cilicia, or, according to others, at Syracuse ; but early in life he settled at Athens. Since he died in 262 B.C. at an age variously stated at from 96 to 101 years, lie must have been born somewhere about 360. He was thus older than his contemporary and great rival llenander, whom he fre-quently vanqu… Philemon, Epistle To PHILEMON, EPISTLE TO. This, which is the shortest of the extant epistles of St Paul, stands to the other books of the New Testament in a, relation similar to that of the book of Ruth to the other books of the Old Testament. It is an idyl of domestic life. Onesimus, the slave of one of Paul's converts in Asia Minor, had run away from his master, probably, as was often the case with runaways, after … Philii PHILII', the name of five kings of Macedon. The greatest of these was Pinup II. (382-336 B.C.), the first founder of the MACEDONIAN -EMPIRE (q.V.). After the death of Alexander the Great, Arrhicheus, a bastard of Philip II., reigned as PHILIP till Ile was put to death by Olympias in 317. PHILIP IV., son of C-assander, reigned only for a few months in 296. PHILIP V., the last but one of the kings o… Philip PHILIP. Philip PHILIP I. (1052-1108), king of France, was the son of Henry I. and Anne of Russia, and was born in 1052. He was associated with his father on the throne in 1059, the consecration taking place at Rheims (23d May), and he succeeded to the undivided sovereignty in the following year (4th August 1060), first under the regency of his mother, and afterwards, from 1062 to 1067, under that of Baldwin V., … Philip PHILIP I. (1478-1506), of Castile and Aragon, sur-named " the Handsome," was the son of the emperor -Maximilian I. and Mary, the only child of Charles the Bold, last prince of the house of Burgundy, and was born at Bruges on 22d July 1478. He succeeded his mother in 1482, _Maximilian being recognized as governor and guardian during the minority by all the provinces, except Flanders, the burghers o… Philip PHILIP, one of the twelve apostles, mentioned fifth in all the lists (Matt. x. 3 ; Mark iii. 18 ; Luke vi. 14 ; Acts i. 13), is a mere name in the Synoptists, but a figure of some prominence in the Fourth Gospel. There he is said to have been "of Bethsaida, the city of Andrew and Peter," and to have received his call to follow Jesus at Bethany, having previously been, it would seem, a disciple of … Philip PHILIP, " the evangelist," is first mentioned in the Acts (vi. 5) as one of " the seven " who were chosen to attend to certain temporal affairs of the church in Jerusa-lem in consequence of the murmurings of the Hellenists against the Hebrews. After the martyrdom of Stephen he went to Samaria, where he preached with much success, Simon Magus being one of his converts. He afterwards instructed and … Philip PHILIP V. (1683-1746), king of Spain, was the second son of the French dauphin, Louis, by his wife Maria Anna of Bavaria, and was born at Versailles on 19th De-cember 1683. In 1700 Philip, at that time duke of Anjou, was called by the testament of the childless Charles to the throne of Spain. Quitting Versailles to take pos-session of his inheritance on 4th December, Ile arrived at the Buen-Retiro… Philip PHILIP V. (1293-1322), surnamed " the Tall," second son of the preceding, succeeded his elder brother, Louis X., in January 1317, and was succeeded by his y-ounger brother Charles IV. in January 1322. Philip Ii PHILIP II. (1165-1223), surnamed "Augustus," king of France, was the son of Louis VII., and \vas born in August 1165. Philip Ii PHILIP II. (1527-1598), king of Spain, wa,s the son of the emperor Charles V. and Isabella of Portugal, and WaS born at Valladolid on 21st May 1527. He was brought up in Castile under the care of his mother, who died when he was twelve years old. As Philip grew up, his father, though he rarely saw his son, watched carefully over his education and strove to fit him for political life. In 1543 Phili… Philip Iii PHILIP III. (1245-1285), surnamed " the Rash," king of France, was born in 1245 and succeeded his father Louis IX. on 25th August 1270, at Tunis, where, after