Volume 9 [FAL - FYZ]: 111ont1'el1 to Fire And Its Uses


9th Edition of Encyclopedia Britannica - free ninth edition online encyclopedia Britannica Volume 9 [FAL - FYZ]: 111ont1'el1 to Fire And Its Uses 111ont1'el1 111ONT1'EL1.IISR 116rault, Aude, Gard, Lozbie, Pyrenees-Orientales. Naxer.. Mearthe-et-Moselle, Meuse, Vosges. Potrlxus Vienne, Charente, Charente-IntErieure, Indre, Indre-elLoire, Dena-Sevres, Vendee, Haute-Vienne. Ihttatea ...... Cotes-du-Nord, Enlister?, Lolre-Infdrieure, Maine-et-Loire, Mayenne, Toucorsit . Haute-Garonne, Arl6ge, A veyron, Gers, Lot, HautesPyrdn6es, Tarn, Tam-et-Garonne. At th… 1702 '' 1702, made no change in the arrangements of the allies for their four campaigns, - the Italian campaign, which was cued his position by taking a group of towns, and keeping Marshal Mufflers and the duke of Burgundy actively employed, as they retreated before him from point to point. The defeat of the French fleet in Vigo Bay, and the out burst of the Protestants of the Cevennes mountains, both … 1789-1830 1789-1830. - General Sketeli. - Tho period which elapsed between the outbreak of the Revolution and the accession of Charles X. has often been considered a sterile one in point of literature. As far as mere productiveness goes, this judgment is hardly correct. No class of literature was altogether neglected during these stirring five-and-thirty years, the political events of which have so engrosse… Agen AGEN Cers, Lot, Lot-et-Garonne. Ange ANGE.ES Mayenne, Sartbe. Anie ANIE,S Aisne, Oise, Somme. Avignon AVIGNON Nines, Valence, VivIers, 3Iontptqlier. Bastia BASTIA Corse. Bksanuon BKSANUON ;Verdun, Bcetcy, St Dit,, Nancy. Bordeaux BORDEAUX Charente, Dordogne, Gironde. Bourges BOURGES Cher, mire, Nievre. C12h2901 C12H2901,.H30 = 4C3H603. Milk Sugar. Lactic Acid. Now, this in itself is nothing exceptional. A solution of cyanate of ammonia (NCOIINH8) is no sooner prepared than it passes into one of urea CO(N112)2; cyanic acid, (NCHO) when left to itself, soon passes into cyamelide, just as the milk sugar of the milk passes into lactic acid. But there is this great difference, that this latter change cannot b… Caen CAEN Calvados, Manche, Orne. Caen CAEN . ?Calvados, Eure, Manche, Orne, Sarthe, Seine-InMrieure. Casibrai CASIBRAI .AITEIS. Cramocry CRAMOCRY Savoie, Ilaute-Savoie. Des Ancon DES ANcON.. Dijon Douai DoUAI Nord. Fai1nese, Alexander FAI1NESE, ALEXANDER (1546-1592), prince of Parma, the famous governor of the Low Countries, was born most probably about 1516. He was the son of Ottavio Farnese, prince of Parma, and the celebrated Margaret of Austria, natural daughter of Charles V. His boyhood he spent at Alcala and Madrid, having as companions his ill-fated cousin Dun Carlos and his uncle Don John of Austria, who were both about… Faiii1agut, David Glascoe FAIII1AGUT, DAVID GLASCOE (1801-1870), first admiral of the United States navy, was the son of Major George Farragut, a Catalan by descent, a Minorquin by birth, who had emigrated to America in 1776, and, after the peace, had married a lady of Scotch family and settled near Knoxville, in Tennessee ; there Farragut was born on the 5th July 1801. At the early age of nine he entered the navy, under t… Faiiidpur FAIIIDPUR, or FuumiEnroubl, a district of British India, in the Dacca division of Bengal, lies in 22' 47' 53" - 23' 51' 55" N. lat., and in 89? 21' 50"-90? 16' 0" E. long. It is bounded on the N. and E. by the Ganges or Pachnh river, separating it from Pubna and Dacca districts ; ou the W. by the Chandna and Madhumati rivers, separating it from Jessor ; and on the S. by Bakarganj. The general aspe… Fa Iinabie, Or Farnai3y FA IINABIE, or FARNAI3Y, THOMAS (1575-1647), grammarian, classical commentator, and one of the most noted schoolmasters of his day, was a native of London. He was the son of a carpenter; his grandfather, it is said, had been mayor of Truro, his great-grandfather an Italian musician. Between 1590 and 1595 lie appears successively as a student of Merton, a pupil in a Jesuit college in Spain, and a f… Falaba FALABA, a town of West Africa, about 190 miles N.W. of Freetown in Sierra Leone, at the foot of the Konkocnzor, and on the Pala river, a tributary of the Little Scar- cies. Falaise FALAISE, a town of France, the capital of an arrondissement in the department of Calvados, is situated on the right bank of the Ante, 21 miles S. by E. of Caen. It was formerly a place of some strength, and is still surrounded by old walls. The principal object of interest is the castle, now partly in ruins, but formerly the seat of the dukes of Normandy, and the birthplace of William the Conquero… Falcon FALCON (Latin, Fa/co,1 French, Faucon; Teutonic, FL? or Valken), a word now restricted to the high-couraged and long-winged Birds-of-Prey which take their quarry as it moves ; but formerly it heel a very different meaning, being by the naturalists of the last and even of the present century extended to a great number of birds comprised in the genus Ft/co of Linmeus and writers of his day,' while, … Falcone, Aniello FALCONE, ANIELLO (1600-1665), a battle-painter, was the son of a tradesman, and was born in Naples. He showed his artistic tendency at an early age, received some instruction from a relative, and then studied under Ribero, (Lo Spagnoletto), of whom he ranks as the most eminent pupil. Besides battle-pictures, large and small, taken from biblical as well as secular history, he painted various religi… Falconer, Hugii FALCONER, HUGII (1808-1S65), a distinguished palaeontologist and botanist, descended from an old Scotch family, was born at Forres, 29th February 1808. In 1826 he graduated as M.A. at Aberdeen, where lie began to manifest a decided taste for the study of natural history and botany. He afterwards studied medicine in the university of Edinburgh, taking the degree of M.D. in 1829. Proceeding to India… Falconer, William FALCONER, WILLIAM, our greatest naval poet,--Charles Dibdin taking rank as second, - was born in Edinburgh, February 11, 1732. His father was a wig-maker, and carried on business in one of the small shops with wooden fronts at the Netherbow Port, an antique castellated structure which remained till 1764, dividing High Street from the Canongate. The old man, who is described as a sort of humorist, … Falconet, Etienne Maurice FALCONET, ETIENNE MAURICE (1716-1791), a French sculptor, was born at Paris in 1716. His parents were poor, and he was at first apprenticed to a carpenter, but some of his clay-figures, with the making of which lie occupied his leisure hours, having attracted the notice of Lanoine, that sculptor made him his pupil. While diligently prosecuting his profession he found time to study Greek and Latin,… Falconry FALCONRY, the art of employing falcons and hawks in the chase, - a sport the practice of which is usually termed hawking. Falconry was for many ages of the Old World's history one of the principal sports. Probably it may be considered as having been always as purely a sport as it is at the present day ; for even in the rudest times man must have been possessed of means and appliances for the captu… Faleiiii FALEIIII, an ancient and powerful city of Etruria, the capital of the Falisci, who occupied the region between Soracte and Monte Cimino. The affinity of the Falisci with the Etrurians is both asserted and denied in Idstoric times Falerii at least appears as a city of Etrurian sympathies, and it probably belonged to the Etrurian League. It supported the people of Veii against the Romans, and used i… Falernus Agee FALERNUS AGEE, the name of a district in the northern part of Campania. Faliero FALIERO, MAmxo (1271-1355), doge of Venice, was born in 1274, In 1346 he commanded the Venetian forces at the siege of Zara, where, being attacked by Louis the Great of Hungary with a force of 80,000 men, he totally defeated them, inflicting a loss of 8000, and compelling him to abandon all further attempts to raise the siege, which was concluded shortly afterwards by the surrender of the defender… Falke, Joha FALKE, JOHA.NN FRIEDRICH GOTTLIEB (1823-1870, a German historian, was born at llatzeburg, 20th April 1823. He entered the university of Erlangen in 1843, and soon thereafter began to devote his attention to the history of the German language and literature. In 1848 he went in the capacity of tutor to Munich, where he remained five years, and diligently availed himself of the use of the Government … Falkirk FALKIRK, a municipal and parliamentary burgh and market-town of Scotland, in the county of Stirling, 251', miles W. by N. from Edinburgh by rail, is situated on a declivity which overlooks the expanse of fertile country called the Carse of Falkirk. The town consists of one wide street, with a number of narrow streets and lanes branching off?from or running parallel to it. The houses are generally … Falk, Johann Daniel FALK, JOHANN DANIEL (1768-1820, a German author and philanthropist, was born at Dantzic, 20th October 1768. His parents, who were in poor circumstances, gave him only a scanty education, and strongly opposed his desire to enter one of the leaned professions ; but notwithstanding their discouragement he managed not only to make himself acquainted with the best German writers but also to learn Frenc… Falkland FALKLAND, a royal burgh of Scotland, county of Fife, is situated at the N. foot of the East Lomond Hill, 22 miles N.N.W. of Edinburgh. It consists of a single street with some cross lanes, the houses being in many cases thatched and of an antique and primitiveappearance. The inhabitants are engaged chiefly in weaving and flax-spinning. Falkland is noted for its royal palace, originally a stronghol… Falkland Islands FALKLAND ISLANDS (French, Nalouin-es ; Spanish, Malvinas), a group of islands in the South Atlantic, belonging to Britain, and lying about 250 miles E. of the nearest point in the mainland of South America, between the parallels of 51? and 52? 45' S. and the meridians of 57' 20' and 61? 