con-tinuing the siege for some time, he made a truce of ten years and embarked for France in the following November. Philip Iii PHILIP III. (1578-1621), king of Spain, son of Philip II. by his fourth wife, Anne of Austria, .was born at. Philip Iv PHILIP IV. (1605-1665), king of Spain, son of Philip III., was born at Valladolid on 8th April 1605, was married to Lsabella of France on 25th November 1615, succeeded his father on 31st March 1621, and died on 17th Sep-tember 1665. Philip Iv PHILIP IV. (1268-1314), surnamed " the Fair," son of the preceding, was born at Fontainebleau in 1268, was married to Joanna, queen of _Navarre, in 1284, accompanied his father into Aragon in 1285, and was proclaimed king of France at Perpignan on 6th October of that year. Philip Of Swai3ia PHILIP OF SWAI3IA (C. 1170-1208), rival of the em-peror OTII0 IV. (q.v.), younger son of the emperor Freder-ick I., was born about 1170. He was originally intended for the church, and, after being provost of Aix-la-Chapelle, was chosen bishop of Wiirzburg in 1191 ; but in 1195 his elder brother brought about his marriage with a Byzan-tine princess, Irene, on which occasion he was named duke of Tus… Philippians PHILIPPIANS, Emszty, TO Tim. This is one of the most characteristic of the letters of St Paul. It was ad-dressed to the community at Philippi (see above), the first hnportant European city which St Paid had visited, where he had forined a community with the apparently new organization of "bishops" and "dea,cons," and with which he had relations of especial intimacy. The immediate occa-sion of Ids … Philippine Islands PHILIPPINE ISLANDS (Span. Islas Fit iphta.), or PHILIPPINES', an archipelago in the south-east of Asia, ex-tending from 4? 40' to 20' N. lat., a,nd from 116? 40' to 126? 30' E. long. On the west and north-west it is sepa-rated by the China Sea from China and the Indo-Chinese, peninsula ; towards the east lies the Pacific ; on the north a number of smaller islands stretch out towards Formosa; and o… Philipps13-urg PHILIPPS13-URG, a small fown of the grand-duchy of Baden, situated on a. sluggish arm of the Rhine, 15 miles to the north of Carlsruhe, WAS formerly an important fortress of the German empire, and played a somewhat conspicuous part in the wars of the 17th century. Philippus PHILIPPUS, M. JULIUS, Roman emperor from 244 to 249 A.D., often called " Philip the Arab," was a native of Bostra or the Trachonitis, who, exchanging the predatory life of the Arabs who hung on the desert borders of the empire for Roman military service, rose to be prtorian pre-fect in the Persian campaign of Gordian III., and, inspiring the soldiers to mutiny and to slay the young emperor, was ra… Philips, Ambrose PHILIPS, AMBROSE (1671-1749), English lnall of letters, was born of a good Leicester family in 1671. While at St John's College, Cambridge, he gave evidence of literary taste and skill, in verses forming part of a memorial tribute from the university on the death of Queen Mary. Going to London on the completion of his studies, Philips speedily became " one of the wits at Button's," and thereby a f… Philips, John PHILIPS, JOHN (1676-1708), English man of letter-4, son of Dr Stephen Philips, archdeacon of Salop, was born at Bainpton in Oxfordshire in 1676. After receiviiw private education at home, he went to Winchester School, and in due course became a student of Christ Church, Oxford. At school he showed special aptitude for exact scholarship, and at the university, under Dean Aldrich, he became one of t… Philip Vi PHILIP VI. (1293-1350) was the eldest son of Charles, count of Valois, the younger brother of Philip IV., and was born in 1293. Philistines PHILISTINES (D'T:II:4S), the name of a people which, : : in the latter part of the age of the Judges and up to the time of David, disputed the sovereignty of Canaan with the Israelites (see ISRAEL, VOI. xiii. p. 402 sq.). The Philistine country (nt.:Palaastina ; the authorized version still uses the word in. this its original sense as equivalent to Philistia) embraced the rich lowlands on die Med… Phillip, John PHILLIP, JOHN (1317 -1867), subject and portrait painter, was born at Aberdeen, Scotland, on 19th April 1817. His father, art old soldier, was in humble circum-stances, and the son became an errand-boy to a tinsmith of the place, and was then apprenticed to a painter and glazier. Meanwhile he was employing in the pursuit of art all the time he could spare from his daily duties, and, having receive… Phillips PHILLIPS, WILLIAm (1775-1828), an able mineralogist and geologist, who did much to foster in 13ritain the study of the sciences to which he was devoted, was born in May 1775. His Outline of _Mineralogy and Geology was pub-lished in 1815 and passed through several editions. His Introduction to the Knowledge of Mineralogy, published in 1816, was for upwards of forty years one of the standard text-bo… Phillips, John PHILLIPS, JOHN (1800-1874), one of the foremost of the early geologists of England, was born 25th December 1800 at Marden in Wiltshire. His father belonged to an old Welsh family, but settled in England as an officer of excise and married the sister of Williain Smith, the ! "Father of English Geology." Both parents (lying when he was a child, Phillips passed into the care of his uncle. Before his … Phillips, Samuel PHILLIPS, SAMUEL (1815-1854), an industrious and successful litterateur, was the son of a Jewish tradesman in Regent Street, London, and was born in 1815. A somewhat precocious talent for mimicry and recitation had disposed his parents to train him for the stage ; but they were afterwards induced, through the advice of the duke of Sussex, to send the lad to University College, London. After remain… Phillips, Thomas PHILLIPS, THOMAS (1770-1845), portrait a,nd subject painter, was born at Dudley' in Warwickshire on 18th October 1770. Having acquired the art of glass-painting at Birmingham, Ile visited London in 1790 with an introduction to Benjamin West, who found Min employment on the windows in St George's chapel at Windsor. In 1792 Phillips painted a view of Windsor Castle, and ere the two succeeding years … Philo PHILO. Philo PHILO, often called PHIL() Jun,Eus, Jewish philo-sopher, appears to have spent his whole life at Alexandria, where he was probably born c. 20-10 B.C. His brother Alexander was alabarch or arabarch (that is, probably, chief farmer of taxes on the Arabic side of tbe Nile), from which it may be concluded that the family was influential and wealthy (Jos., Amt., xviii. 8, 1). Jerome's statement (De Vir… Philo Byblius PHILO BYBLIUS, i.e., Philo of Byblus (Gebal, Jubeil), was born, according to Suidas, in 42 A.D., and lived into the reign of Hadrian, about which lie wrote a book now wholly lost. Philolaus PHILOLAUS, next to Archytas the most illustrious of the Pythagorean philosophers, was born at Tarentum or, according to Diogenes Laertius, at Crotona.2 lle was said to have been intimate with Democritus, and was prob-ably one of liis teachers. After the death of Pythagoras great dissensions prevailed in the cities of lower Italy, which were alla-yed only after the lapse of many years through the i… Philology Of The Aryan Languages PHILOLOGY OF THE ARYAN LANGUAGES - The study of Aryan comparative philology has from its outset necessarily been in close connexion with the study of Sanskrit, a language unparalleled amongst its cognates in antiquity and distinctness of structure, and consequently the natural basis of comparison in this field. It is there-fore not to be wondered at that we find no clear views of the mutual relati… Philology Science And Language PHILOLOGY SCIENCE AND LANGUAGE is the generally accepted comprehensive naine for the study of the word ; it designates that branch of knowledge which deals with human speech, and with all that speech discloses as to the nature and history of man. Philology has two principal divisions, corre-sponding to the two uses of " word " or " speech," a,s signifying either what is said or the language in whi… Philo Of Byzantium PHILO OF BYZANTIUM, author of a treatise on mechanics, of which only two books now remain, flourished in the 2d or 3d century A.D. Philopcemen