46' W. The islands are about 200 in number, but only two are of considerable size ; the largest of these, East F… Falkland, Viscount FALKLAND, VISCOUNT. Fallmerayer, Jakob FALLMERAYER, JAKOB Pniurr. (1791-1861), a German traveller and historical investigator, best known for his opinions in regard to the ethnology of the modern Greeks, was born, the son of a poor peasant, at Tschiitsch, near Brixen in Tyrol, 10th December 1791. In 1809 he absconded from the cathedral school at Brixen and repaired to Salzburg, where he studied theology, the Semitic languages, and hist… Fallopius FALLOPIUS, or FALLorio, ChnniELLo (1523-1562), one of the greatest anatomists of his time, was a native of Modena. Fall River FALL RIVER, a city of the UnitedStates, Massachusetts, is situated on Mount Hope Bay, the north-east arm of Narraganset Bay, 46 miles S. of Boston. The Fall river, which here joins the Taunton, has a descent of 130 feet in less than half a mile, and its great water-power was at an early period of much advantage for the development of the manufactures of the town, but most of the mills are now driv… Falmouth FALMOUTH, a municipal and parliamentary borough and market-town of England, county of Cornwall, on the south side of Falmouth Harbour, 15 miles N.N.E. of Lizard Point, and 267 miles W.S.W. of London. The town consists chiefly of a long and narrow street extending along the shore. The principal public buildings are the hall of the Cornwall Polytechnic Society, the mechanics institute, the town-hall… False Point FALSE POINT, a land-locked harbour in the Cuttack district of Orissa, situated in 20? 20' N. lat. and 86? 47' E. long., and reported by the famine commissioners in 1867 to be the best harbour on the coast of India from the Htigli to Bombay. It derives its name from the circumstance that vessels proceeding up the Bay of Bengal frequently mistook it for Point Palmyras, a degree further north. The an… Falster FALSTER, an island in the Baltic, belonging to Denmark. Falun, Or Faiilun FALUN, or FAIILUN, a town of Sweden, capital of a Jaen of the same name, which, however, is also called Dalarna or Dalecarlia, is situated in a bare and rocky country near the W. shore of Lake Runn, 73 miles W. of Gene. The town is built chiefly of timber, and the inhabitants are mostly engaged in mining and smelting. West of the town are the celebrated Falun copper mines, the oldest and most cele… Famagosta FAMAGOSTA. Family FAMILY. Famines FAMINES. War, pestilence, and famine are regarded by many as the natural enemies of the human race ; but in truth these are all more or less associated with the circumstances of civilization. In the highest state of civilized society there ought to be no war ; there need be no pestilence ; and famine alone would stand as being beyond the range of human prevention - subject to some conditions to be… Fano FANO, a city of Italy in the province of 1.7rbino-ePasaro, is situated in a rich and fertile plain on the shores of the Adriatic, at the mouth of the Metauro, 7 miles S.E. of Pesaro. The town is clean and well built, and is inclosed by old walls, with a lofty bastioned front towards the sea. Its cathedral is an unimposing structure, but some of the churches are fine buildings, richly adorned with … Fanshawe FANSHAWE, Sir IticnARD (1608-1666), poet and statesman, was the youngest son and tenth child of Sir Henry Fanshawe, remembrances of the exchequer under James I. He was born early in June 1608, at Wareham Park, Hertfordshire. At the age of seven he lost his father, and was socal placed by his mother under the care of the fatuous schoolmaster, Thomas Farnabie. In November 1623 he was admitted fellow… Faraday, Michael FARADAY, MICHAEL, chemist, electrician, and philosopher, was born at Newington, Surrey, 22d September 1791, and died at Hampton Court, 25th August 1867. His parents had migrated from Yorkshire to London, where his father worked as a blacksmith. Faraday himself became apprenticed to Mr Riebau, a bookbinder. The letters written to his friend Benjamin Abbott at this time give a lucid account of his a… Farce FARCE. Fareham FAREHAM, a market-town of England, county of Hants, situated at the N.W. extremity of Portsmouth harbour, 73 miles by road and 84 by the South-Western Railway from London. Farel, Guillaume FAREL, GUILLAUME (1489-1565), a celebrated French Reformer, was born near Gap in Dauphiny in 1489. Be was of noble descent, and it was the wish of his parents that he should adopt the military profession, but the pursuit of knowledge proved so attractive to him that he characteristically determined to have his own way, and succeeded in obtaining permission to enter the university of Paris. Here li… Faridkot FARIDKOT, a feudatory state of North-Western India, under the political superintendency of the government of the Punjab, situated between 30' 40' and 30? 56' N. let., and between 74' 22' and 75' 9' E. long. Farina, Or Porto Farina FARINA, or PORTO FARINA, a town of the regency of Tunis, at the mouth of the Madjerda (the ancient Bagradas), about 15 miles E. of Bizerta or Binzert. Farinato, Paolo FARINATO, PAOLO (1522-1606), a painter and architect, was a native of Verona. He is sometimes named Farinato degli Uberti, as he came from the ancient Florentine stock to which the Ghibelline leader Farinata degli Uberti, celebrated in Dante's Commedia, belonged. He flourished at the same time that the art of Verona obtained its greatest lustre in the works of Paolo Cagliari (Paul Veronese), succe… Farinelli FARINELLI (1705-1782), whose real name was CARLO Buoscin, one of the most extraordinary singers that over lived, was born January 24,1705, at Naples (Burney), or, according to Sacchi, his biographer, at Andria. Having been prepared for the career of a sopranist, he soon acquired a voice the beauty of which has never been surpassed, under the instruction of the celebrated Porpora. He became famous,… Farini, Luigi Carlo FARINI, LUIGI CARLO (1812-1866), an Italian physician, statesman, and historian, was born at Russi in Ravenna, 22d October 1812. After completing a brilliant university course at Bologna, he practised as a physician at Ravenna and at Russi. By his successful treatment of various diseases, and his communications to the Bolognese Bollettino Belle science mediche and other scientific journals, he soo… Farmer FARMER, Hum' (1714-1787), an English theologian, was born in the neighbourhood of Shrewsbury in 1714. About 1730 he entered the theological academy at Northampton taught by Dr Doddridge, and on completing his gentleman in the neighbourhood in whose house he lived. He soon, however, resigned his chaplaincy, and took up his residence in the house of another member of his congregation, where he conti… Farmer FARMER, ItrcuArio, (1735-1797), the Shakespearian commentator, was born at Leicester in 1735. He was educated first at the free grammar school of his native master, in succession to Dr Richardson, the biographer of the English bishops. In the latter year also lie was appointed vice-chancellor, and three years afterwards chief librarian of the university. In 1780 he was appointed to a prebendal sta… Farm It Sousa FARM IT SOUSA, MANOEL DE (1590-1649), a Spanish and Portuguese historian and poet, was born of an ancient Portuguese family, probably at Pombiero, attended for several years at the university of Braga, and when about fourteen entered the service of the bishop of Oporto. With the exception of about four years (1630-1634), during which he held the post of ambassador to the papal court, the greater p… Farnese, Alexander FARNESE, ALEXANDER, Pope Paul III. Farnese, Elizabeth FARNESE, ELIZABETH (1692-1766), queen of Spain, born on the 25th October 1692, was the only daughter of Odoardo II., prince of Parma. Her mother educated her in strict seclusion, but seclusion altogether failed to tame her imperious and ambitious temper. At the age of twenty-one (1714) she was married by proxy at Parma to Philip V. of Spain. The marriage was arranged by the Italian cardinal Albero… Farness FARNESS, the name of a noble Italian house, to which belonged Pope Paul III., the celebrated Elizabeth, wife of Philip V. of Spain, and a long line of princes of Parma, including the great governor of the Netherlands. The first member of the family known in history was Ranuccio Farnese, a successful general of the church, who held the papal fiefs of Farnese and Montalto in the 13th century. Severa… Farnham FARNHAM, a market-town of England, county of Surrey, near the left bank of the Wey, 10 miles W.S.W. of Guildford, and 40 miles from London by rail. It is built on the southern slope of a hill rising about 700 feet above the level of the sea, and consists principally of two main streets, with a market-place at their intersection. It is well supplied with water from springs in the neighbouring hills… Faro FARO, a city and seaport of Portugal, chief town of the province of Algarve, is situated on the Rio Fermoso near its mouth, 20 miles W. by S. of Tavira. Faroe Islands, Or Fcroe Islands FAROE ISLANDS, or FCROE ISLANDS (Danish, 1'a-7.U-- erne), a group in the North Sea belonging to Denmark. They are situated between Iceland and the Shetland Islands, about 200 miles N.W. of the latter, between 61? 20' and 62? 25' N. lat., and between 6? 16' and 7? 40' W. long. The total area of the group is 510 square miles, and that of the seventeen inhabited islands 490. The population in 1850 am… Farquhar, George FARQUHAR, GEORGE (1678-1707), a dramatist of the East century, the successor in comedy of Wycherley and Congreve, was the son of a clergyman, and was born in Londonderry, Ireland, in the year 1678. In his sixteenth year he was sent to Trinity College, Dublin, under the patronage of the bishop of Dromore. He was entered as a sizar or servitor, a class of poor scholars, who were compelled to wear a … Farrakfiabad FARRAKFIABAD [FunaucKA_Ban], a district of British India, in the Agra division, and under the jurisdiction of the lieutenant-governor of the North-Western Provinces, lies between 26? 