PHILOPCEMEN, "the last of the Greeks" as be was called by an admiring Roman, was a lea-cling champion of the Achean League, which preserved in Peloponnesus a last shred of Greek freedom. Sprung from an illustrious Arcadian family, he was born at Megalopolis in Arcadia in 252 B.C. His father Craugis dying in his infancy, Philo-ptemen wa.s brought up by his father's friend Cleander, an exile from Ma… Philosophy PHILOSOPHY is a term whose meaning and scope have varied very considerably according to the usage of different authors and different ages ; and it would hardly be possible, even having regard to the present time alone, to define and divide the subject in such a way as to command the adhesion of all tbe philosophic schools. The aim of the present article will be, however, leaving controversial deta… Philostratus PHILOSTRATUS, the eminent Greek sophist, wits prob-ably born in Lemnos between 170 and 180 A.D. From his incidental statements respecting himself we learn that he studied at Athens, and was afterwards atMelied to the court of the empress Julia Domna, consort of Severus. Since he does not speak of her as living, while mentioning her as his patroness in his Life of Apollonins of Tgana, this work was… Phlegon PHLEGON, of Tralles in Asia Minor, a Greek writer of the 2d century-, was a freedman of the emperor Hadrian. His chief work was the 0/yinpiads (elrnnicles, or col-lection of Olympic victories and chronicles), a universal history in sixteen books, from the 1st down to the 229th Olympiad (776 B.C. to 137 A.D.). If we may judge from the sample preserved by Photius, the work contained list,s of the vi… Phlox PHLOX., a considerable genus of Polemoniacex, chiefly tube and a flat limb. Phocas PHOCAS, emperor of the East from 602 to 610, was a Cappadoeian of humble origin, and was still but a cen-turion when chosen by the army of the Danube to lead it against Constantinople. A revolt within the city soon afterwards resulted in the abdication of the reigning em-peror MAURICE (q.v.) and in the speedy elevation of Phocas to the vacant throne (23d November 602). The secret of his popularity… Phocis PHOCIS was in ancient times the name of a district of ! central Greece, between Bceotia on the east and the land of the Ozolian Locrians on the west. It adjoined the Gulf of Corinth on the south, while it was separated on the north from the Malian gulf by the ridge of Mount Cnemis and the narrow strip of territory occupied by the Epi-cnemidian and Opuntian Locrians. In early times, indeed, a slip … Phonetic-s PHONETIC-S (7 a (LIMIT lti the matters pertaining to the voice, 4,0)1,0 is the science and art of the production of sounds, including cries, by- means of the organs of speech in man and their analogues in other animals. This very extensive subject may be divided into the following three parts. (1) Anatomiccd, the accurate descrip-tion of all the organs employed, emissive (lungs, with the muscles a… Phormium PHORMIUM, or NEw ZEALAND FLAX (also called "New Zealand hemp"), is a fibre obtained front the leaves of l'hormium tenax (ord. Liliacae). The plant is a native of New Zealand, the Chatham Islands, and Norfolk Island ; it is now cultivated as an ornamental garden-plant in Europe, and for economic purposes it lias been introduced into the Azores. The leaves grow from 3 to 6 and even 9 feet in height … Phosphorescence PHOSPHORESCENCE, a name given to a variety of phenomena due to different causes, but all consisting in the emission of a pale more or less ill-defined light, not obviously due to combustion. The word was first used by physicists to describe the property possessed by many substances of themselves becoming luminous after ex-posure to light. Such bodies were termed " phosphori," and the earliest know… Phosphorus And Phosphates PHOSPHORUS AND PHOSPHATES. "Phosphorus " (.P.o3416poc, light-bringer) had currency in chemistry as a, generic term for all substances which shine in the dark without burning, until the name came to be monopolized by a peculiar kind of "phosphorus " which was discovered, some time previous to 1678, by the German alchemist