45' 45" and 27? 42' 45" N. lat., and 79' 10' 45" and 800 6' 0" E. long. It is bounded on the N. by Budzion and Shalijahanpur, E. by Hardui, S. by Cawnpur and Etawah, and W. by Mainpuri and Etab. Tho district is a flat… Fars, Or Farsistan FARS, or FARSISTAN, a province of Persia, extending along the Persian Gulf, and conterminous with Khusistan, Irak, and Kirman. Like the provinces to the N. and S., it is divided in three parallel districts, - the Dushtistau Germ-sir or hot country, the Tengsir or land of the passes, and the Sirhud or cold country. Its mountain ranges run parallel with the coast-line, and inclose a great number of … Fasano FASANO, a town of Italy, in the circonthrio and province of Bari, 32 miles S. of Bari, and a little to the W. of the railway to Brindisi. Fasti FASTI, plural of the adjective fastus, but more commonly used as a substantive, is derived, according to Varro, from fas, meaning what is binding, or allowable, by divine law, as opposed to jus, or human law. Fasti dies thus came to mean the days on which law business might be transacted (see Ovid, Fasti, i. 48) sine piaculo, thus corresponding to our own "lawful days." Originally the fasti were a… Fasting FASTING (vno-TE11ELV, jejunare) is most accurately defined as a withholding of meat, drink, and all natural food from the body for a determined period. So it is defined by the Church of England, in the 16th homily, on the authority of the Council of Chalcedonl and of the primitive church generally. In a looser sense the word is employed to denote abstinence from certain kinds of food merely ; and … Fasting, Claus FASTING, CLAUS (1746-1791), a Danish poet, was born at Bergen in Norway on the 29th of October 1746. In 1762 he came to reside in Copenhagen. He very early took an active part in letters, and was among the foremost champions of the romantic revival-against French taste and the overpowering affectation of Klopstock, then personally reigning in the Danish capital. Fasting edited a brilliant msthetic… Fates FATES, in Latin mythology, a name given to certain beings who, by euphemism similar to that which gave to the Greek ERINYES (q.v.) the name of Eumenides, were also known as Parcm, or the Merciful. Fathers Of The Church FATHERS OF THE CHURCH. Ecclesiastically the word " father" is used in a variety of secondary significations. In the Old. Testament even, we find the name applied to priests (Judg. xvii. 10, xviii. 19), and to prophets (2 Kings ii. 12, vi. 21, xiii. 14), as well as to kings (2 Kings v. 13) ; and in the days of later Judaism there was a definite office which was known as that of the Father of the Sy… Fathipur Sikrt FATHIPUR SIKRT, a town in the Agra district in the North-Western Provinces of India, on the road from Agra to Jaipur, situated in 27' 58' N. lat. and 75? 5' E. long. It is a ruined city, and is interesting only from an archeological point of view. It was founded by Akbar about 1570, as a thankoffering for the birth of a son, Selim, afterwards the emperor Jahangir, obtained through the intercession… Fatimah FATIMAH (606-632), the daughter of Mahomet by his wife Khadijah, and one of the four women whom the prophet regarded as perfect, was born at Mecca in 606. Fattore FATTORE, Ir. Faucher, Leon FAUCHER, LEON (1803-1854), a French statesman and political economist, was of Jewish extraction, and was born at Limoges 8th September 1803. his parents afterwards removed to Toulouse, and he found the means of supporting himself by the execution of designs for embroidery while attending the college of that place. From Toulouse he went to Paris, where for a short period he followed the profession … Fauchet, Claude FAUCHET, CLAUDE (1744-1793), the Abbe Fauchet, a French constitutional bishop, and a noted actor in the Revolution, was born at Domes, in the department of Nievre, September 22, 1774. He devoted himself to the service of the church, passed through the usual course of studies, and was rapidly promoted. Before he was thirty years of age he made his mark as an orator in a panegyric of St Louis, deliv… Fauchet, Claude FAUCHET, CLAUDE (1530-1601), French historian and antiquary, was born at Paris in 1530. Of his early life few particulars are known. He applied himself to the study of the early French chroniclers, and proposed to publish extracts which would throw light on the first periods of the monarchy. During the civil wars he lost a large part of his books and manuscripts in a riot, and was compelled to lea… Faun FAUN. In Latin mythology, this name denoted a class of rural deities, who fostered the productive powers of the earth and of animals, and had their dwelling in woods and groves, where they sported with the nymphs. In the later traditions of the people, Faunas was said to have succeeded Picus and Saturnus as king of the Laurentes; but these names may, like many others in the mythology of Italy, be … Fauriel, Charles Claude FAURIEL, CHARLES CLAUDE (1772-1844), a distinguished French historian, philologist, and critic, was born at St Etienne, 21st October 1772. His parents belonged to the artisan class, but their circumstances were such as to enable them to afford him a good education at Tournon and Lyons. Though from his earliest years preferring a life of study and retirement, Fauriel could not at first altogether e… Faust FAUST, or FusT, printer. Faustina, Annia FAUSTINA, ANNIA, wife of Marcus Aurelius, was the daughter of Antoninus Pius and the empress Annia Galeria Faustina Augusta. Her husband, whose original name was Marcus Annius Verne, was the son of her maternal uncle Annius Verus ; and both, through their grandfather Annius Verus, consul for the third time in 126 A.D., traced their descent from Numa Pompilius. Besides Commodus, Faustina had six ch… Faustus FAUSTUS. Although probably the name of an actual historical personage, Faustus or Faust is principally interesting as an ideal figure of a twofold and in some respects antithetical type, - on the one hand the deliberate choice of evil, on the other an unsatisfied aspiration towards the highest good. The development of the latter conception from the former - of Goethe's Faust from the mediaeval Fau… Favara FAVARA, a town of Sicily, in the province of Girgenti, is situated 5 miles E.S.E. of Girgenti in a mountainous district new the Hypes, a tributary of the Acragas. Fa Vart, Charles Simon FA VART, CHARLES SIMON (1710-1792), French dramatist, was born at Paris, November 13, 1710. He was the son of a noted pastry-cook, a man of some parts who in his leisure hours amused himself with making verses. The son was educated at the college of Louis-le-Grand, and after his father's death carried on the business for a time for the sake of his mother. His first success in literature was a poem… Faversham, Or Feversham FAVERSHAM, or FEVERSHAM, a municipal borough and market-town of England, county of Kent, is situated 10 miles W.N.W. of Canterbury, and 47 E.S.E. of London by rail. Favorinus FAVORINUS, cluLf3copivos, a celebrated sophist, flourished during the reign of Hadrian. A Gaul by birth, he was a native of Arles, but at an early age began his life-long travels through Greece, Italy, and the East. He may have acquired some knowledge of Latin and Greek even before he left Gaul, for Arles was within a short distance of the Phocian colony of Marseilles - that "Athens of the West" w… Fawkes FAWKES, Our (1570-1606), the most notorious of the Gunpowder Plot conspirators, was born at York, of a gentle family, in the year 1570. His grandfather and father were notaries and proctors of the ecclesiastical courts of York, the former being registrar of the exchequer court of the province, the latter an advocate of the consistory court of the cathedral. It is believed that the family was conne… Fawkes, Francis FAWKES, FRANCIS (1721-1777), a poet and translator, was a native of Yorkshire, and was born in the year 1721. Faxardo FAXARDO. See SAAVEDRA. PAY, ANonAs (1786-1864), Hungarian poet and author, born 30th May 1786, at Kohany in the county of Zemplin, was educated for the legal profession at the Protestant college of Setrospatak. Being, however, subsequently obliged to abandon the law as a vocation, on account of ill-health, he devoted himself to literary pursuits, and became one of the best writers of Hungarian nar… Fayal FAYAL. Fayetteville FAYETTEVILLE, a town of the United States, capital of Cumberland co., North Carolina, is situated on Cape Fear River, 100 miles N.W. of Wilmington. Fayoum, Or Feiyoom FAYOUM, or FEIYOOM. See EGYPT, vol. vii. p. 744. took orders. As a member of the Archaeological Society of Rome, Fea gave considerable aid to the antiquarian researches carried on under its auspices. He was also librarian to Prince Chigi. He died at Rome, 18th March 1834, Pea revised, with the addition of notes, an Italian translation of Winckelmann's Gesehiehte der Kunst, and also added notes to … Fe11reira, Antonio FE11REIRA, ANTONIO (1528-1560), Portuguese poet, was born at Lisbon in 152S. He was of a noble family, and completed his education at the university of Coimbra. Destined for the public service, he applied himself to the study of the law ; but although he obtained the degree of doctor, and held a high legal office at Lisbon, he was far more deeply interested in literature than in jurisprudence. The… Feamlingham FEAMLINGHAM, a market town of England in the county of Suffolk, about 4 miles north-east of Ipswich. It is the terminus of a branch railway, and has a corn exchange, a people's hall, and a newspaper office. The church is a line old building mostly in the Perpendicular style, constructed of black Hint stone, and surmounted by a tower 96 feet high. In the interior there are a number of interesting m… Feasts FEASTS. Feathers FEATHERS. The scientific definition of the various parts of a feather will be found in the article BIRD (vol. iii. p. 727). Here cognizance is taken of the purposes only to which feathers are applied either for use or ornament. These applications are numerous and varied, arising as they do in some cases from the physical properties of the quill, and again from the structure and elasticity of the v… February FEBRUARY, the second month of the year. In ordinary years it contains 28 d iya ; but in bissextile or leap year, by the addition of the interealary day, it consists of 29 days. This mouth was not in the Romulian calendar. In the reign of Numa two months were added to the year, namely, January at the beginning, and February at the end ; and this arrangement was continued until 452 B.C., when the de… Fecamp FECAMP, a seaport-town of France, department of Seine-Inf6rieure, is situated on the English Channel, at the mouth of the small river Focamp, 23 miles N.N.E. of Havre. The town consists almost entirely of one street, which is upwards of two miles in length. It occupies the bottom and sides of a narrow valley, opening out towards the sea between two high cliffs, on one of which stands a lighthouse.… Fecicenham, Or Fecknam FECICENHAM, or FECKNAM, JOHN DE, the last abbot of Westminster, was born of poor parents in Feckenham Forest in Worcestershire. The family name was Howman; and it is noted by Fuller (Worthies of England) that the abbot was the last clergyman who was " locally surnamed." He was of good parts and fond of learning ; and, after receiving instruction from the parish priest, he was sent to the Benedicti… Fedchenko, Alexis Paulowitch FEDCHENKO, ALEXIS PAULOWITCH (1844-1873), a Russian naturalist and traveller, well known for his explorations in Central Asia. Federal Government FEDERAL GOVERNMENT. A federal union of sovereign states for mutual aid, and the promotion of interests common to all, is a procedure so consistent with self-interest that examples of it can be adduced from very early times. Had a federal union of Hellenic states been effected at the close of the Persian war, results would have been achieved which were vainly aimed at subsequently, - as by Athens h… Federici, Camillo FEDERICI, CAMILLO (1749-1802), Italian dramatist and actor, was barn at Garessio, a small town in Piedmont, April 9, 1749. His real name was Giovanni Battista Viassolo, and that by which he is now known and which lie transmitted to his children was taken from the title of one of his first pieces, Camillo e Federico. He was educated at Turin, and showed at an early age a great fondness for literatu… Feeder Ickshald, Or Fredericksitall FEEDER ICKSHALD, or FREDERICKSITaLL, a maritime town of Norway, stift of Christiania, at the junction of the Iddefjord with the Tistedals, 57 miles S.S.E. of Christiania. It has an excellent harbour, and considerable trade in tobacco, sugar, iron, and wood. A regular line of steamers connects it with Christiania. Frederickshald is noted for its strong castle of Fredericksteen, which stands on a pe… Fehmic Courts FEHMIC COURTS (PEIIIIGERICITTE OrVEHMGERICHTE), celebrated secret tribunals which flourished in Germany from the end of the 12th century to the middle of the 16th, and which, from the extent of their organization and the mystery which surrounded their proceedings, inspired a feeling of dread in all who came within their jurisdiction. Their origin is uncertain. The traditional account is that they … Feiighana FEIIGHANA, now a province of Russian Turkestan, is the valley containing the head waters of the Sir Darya or Jaxartes (one of the two great feeders of Lake Aral), and lies among the western ranges of the Thian Shan mountains, which inclose it on every side except at its west extremity, where the river emerges, passing Khojend, into the plains of western Turkestan. It is of oval form, and extends a… Feitama, Sybrand FEITAMA, SYBRAND (1694-1758), a Dutch author, was born at Amsterdam, December 10,1694. He was originally intended for the ministry, but eventually adopted a commercial career. In middle life, having made a sufficient fortune, he retired from business, and dedicated his remaining years to literature, and to a circle of friends that included all the most eminent of his younger contemporaries. In 173… Feith, Riiijnvis FEITH, RIIIJNVIS (1753-1824), a Dutch poet, was of aristocratic extraction, and was born at Zwolle, the capital of the province Overijssel, on the 7th of February 1753. It has been said with truth that his whole life was a model of social, personal, and literary good fortune ; there has never lived a poet who enjoyed more unbroken prosperity. This is the more noticeable, because of all the importa… Fejei4, Gyorgy FEJEI4, GYORGY (1766-1851), one of the most indefatigable Hungarian authors of the last generation, was born on the 23d April 1766, at Keszthely, in the county of Zala. After finishing his scholastic course at the gymnasium he went to Pesth, where he attended the philosophical lectures at the university. From 1785 to 1790 he studied theology at Pressburg, after which he was engaged for sonic time … Feldkircii FELDKIRCII, the chief town of the Vorarlberg district of Tyrol in Austria, is situated at the junction of the valley of the Ill with the valley of the Rhine, about 6 miles above the confluence of the two rivers. The position is one of much natural beauty and also of great military strength ; and the town has consequently been of far more importance than is indicated by its size. It is the seat of … Felegyhaza FELEGYHAZA, chief town of the former district of Little Cumania, in Hungary, about 66 miles S.E of Pesth, 46? 41' N. lat., 19? 52' E. long., is advantageously situated on the railroad between Pesth and Szegedin. Felibien, Andre FELIBIEN, ANDRE (1619-1695), Sieur des Avaux et de Javerey, French architect and historiographer, was born at Chartres in May 1619. At the age of fourteen he went to Paris to continue his studies ; and in 1647 he was sent to Rome in the capacity of secretary of embassy to the Marquis de Marueil. His residence at Rome he turned to good account by diligent study of its ancient monuments, by examinat… Felibien, D0 FELIBIEN, D0.11 INItcum, (1666-1719), French historian, was a son of Andre, and was born at Chartres, September 14, 1666. After studying at the College des Bons-Enfants at Paris, he entered, at the age of sixteen, the Benedictine congregation of St Maur. He devoted himself to a studious life, and produced in 1706 the learned Histoire de l'Abbaye royale de Saint-Denis en Prance. Drawn from original… Felix FELIX, the name of several popes. Felix FELIX-, of Urgel. Felix FELIX V. (or IV). Felix FELIX I., a Roman by birth, succeeded Dionysius in the papal chair in December 269. Felix FELIX, of Valois (1127-1212), one of the founders of the monastic order of Trinitarians or Redemptionists, was born in the district of Valois, France, 19th April 1127. Not long after he reached manhood he became a hermit in the forest of Galeresse, where he remained till his sixty-first year, when his disciple Jean de Matha suggested to him the idea of establishing an order of monks who should dev… Felix FELIX, Mucucrus. Felix, Antonius FELIX, ANTONIUS, a Roman procurator of Judrea, Samaria, Galilee, and Peiwa, entered upon his office in the 11th or 12th year of the emperor Claudius. Both he and his brother Pallas were originally slaves, and, it is said, owed their freedom to Antonia, wife of the emperor, on which account it is probable that Felix received the surname Autonius. By some writers he is also called Claudius. Felix wa… Felix Ii FELIX II. (1), pope or antipope, was in 356 raised from the archdeaconate of Rome to the papal chair, when Tiberius was banished by the etnperor Constantius for refusing to subscribe the sentence of condemnation against Atbanasius. His election was contrary to the wishes both of the clergy and of the people, and the consecration ceremony was performed by certain prelates belonging to the court. In… Felix Iii FELIX III. (or II.) was descended from one of the most influential families of Rome, and succeeded Simplicius irr the papal chair 2d March 483. Felix Iv FELIX IV. (or III.), a native of Beneventum, was, on the death of John in 526, raised to the papal chair by the emperor Theodoric in opposition to the wishes of the clergy and people. Fellatahs FELLATAHS, or FoulAns. Fellenberg, Puilipp Emanuel Von FELLENBERG, PUILIPP EMANUEL VON (1771-1844), educationist, was born 27th June 1771 at Bern, in Switzerland. His father was of patrician family, and a man of importance in his canton, and his mother was a granddaughter of the Dutch admiral Van Tromp. From his mother and from Pfeffel, the blind poet of Colmar, be received a better education than falls to the lot of most boys, while the intimacy of h… Feller, Francois Xavier De FELLER, FRANcOIS XAVIER DE (1735-1802), a Belgian author, was born at Brussels 18th August 1735. In 1752 he entered a school of the Jesuits at Rheims, where he manifested a great aptitude for mathematics and physical science. He commenced his noviciate two years afterwards, and in testimony of his admiration for the apostle of India added Xavier to his surname. On the expiry of his noviciate he be… Fell, John FELL, JOHN (1625-86), bishop of Oxford, was the son of Dr Samuel Fell, dean of Christ Church, and was born at Longworth, in Berkshire, June 23, 1625. He passed from the free school of Theme to Christ Church, Oxford, at the age of eleven, took his degree of B.A. in 1640, and three years later that of M.A. Ile served in the royal garrison of Oxford, and attained the rank of ensign. He afterwards too… Fellows FELLOWS, Sin CHART.ES (1799-1860), a distinguished traveller and antiquary, was born in 1799 at Nottingham, where the family had held an ancestral estate for a considerable time. While only fourteen he drew sketches to illustrate a trip to the ruins of Newstead Abbey, which afterwards appeared on the title page of Moore's Life of Lord Byron,. In early youth he travelled through a great part of Bri… Felo De Se FELO DE SE is one who commits murder upon himself. Felony FELONY. In English law crimes are divided into felonies and misdemeanours. The difference between