Brand of Hamburg. Brand, hoping to obtain thereby an essence for the " ennobl… Photius PHOTIUS, patriarch of Constantinople from 857 to 867 and again from 877 to 886 A.D., the most eminent literary and ecclesiastical character of his age, was probably born between 820 and 825. If we could credit the asser-tions of his adversaries, his father, an official of the im-perial court, named Sergius, was of heathen extraction, and his mother, Irene, a faithless nun. It is more certain that … Photography PHOTOGRAPHY - it would be somewhat difficult to fix a date when what we now know as " photographic action " was first re-corded. No doubt the tanning of the skin by the sun's ray-s was what was first noticed, and this is as truly the effect of solar radiation as is the darkening of the sensitive paper which is now in use in photographic printing opera-tions. We may take it that Scheele, the Swedis… Photometry, Celestial PHOTOMETRY, CELESTIAL. The earliest records that have come down to us regarding the relative positions of the stars in the heavens have always been accompanied with estimations of their relative brightness. With this brightness was naturally associated the thought of the relative magnitudes of the luminous bodies from whence the light was assumed to proceed. Hence in the grand catalogue of stars p… Phrenology PHRENOLOGY. This name was given by Forster in 1815 to the empirical system of psychology formulated by Gall and developed by his followers, especially by Spurz-heim. and Combe. At first it was named "cranioscopy," "craniology," "physiognomy," or "zoonomy," but Forster's name was early adopted by Spurzheim, and became that whereby the system is now known. The principles upon which it is based are f… Phrygia PHRYGIA was the name of a large country in Asia Minor, inhabited by a race which the Greeks called cpp-Oycs, Freemen.' Roughly speaking, Phrygia comprised the The meaning is given in Hesycb., s.v. "Bpiyer." western part of the great central plateau of Anatolia,, extending as far east as the river Halys ; but its bound-aries were vague,2 and varied so much at different periods that a sketch of its … Phryne PHRYNE, a celebrated Greek courtesan, flourished in the time of Alexander the Great (4th century B.c.). She was born at Thespim in Bceotia, but seems to have lived at Athens. Originally so poor as to earn a living by gathering capers, she acquired so much wealth by her extraordinary beauty that she offered to rebuild the walls of Thebes, which had been destroyed by Alexander (335), on condition of… Phrynichus PHRYNICHUS, the name of a number of distinguished Greeks, of whom the most prominent were the following. Phrynichus PHRYNICHUS, one of the earliest tragic poets of Athens, was the son of Polyphradmon, and a pupil or follower of Thespis, who is commonly regarded as the founder of tragedy. But such were the improvements introduced by Phrynichus that some of the ancients regarded him as its real founder. He flourished, according to Cyrillus and Eusebius, in 183 B.C., but he gained a poetical victory (probably his … Pieony PIEONY (Pxonia), a genus of Ranunculacem remarkable for their gorgeous flowers, constructed almost exactly on the same lines as those of the common buttercup except as regards the pistil, which in the peonies consists of two or more separate carpels each containing several seeds, and surrounded at the base by a fleshy cup or disk, which grows up around the carpels. The receptacle of the flower, mo… Piledrus PILEDRUS, the author of five books of Latin fables in verse, lived in the reigns of Augustus, Tiberius, Cali-gula, and Claudius. To his literary vanity we owe most of our scanty knowledge of his life. He was born on the Pierian Mountain in Macedonia, but seems to have been brought at an early age to Italy, for lie mentions that lie read a, verse of Ennius as a boy at school. According to the headi… Pirentxville PIRENTXVILLE, a borough in the United States, in Schuylkill township, Chester county, Pennsylvania, is situated 271, miles north-west of Philadelphia by thc Philadelphia and Reading Railroad, on