them does not depend on their gravity as offences, nor on the amount of punishment attached to them, - it is purely historical. Felonies are those crimes which at common law brought with them after conviction forfeiture of goods. Since the Felony Act, noticed below, this is no longer an existing groun… Felt FELT is a fabric which results from the matting and intimate adhesion of fibrous materials among themselves, and is not like ordinary cloth, produced by any spinning and weaving processes. Al] ordinary textile fibres possess sufficient adhesive tendency to enable them to be handled for spinning ; but it is only in certain animal fibres that the peculiarity is so marked as to fit them for felting. … Feltham, Owen FELTHAM, OWEN, a moral writer, whose essays were extremely popular during the 17th century. He is believed to have been the son of Thomas Feltham tw Felltham of Mutford in Suffolk, and he was probably born about 1609. He was secretary to the earl of Thomond, under whose roof he wrote, when a youth of eighteen, a volume of one hundred Resolves, Divine, Moral, and Political, short and pithy essays, … Feltre FELTRE, the ancient Feltria, a town of northern Italy, in the province of Belluno, and 16 miles S.W. of the town of that name. Feltre, Morto Da FELTRE, MORTO DA, a painter of the Venetian school, who worked at the close of the 15th century and beginning of the 16th. His real name appears to have been Pietro Luzzo ; he is also known by the name Zarato or Zarotto, apparently from the place of his death : whether he was termed Morto (dead) from his joyless temperament is a disputed point. He may probably have studied painting first in Venice… Fencing FENCING is the proper use of a small-sword or foil. The small-sword is a light court-dress sword, made to taper gradually from the hilt to-the point, and of a size regulated by the judgment of the wearer, if he understand the use of the weapon. The foil with which the art of fencing is practised is a small quadrangular blade, about the length of a small-sword, and mounted in nearly the same manner… Fenelon, Bertrand De Salignac FENELON, BERTRAND DE SALIGNAC (1-1589), Marquis de La Motile, a French diplomatist who was ambassador to England during the reign of Elizabeth. At the request of Charles IX. lie endeavoured to excuse to Elizabeth the massacre of St Bartholomew as a necessity caused by a plot which had been laid against the life of the king of France. For some time after the death of Charles IX. Fenelon was continu… Fenians FENIANS. Ireland appears to have been the theatre of a great ethnic struggle in the first century of the Christian era, in which certain tribes, known to the Romans as Scots, reduced 'the other inhabitants to subjection. The servile clans are called in Irish story Aithech Tvatha, rent-paying tribes, though one of them settled near the river Liffey is specially mentioned as the Tuctth Aithechta, a … Fennel FENNEL (Fcenieulum), a genus of umbelliferous plants, having umbels compound, and without involucres; petals yellow, entire, roundish, and ineurved at the tip ; and fruit a laterally compressed cremocarp, with achene 5-ridged, a large, single vitta under each furrow, and albumen piano-convex. (See BOTANY, vol. iv. p. 150, fig. 292; and p. 151, fig. 299.) Common Fennel, F. vulgare, (Anelliun2, Fomi… Fenton FENTON, Sin GEOFFREY, a writer and statesman during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I., the brother of Edward Fenton the navigator, who accompanied Sir Martin Frobisher in his expeditions, and was afterwards sent out independently to endeavour to discover a north-west passage. In the capacity of queen's counsellor Sir Geoffrey served for twenty-seven years in Ireland, where his conduct appears t… Fenton, Elijah FENTON, ELIJAH (1683-1730), an English poet, was born at Shelton near Newcastle-under-Lyme, Staffordshire, 20th May 1683. He entered Jesus College, Cambridge, with the view of studying for the church, but afterwards declined to take orders, and on leaving the university he accompanied the earl of Orrery to Flanders in the capacity of private secretary. On the return of the earl to England in 1705,… Fenugreek FENUGREEK (Trigonella), a genus of leguminous herbs very similar in habit and in most of their characters to the species of the genus Medicago. The leaves are formed of three obovate leaflets, the middle one of which is stalked ; the flowers are solitary or in clusters of two or three, and have a campanulate, 5-cleft calyx; and the pods are many-seeded, cylindrical or flattened, and straight or on… Feoffment FEOFFMENT, in English law, was the form of granting or conveying a freehold or fee. Ferdinand FERDINAND. Ferdinand FERDINAND V. of Castile, III. of Naples, IL of Aragon and Sicily, surnamed el addle() (1452-1516), the younger son of John II. of Navarre and Aragon by his second wife Juana Henriquez of Castile, was born at Sos in Aragon on the 10th of March 1452. On the death of his elder brother Carlos in 1461, he was recognized by the Aragonese as heir?apparent to the crown, but the Catalans, rendered indignan… Ferdinand FERDINAND I. (1423-1494), king of Naples, the illegitimate son of Alphonso V. of Aragon and I. of Sicily and Naples, was born in 1423. In accordance with his father's will, he succeeded him on the throne of Naples in 1458, but Pope Calixtus III. having refused to recognize him, John of Anjou, desirous to turn to advantage the opportunity of regaining the throne of his ancestors, invaded the countr… Ferdinand FERDINAND I. (1793-1875), emperor of Austria, the eldest son of the emperor Francis I. by his second wife Maria Theresa, daughter of Charles VI., was born in Vienna, April 19, 1793. He inherited a constitution so weak as to unfit him for the duties of his station, but his amiable and benevolent disposition secured him general respect, and acquired for him the surname of the Good. On the 2d Februar… Ferdinand FERDINAND I, (cir. 1000-1065), surnamed the Great, first sovereign of independent Castile, was the second son of Sancho III. (el Mayor) of Navarre, who about 1026 compelled Bermudo III. of Leon, the last direct descendant of Pelayo in the male line, to surrender his rights over Castile, and also to give his sister Sancha in marriage to Ferdinand, then regent of that province. Sancho, towards the c… Ferdinand FERDINAND (1721-1792), duke of Brunswick, a famous Prussian general, the fourth son of Duke Ferdinand Albert of Brunswick, was born at Brunswick, 1 1 th January 1721. Ho was educated for the military profession, and having entered the Prussian service, commanded a regiment in the first and second Silesian wars. On the outbreak of the Seven Years' War he was appointed to the command of a division, … Ferdinand FERDINAND I. of Aragon and Sicily (1379-141G), surnamed the Just, the younger son of John I. of Castile and Leonora of Aragon, was born in 1379. On the death of his elder brother Henry III. in 1406, he refused the crown of Castile which the nobles had offered, but in accordance with his brother's will undertook the office of regent during the minority of his nephew John II. In this capacity he dis… Ferdinand FERDINAND I. of Portugal (1345-1383), sometimes referred to as el Gentil (the Gentleman), son of Pedro I. of Portugal (who is not to be confounded with his Castilian contemporary Pedro the Cruel), succeeded his father in 1367. On the death of Pedro of Castile in 1369, Ferdinand, as great-grandson of Sancho IV. by the female line, laid claim to the vacant throne, for which the kings of Aragon and N… Ferdinand FERDINAND I. (1503-1564), emperor, was the son of Philip of Austria and Joanna daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and was born at Alcala in Spain 10th March 1503. In 1521 he married princess Anna of Hungary, and on the death in 1526 of her only brother the boy-king Louis of Bohemia and Hungary he was elected king of Bohemia, but in Hungary his claims were opposed by John Zapolya, palatin… Ferdinand FERDINAND I. and II., grand-dukes of Tuscany. Ferdinand Ii FERDINAND II. (1136-1188), younger son of Alphonso VIII. (el Emperador), became king of Leon on the death of his father in 1157. The history of his reign of thirty-one years is obscure. A dispute that arose between him and some of his powerful nobles gave his brother Sancho III. of Castile a pretext for invading his territory (1158), but the timely submission of Ferdinand averted serious disaster.… Ferdinand Ii FERDINAND II. (1810-1859), king of the Two Sicilies, grandson of the preceding, and son of Francis I., was born at Palermo, January 12, 1810. On succeeding his father in 1830, he published an edict in which he promised to "give his most anxious attention to the impartial administration of justice," to reform the finances, and to "use every effort to heal the wounds which had afflicted the kingdom … Ferdinand Ii FERDINAND II. of Aragon and Sicily. Ferdinand Ii FERDINAND II., king of Naples, grandson of the preceding, and son of Alphonso II., was born probably in 1468. Ferdinand Iii FERDINAND III. (1608-1657), emperor, the son of the preceding, was born at Gratz, 11th July 1608. He became king of Bohemia in 1625, king of Hungary in 1627, king of the Romans in 1636, and succeeded his father as emperor in 1637. Milder in disposition, less fanatical in his opinions, and somewhat dispirited on account of the repeated defeats inflicted on the German arms by Duke Bernhard and Gener… Ferdinand Iii FERDINAND III. (1200-1252), usually known as Saint Ferdinand, was the son of Alphonse IX. of Leon, and of Berenguela, sister of Henry I. of Castile. On the death of Henry without issue in 1217, the just title of Blanche, the elder of the surviving sisters, was set aside and Berenguela procured the proclamation of Ferdinand. He rapidly secured the homage of the towns and the submission of the noble… Ferdinand Iii FERDINAND III. (1769-1824), grand-duke of Tuscany, and archduke of Austria, second son of the emperor Leopold II., was born on the 6th May 1769. On his father becoming emperor in 1790, he succeeded him as grand-duke of Tuscany. Ferdinand was the first sovereign to enter into diplomatic relations with the French republic ; and although afterwards compelled by England and Russia to join the coalitio… Ferdinand Iii FERDINAND III. of Naples. Ferdinand Iv FERDINAND IV. (1751-1825) of Naples, III. of Sicily, and I. of the Two Sicilies, third son of Don Carlos, king of Naples (afterwards Charl es III. of Spain), was born in Naples, January 12, 1751. When his father ascended the Spanish throne in 1759, Ferdinand, in accordance with the treaties which forbade the union of the two crowns, succeeded him on the throne of Naples, under a regency of which B… Ferdinand Iv FERDINAND IV. (1285-1312), sometimes called el Emplazado, i.e., Cited or Summoned, succeeded his father Sancho IV. on the throne of Castile and Leon in 1295. The years of his minority were disturbed by a series of civil wars caused by the pretensions of his cousins Don Juan and Don Alonso tie la Cerda to the crown, by the disputes of the Haros, Lams, and other nobles about their privileges, by the… Ferdinand Vi FERDINAND VI. (1713-1759), king of Spain, sometimes called the Sage, the younger son of Philip V. and Maria Louisa of Savoy, was born at Madrid, September 23, 1713. On the death of his elder brother Louis in 1725, Ferdinand was proclaimed prince of the Asturias; and in 1729 lie was betrothed to Barbara, daughter of John V. of Portugal. He succeeded his father on July 9,1746. Since 1739 Spain had b… Ferdinand Vii FERDINAND VII. (1784-1833), king of Spain, the eldest son of Charles IV, and of Maria Louisa of Parma, was born at San Ildefonso, October 14, 1784, and became prince of the Asturias on the accession of his father in 1788. The year of his birth had also been the year of Godoy's arrival at court (see ALCUDIA) ; and the sinister influences of the royal favourite soon began to manifest themselves ther… Ferentino FERENTINO, the ancient Ferent inum, a town of central Italy, in the province of Rome, is situated on the Neapolitan railway about 45 miles S.E. of Rome. It lies on the side of a hill rising immediately to the left of the Via Latina. It possesses mineral springs, a cathedral, and some interesting remains of the ancient Ferentinum. These consist chiefly of the old walls built somewhat in the cyclope… Ferento FERENTO, the remains of a city of Etruria whose ancient name was l'erentinum. Ferguson FERGUSON, JAlkiES (1710-1776), an eminent mechanist and astronomer, was born near Keith in Banffshire in 1710, of parents in very humble circumstances. He first learned to read by overhearing his father teach his elder brother, and with the help of an old woman was " able," he says in his autobiography, "to read tolerably well before his father thought of teaching him." After receiving further ins… Ferguson, Adam FERGUSON, ADAM (1723-1816), a distinguished philosopher and historian, was born, June 20, 1723, at Logierait, Perthshire, of which parish his father was minister. He received the rudiments of his education at the village school of his native parish, after which he was removed to Perth grammar-school, where he made remarkable progress in classical literature. Towards the end of 1738 he entered the … Fergusson FERGUSSON, Sin WILLIAM (1808-1877), Baronet, Lothian, 20th March 1808. After receiving his early education at Lochmabeu and the High School of Edinburgh, he entered the university of Edinburgh with the view of studying law, but soon afterwards abandoned his intention, and became a pupil of Robert Knox the celebrated anatomist. At the age of twenty he became a licentiate of the College of Surgeons,… Fergusson, Robert FERGUSSON, ROBERT (1750-1774), one of the minor poets of Scotland, owes his chief fame to the fact that he was, in a very special sense, the precursor of Burns. He was the youngest of three sons of William Fergusson, a man of superior intelligence, who removed from Aberdeen to Edinburgh in 1746, and there ultimately found employment with the British Linen Company as accountant. Robert was born 17t… Ferid-eddin-athar FERID-EDDIN-ATHAR (1119-1229), or FARAD UDDIN" ATTAR, a Persian poet and mystic, was born at Kedken, near Nishapur, 513 A.H. (1119 A.D.), and was put to death 627 A.H. (1229 A.D.), thus having reached the age of 110 years. His real name was Muhammed ben Ibrahim, and Ferid Eddin was simply an honourable title equivalent to Pearl of Religion. He followed for a time his father's profession of druggis… Ferishta, Mohammed FERISHTA, MOHAMMED KAsim, a celebrated Persian historian, was born about 1570, at Astrabad, on the shores of the Caspian Sea. While he was still a child his father was summoned away from hisnativo country into Hindustan, where he held high office in the Deccan ; and by his influence the young Ferishta received court promotion. In 1589 Ferishta removed to Bejapore, where he spent the remainder of h… Fermanagh FERMANAGH, an inland county in the province of Ulster, Ireland, extending from 54? 7' to 54? 40' N. let., and from 7? 1' to 8? 5' W. long., is bounded on the N.W. by Donegal, on the N.E. by Tyrone, on the E. by Monaghan, and on the S.W. by Cavan and Leitrim. Its greatest length N.W. and S.E. is 45 miles ; its greatest breadth N.E. and S.W. is 29 miles. The area extends to 457,369 statute acres, or… Fermat, Pierre De FERMAT, PIERRE DE (1601-1665), a famous mathematician, was born at Beaumont-de-Lomagno near Montauban. While still young he, along with Paseal, made some discoveries in regard to the properties of numbers, on which he afterwards built his method of calculating probabilities. He discovered a simpler method of quadrating parabolas than that of Archimedes, and a method of finding the greatest and sma… Fermentation FERMENTATION, a chemical term, which, in accordance with its derivation from fervere (to boil), was originally applied indiscriminately to all chemical changes involving the effervescence of a liquid, but which, in its modern acceptation, has in itself nothing at all to do with effervescence, being used to designate a peculiar class of metamorphoses which certain complex organic materials are liab… Fermoy FERMOY, a market-town of Ireland, in the East Riding of the county of Cork, is about 21 miles distant from Cork, and about 130 miles from Dublin, and is connected with both these cities by the Fenno), branch of the Great Southern and Western Railway. It is situated on the river Black-water, which divides the town into two parts, the larger of which is ou the southern bank, and there the trade of t… Fernandez FERNANDEZ, Jonas, a Portuguese traveller, also of the 15th century. Fernandez FERNANDEZ, ALvano, one of the numerous band of Portuguese explorers who, in the earlier part of the 15th century, took part in the search for a sea-passage into the Indian Ocean, was born about the year 1420, and seems to have been brought up as page or esquire to Prince Enrique of Portugal. He was related to Joam Gonsalvez, discoverer of Madeira and governor of Funchal. While still a comparativel… Fernandez, Diego FERNANDEZ, DIEGO, a Spanish adventurer and historian of the 16th century. He was originally educated for the church, but about 1545 he embarked for Peru, where he served in the royal army under Alonzo de Alvarado. Mendosa, marquis of Caliete, who succeeded Alvarado as viceroy, bestowed on Fernandez the office of chronicler of Peru ; and in this capacity he wrote a narrative of the insurrection of … Fernandez, Juan FERNANDEZ, JuAN, a Spanish navigator and discoverer. While navigating the coasts of South America it occurred to him that the south winds that almost constantly prevailed near the shore, and retarded the voyages between Peru and Chili, might not exist further oat at sea. His idea proved to be correct, and by the help of the trade winds and sonic currents at a distance from the coast he made a voya… Fernandez, Juan FERNANDEZ, JUAN, a Spanish sailor and adventurer. In 1531 ho joined the army of the celebrated:i Francesco Pizarro, conqueror of Peru, with a small force, but in 1533 he passed into the service of his rival Pedro de Alvarado. When the latter, however, agreed for a sum of money to cede his claims on Peru and make over his navy to Pizarro and Ahnagro, Fernandez necessarily returned to the service of… Fernando De Noronha FERNANDO DE NORONHA, a group of islands in the South Atlantic, about 194 miles N.E. of Cape St Roque, South America, 3? 50' S. lat., 32? 25' W. long. The largest of them is about 20 miles in circumference, its surface is rugged, and it contains a number of rocky hills from 500 to 700 feet high, and a mountainous peak towering to the height of about 1000 feet. The island is covered with wood, but o… Fernando Po, Or Fernao FERNANDO PO, or FERNAO no PAO, an island on the W. coast of Africa, lying in the Bight of Biafra, about 20 miles from the mainland, in 3? 12' N. lat. and 3? 