the right bank of the Schuylkill river, which is there joined by French Creek, crossed by eight fine bridges. Plianerogamia PlIANEROGAMIA. - The parasitic flowering plants are ex-clusively dicotyledons confined to natural orders falling under the two divisions of Uainopetalx and Monochlanzydeze. Among the Camopetake there are the (Jfonotrope,T7) Lennoacew, Cuscutew (Conrolrulacex), certain genera of Scrophulariaceze (such as Rhinanthus, ilelampyrum, Eu-phrasia, and l'edicularis), and the Orubanchem. Among the Monochian… Proc PROC./EA, in ancient geography, was one of the cities of Ionia, on the western coast of Asia Minor. It was the , most northern of the Ionian cities, and was situated on the coast of the peninsula that separates the Gulf of Cyme, which was occtipied by yEolian settlers, from the Hermitian Gulf, on which stood Smyrna and Clazoinenie.1 Its advantageous position between two good harbours, called Nanst… Ptithalic Acid PTITHALIC ACID. This name was given by Laurent to a di-basic acid, Cs11,04, which he obtained by the oxida-tion of naphthalin or its tetra-chloride with nitric acid. Scbunck subsequently obtained the same acid by boiling alizarin with nitric acid, but failed to recognize its iden-tity with Laurent's. One part of naphthalin is mixed with two parts of chlorate of potash, and the mixture added cautio… Saurum SAURUM, Hackel. Shin, Karategin, Hissar SHIN, KARATEGIN, HISSAR, BOKHARA, and KmvA; accounts have also been already given of BACTRIA, BALKH, arid BAaft&N. Here we shall only treat of the highland regions of the Oxus, and the river itself in its downward course to the Sea of Aral, postponing all other matter to the article TURKESTAN (see also the map of Turkestan). For a right understanding of the highland region, notice must be taken of… Solar Parallax SOLAR PARALLAX. - The sun's mean equatorial hori-zontal parallax (termed briefly the " solar parallax ") is the angle which the equatorial radius of the earth would subtend to an observer at the sun when the earth is at mean distance from the sun. For its determination it would appear only necessary to observe the sun's apparent position simultaneously 2 from two widely different points on the ear… Stellar Parallax STELLAR PARALLAX. - The constant of parallax of a fixed star is the maximum angle which a line equal to the earth's mean distance from the sun would subtend if viewed at the star. The distances of the fixed stars are so remote that till very recent times their parallaxes have been found to be insensible ; that is to say, the earth's orbit viewed from the nearest fixed star presents a disk (or elli… Striititiones STRIITITIONES. Tani. StrUthiMithe (OSTRICH, p. 62 infra). Some systematists think there can be little question of the Struthiones being the most specialized and therefore probably the highest type of these Orders, and the present writer is rather inclined to agree with them. Nevertheless the formation of the bill in the Apteryges is quite unique in the whole Class, and indicates therefore an extra… Vegetable Parasitism VEGETABLE PARASITISM - the name of parasites has lueen given to those plants which are nourished wholly or partially at the expense of other living organisms. The degree and nature of the benefit thus obtained varies greatly with different plants, and the effect produced upon the host ranges from an ahnost imperceptible one to complete destruction. At one extreme are certain forms which, while dra… Yatitt YATITT - '77 making the penteteric Panathemea the great Ionian festival in rivalry to the Dorian Olympia. The penteteric festival was celebrated in the third year of each Olympiad. The annual festival consisted solely of the sacrifices and rites proper to this season in the cultus of the goddess. One of these rites originally consisted in carrying a new peplus to the temple to serve as the clothin… Volume 19 [PHY - PRO] [next] [back] Volume 17 [MOT - ORM]: Anatomy* to Newton Copyright © 2013 Net Industries and its Licensors – All Rights Reserved – Terms of Use More To Explore

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