48' E. long. It is about 44 miles in length from N.N.E. to S.S.W., and about 20 in breadth. The coasts are steep and rocky, and the interior is mountainous. A ridge of mountains towards the centre of the island rises to the height of 8000 feet… Fernel, Jean FERNEL, JEAN FitAxgois (1497-1558), a distinguished French physician, was born at Clermont in 1407. After receiving his early education at his native town, he entered the college of Sainte-Barbe, Paris, where he so distinguished himself in mathematics, philosophy, and languages, that not long after obtaining his M.A. degree he was offered a professorship in the college. This offer he, however, dec… Fernow, Karl Ludwig FERNOW, KARL LuDWIG (1763-1808), German art-critic and archeologist, was born in Pomerania, November 19, 1763. His father was a servant in the household of the lord of Blumenhagen. At the age of twelve he became clerk to a notary, and was afterwards apprenticed to a druggist. While serving his time he had the misfortune accidentally to shoot a young man who came to visit him ; and although through… Ferns FERNS, a large group of cryptogamic plants forming in a wide sense a very naturally limited group. In the article BIOLOGY (vol. iii. p. 694) it has been shown that the subkingdom Cormophyta includes three well-marked series, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, Phanerogama,. Of the second of these, Ferns, in the most restricted acceptation of the word, are the most conspicuous representatives. It will be conv… Ferozepore FEROZEPORE. Ferrand, Antoine Francois Claude FERRAND, ANTOINE FRANcOIS CLAUDE, COMTE (1751-- 1825), statesman and political writer, was born at Paris July 4, 1751, and entered the Parleraent de Paris at the early age of eighteen as " =senior aux enquetes." During the Revolution he belonged to the emigrant party, and from 1794 to 1801 led a quiet life at Ratisbon, employing himself in literary work. In 1814 Ferrand was made minister of state … Ferrara FERRARA, a city of Italy, at the head of a circondario and province of the same name, is situated in a flat alluvial district at the junction of the Po di Volano with several minor branches of the complex water-system of lower Lombardy. At the times of greatest inundation the river rises about 7 or 8 feet above the level of the castle court, but the statement that it sometimes even reaches above t… Ferrari Gaudenz1o FERRARI GAUDENZ1O (1484-1549), a celebrated painter of the Milanese, or more strictly the Piedmontese, school, was born at Valduggia, Piedmont, and learned the elements of painting at Vercelli from Girolamo Giovannone. He next studied in Milan, in the school of Scotto, and some say of Luni ; towards 1504 he proceeded to Florence, and afterwards to Rome. His pictorial style may be considered as der… Ferret FERRET (Mustela faro), an albino variety of weasel, regarded by some as the descendant of a wild species originally brought from Africa, and now only known in the domesticated state, and by others, as a variety of the polecat (ffustela putorius), which it closely resembles in size, form, and habits, and with which it is said to interbreed freely. It differs, however, from the polecat in the colour… Ferri FERRI, Gino (1634-1689), a Roman painter, the chief disciple and successor of Pietro da Cortona. Ile was born in the Roman territory, studied under Pietro, to whom he became warmly attached, and, at an age a little past thirty, completed the painting of the ceilings and other internal decorations begun by his instructor in the Pitti Palace, Florence. He also co-operated in or finished several othe… Ferrier, James Frederick FERRIER, JAMES FREDERICK (1808-1864), metaphysician, was born in Edinburgh on 16th June 1808. His father was a writer to the signet, and his grandfather was an intimate friend of Sir Walter Scott. His mother was sister of Professor John Wilson. In his early youth he lived in the family of the Rev. Dr Duncan, in the manse of Bothwell, Dumfriesshire, and under Dr Duncan's tuition he acquired ' a str… Ferrol FERROL, a seaport town of Spain, province of Coruna, is situated on the northern arm of the bay of Belanzos, 12 miles N.E. of Coruna. The town is divided into three parts, the old; the new, and the "esteiro." The old town is very irregular, but the new town is a parallelogram of seven streets in width, by nine in length, intersecting each other at right angles. It has two squares, in one of which … Ferro, Or Iiierro FERRO, or IIIERRO. Ferry FERRY, in the law of England, is the right of carrying by boat across a river or arm of the sea, and of exacting a reasonable toll for such carriage. It belong; like the right of fair and market, to the class of rights called in English law franchises. Its origin must be by statute, royal grant, or prescription. It is wholly unconnected with the ownership or occupation of land, so that the owner o… Fersen, Axel, Count FERSEN, AXEL, COUNT (1755-1810), marshal of the kingdom of Sweden, was born at Stockholm, September 4, 1755. He belonged to an old Livonian family, several members of which had attained distinction during the reigns of Queen Christina, Charles X., and Charles XI. He was educated by his father Count Axel, a senator of Sweden under Gustavus III., and afterwards studied at the military academy of Tur… Fesca, Frederic Ernest FESCA, FREDERIC ERNEST (1789-1826), violinist and composer of instrumental music, was born February 15, 1789 at Magdeburg, where he received his early musical education from Lohse and Zacharia. He completed his studies at Leipsic under Eberhard Mfiller, and at the early age of fifteen appeared before the public with several concerti for the violin, which were received with general applause, and re… Fesch, Joseph FESCH, JOSEPH (1763-1839), cardinal, archbishop of Lyons, was born at Ajaccio, in Corsica, January 3, 1763, six years before the island was conquered by the French. His father, Francis Fesch, of Basel, was a Swiss officer in the service of Genoa, who had married as his second wife a young widow, the mother of Letizia Bonaparte. Joseph Fesch was thus half-brother to Letizia, and uncle to her son Na… Fessler FESSLER, IcNAz AURELIUS (1756-1839), a celebrated Hungarian ecclesiastic, historian, and freemason, was born on the 18th May 1756 at the village of Zurany in the county of Moson. His mother, who was a pious Roman Catholic, made every effort to secure for him a strict religious education. On the 9th July 1773 he joined the order of Capuchins as a novice, and in the following year he took the monast… Festivals FESTIVALS. A festival or feast' is a day or series of days specially and publicly set apart for religious observances. Whether its occurrence be casual or periodic, whether its ritual be grave or gay, carnal as the orgies of Baal and Astarte or spiritual as the worship of a Puritan Sabbath, it is to be regarded as a festival or "holy day" as long as it is professedly held in the name of religion. … Festus, Sextus FESTUS, SEXTUS PoMPE1us, a Latin grammarian of uncertain date, but who probably flourished in the 2d century of the Christian era. He wrote an epitome of the celebrated work De Verborum Significatione. This was a valuable treatise on many obscure points of grammar, mythology, and antiquities, written by M. Verrius Flaccus, a grammarian who flourished in the reign of Augustus. The abridgment of Fes… Fetichism FETICHISM is a stage of worship, or of the ways of regarding nature (for in simple states of mind religion and philosophy are in great part merged) in which ordinary material objects are regarded as holding, or as being the vehicle of, supernatural powers and influences, - which powers and influences can, it is supposed, be controlled or directed by the person possessing the object so endowed. Rel… Fetid Inan FETID INAN D IL (1578-1637), emperor, was the grandson of the preceding and the son of Charles duke of Styria and of Mary of Bavaria, and was born at Gratz, 9th July 1578. He was educated by the Jesuits, and having imbibed strong anti-Protestant sentiments is said to have taken a solemn vow before the altar that, on receiving the imperial crown, promised him by his cousin Matthias be would at what… Fetis, Francois Joseph FETIS, FRANcOIS JOSEPH (1784-1871), although a fertile composer of almost every kind of music, will be chiefly remembered as a theoretical and critical writer. He was born at Mons in Belgium, March 25, 1784, and was trained as a musician by his father, who followed the same calling. In 1800 he went to Paris and completed his studies at the conservatoire under such masters as Boieldieu, Rey, and Pr… Feudalism, Feudal System FEUDALISM, FEUDAL SYSTEM. Teodum, feudum, fief, or fee is derived from the German Vieh, cattle (Gothic, faihu ; Old High German, fihu ; Old Saxon, fehu ; Anglo-Saxon, feoh); in a secondary sense the word came to denote goods, money, property in general. The second syllable has been connected with another root, eel, also meaning property, - the whole word denoting property held as a reward, or in c… Feuerbach, Ludwig Andreas FEUERBACH, LUDWIG ANDREAS (1804-1872), fourth Thoughts on Death anti Immortality (1830), exhibits the endeavours to obtain a professorship. His embarrassed pointment he renounced the attempt to gain a livelihood from Bacon to Leibnitz, and his monograph on Pierre Bayle, and his strengthening conviction that philosophical research metaphysician, and had become the mouthpiece of a reaction the more … Feuerbach, Paul Joiiann FEUERBACH, PAUL JOIIANN ANsEr,Nt VON (1775? 1833), a distinguished writer on criminal law, was born at Jena, November 14, 1775. In his infancy the family removed to Frankfort, and he received his early education at the gymnasium of that town. At the age of seventeen, he went to the university of Jena ; and, his path in life not yet being fixed, his active mind eagerly sought after knowledge in all… Feuilleton FEUILLETON (a diminutive of feuillet, the leaf of a book), a kind of supplement attached to the political portion of the French newspaper. Fever FEVER (from ferveo, to burn). This term, which may be defined as a condition of the body characterized by an increase in temperature, is used in medicine with a wide application. Fever is one of the most common accompaniments of diseases in general, and serves to make the distinction between febrile and non-febrile ailments. In many cases the fever must be regarded as only secondary to, and sympto… Feydea1j, Ernest FEYDEA1J, ERNEST-And (1821-1873), a French author, was born in Paris, March 16,1821. He began his literary career in 1844, by the publication of a volume of poetry of that mediocre quality which in poetry is fatal. Either the partial failure of this literary effort, or his marriage soon afterwards to a daughter of the economist Blanqui, caused him to forsake for a time the vocation of letters, and… Fezzan FEZZAN (the ancient Phazania, or country of the Garamantes), a country of the Sahara region of North Africa, forming a " kaimakamlik " of the. Ottoman vilayet of Tripoli, extends 300 miles N. to S. from the town of Bonjem, lat. 30? 40' N., to Bir Omah, on the route from Murzuk to Bornu, in lat. 24? 10' N. ; and 420 miles E. to W. from the Akakus Mountains near Ghat in long. 10? 30' W. to the villa… Fi011 Ill FI011 ILL?, JOHANN DOMINTCUS (1748-1821), German painter and historian of art, was born at Hamburg, October 13, 1743. He received his first instructions in art at an academy of painting at Baireuth; and in 1761, to continue his studies, he went first to Rome, where for four years he was the pupil of Batoni, and next to Bologna, where he studied under Bigari and Lulli. He distinguished himself suff… Fiacre, St FIACRE, ST, an anchorite of Irish descent, who was nobly born, but renounced his worldly advantages, and sailed to France to find a solitude where he might devote himself to fasting, prayer, and the practices of clarity. On reaching Meaux he addressed himself to St Faro, the bishop of the diocese, who assigned him a dwelling in the forest of Breuil, in the province of Brie. Here Fiacre constructed… Fiars Prices FIARS PRICES, in the law of Scotland, are the average prices of each of the different sorts of grain grown in each county, as fixed annually by the sheriff, usually after the verdict of a jury ; and they serve as a rule for ascertaining the value of the grain due to feudal superiors, to the clergy or to lay proprietors of teinds, to landlords as a part or the whole of their rents and in all cases … Fibres, Textile FIBRES, TEXTILE, in their widest acceptation include all substances capable of being spun, woven, or felted ; but there are many materials and preparations which, though they can be and actually are woven, yet do not come within the range of fibres as technically understood. Thus metallic wires, although both spun into ropes and woven into wire-cloth for numerous purposes, are not generally reckon… Fibrin, Or Fibrine FIBRIN, or FIBRINE, is a member of the important group of albuminoid or proteinous substances which, embracing albumen, casein, gluten, and other allied compounds, constitute essential principles of animal and of the higher vegetable organisms. The substances are distinguished among themselves more by physical peculiarities and properties than by distinctions of chemical constitution, which, indee… Fic1eac FIC1EAC, a town of France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Lot, is situated on the right bank of the Selle, 32 miles N.E. of Cabors. It is inclosed by au amphitheatre of wooded and vine-clad hills, but is inbuilt, and its streets are narrow and dirty. Many of the buildings are remarkable for their antique style. It was formerly surrounded by ramparts and ditches, but these were d… Fichte, Johinn Gottlieb FICHTE, JOHINN GOTTLIEB (1762-1814), one of the most eminent of modern German metaphysicians, was born at Rammenau in Upper Lusatia on the 19th 11Iay 1762. His father, a ribbon-weaver in that village, was of Swedish origin, the first of the Fichte family having been a soldier in the army of Gustavus Adolphus, who was left wounded at Rammenau and settled there. All of the race were distinguished fo… Fichtelgebirge FICHTELGEBIRGE, a mountain group of Bavaria, Germany, forming the centre from which three extensive mountain ranges proceed, - the Erzgebirge in a N.E., the Frankenwald in a N.W., and the Bohmerwald in a S.E. direction. The streams to which it gives rise flow towards the four cardinal points, - e.9., the Eger eastward and the Saale northward, both to the Elbe ; the Main westward to the Rhine, and … Ficino FICINO, MInefmo (1433-1499), was born at Figline, sn the upper Arno valley, in the year 1433. His father, a physician of some eminence, settled in Florence, and attached himself to the person of Cosimo de' Medici. Here the young Marsilio received his elementary education in gram mar and Latin literature at the high school or studio pubblico. While still a boy, lie showed promise of rare literary g… Fictions FICTIONS, in law, or legal fictions, are false averments, the truth of which is not permitted to be called in question. English law as well as Roman law abounds in fictions. Sometimes they are merely the condensed expression of a rule of law, - e.g., the fiction of English law that husband and wife are one person, and the fiction of Roman law that the wife is the daughter of the husband. Sometimes… Field FIELD, Jonia (1782-1837), one of the most remarkable pianists of his time and of the few composers of British origin whose works have acquired European reputation, was born at Dublin in 1782. He was descended from a musical family, his father being a violinist-, and his grandfather the organist in one of the churches of Dublin. From the latter the boy received his first musical education. When a f… Fieldfare FIELDFARE, Anglo-Saxon Fealo for (= Fallow-farer), a large species of Thrush, the Turdus pilaris of 'Animus - well known as a regular and common autumnal visitor throughout the British Islands and a great part of Europe, besides Western Asia, and even reaching Northern Africa. It is the Veldjakker and reld-lyster of the Dutch, the Wachholderdrossel and Krandsvogel of Germans, the Litorne of the Fr… Fielding, Anthony Vandyke Copley FIELDING, ANTHONY VANDYKE COPLEY (1787-1855), commonly called Copley Fielding, an English landscape-painter, became at an early age a pupil of John Yarley. Fielding, Henry FIELDING, HENRY (1707-1754). The pedigree of Fielding the novelist will always be remembered by an eloquent passage in one of Gibbon's essays. " Our immortal Fielding was of the younger branch of the earls of Denbigh, who drew their origin from the counts of Hapsburg, the lineal descendants of Eltrico, in the 7th century duke of Alsace. Far different have been the fortunes of the English and Germa… Field, Nathan FIELD, NATHAN, a dramatist and actor of the time of Elizabeth, was probably born about but not later than 1587. He was the son of the rector of Cripplegate, the Rev. John Field, and early became one of the children of Queen Elizabeth's chapel, and in 1600 he played one of the principal parts in Ben Jonson's Cynthia's Rerels, which was acted by children. Next year lie played in the Poetaster, in 16… Fieri Facias FIERI FACIAS, in English law, is a writ of execution after judgment obtained in action of debt or damages. Fierluigi Farnese FIERLUIGI FARNESE (1493-1547), born in 1493, was the natural son of Pope Paul III., who appointed him gon. faloniere, or captain-general of the armies of the church, created him sovereign duke of Parma and Piacenza, and obtained for him the much coveted dignity of patrician of Venice. His character was shamelessly vicious and , tyrannical. He deprived his nobles of their most dearly cherished priv… Fieschi, Joseph Marie FIESCHI, JOSEPH MARIE (1790-1836), assassin, the chief conspirator in the attempt on the life of Louis Philippe in July 1835, was a native of Murato in Corsica, and was baptized there. December 3, 1790. After follow ing his father's occupation, that of a shepherd, he enlisted at the age of eighteen in the Corsican Legion at Naples, and passed with it into the service of Murat, king of Naples. In 1… Fiesco FIESCO [DE' FIESCIII], GIOVANNI LUIGI (about 1523? 1547), count of Lavagna, Genoese conspirator, was descended from a great historical family which counted among its members Popes Innocent IV. and Adrian V. He was born about 1523, and by the death of his father he became at the age of twenty-three the head of his race and the possessor of considerable estates. He had allied himself by marriage wit… Fiesole FIESOLE (1387-1455). Il Beato Fra Giovanni Angelico da Fiesole is the name given to a far-famed painter-friar of the Florentine state in the 15th century, the protagonist, beyond all other men, of pietistic painting. He is often, but not accurately, termed simply "Fiesole," which is merely the name of the town, noticed above, where he first took the vows ; more often, Fra Angelico. If we turn his … Fiesole FIESOLE, a small episcopal city of Italy, occupying the site of the ancient Faesulre, on the crown of a hill that rises above the Arno, about three miles to the west of Florence. In size it is little more than a village, but its historical interest is of considerable scope. The principal building is the cathedral, which was commenced by Bishop Giacomo Bavaro in 1028, and dedicated to San Pietro Ro… Fife FIFE, See FLUTE. Fife FIFE, a maritime county of Scotland, is situated between 56? 1' and 56? 27' N. lat., and 2? 35' and 3? 40' W. long., and is bounded on the N. by the Firth of Tay, on the E. by the German Ocean, on the S. of the Firth of Forth, and on the W. by parts of Kinross, Perth, and Clackmannan. Its greatest length from east to west is about 42 miles, and its greatest breadth from north to south about 18 mil… Fifth Monarchy Men FIFTH MONARCHY MEN, a Puritan sect who supported Cromwell's government in the expectation that it was a preparation for the "fifth monarchy," - that is, the monarchy which should succeed the Assyrian, the Persian, the Grecian, and the Roman, and during which Christ should reign with his saints on earth for a thousand years. Being disappointed at the delay in the fulfilment of their hopes, they att… Figaro FIGARO, a famous dramatic character first introduced on the stage by Beaumarchais in the Ilarbier de Seville, the it triage de Figaro, and the Folle Journee. The name is said to be an old Spanish and Italian word for a wigmaker, connected with the verb eigarrar, to roll in paper. Many of the traits of the character are to be found in earlier comic types of the Roman and Italian stage, but as a who… Figueras FIGUERAS, a frontier town of Spain, in the province of Gerona, and 20 miles W.N.W. of the town of that name. It is a straggling town, situated in a rich plain of olives and rice. It possesses a beautiful parish church, two monasteries, and a hospital. The principal manufactures are leather and paper, and it has sonic trade with Prance. The citadel, an irregular pentagonal structure on the principl… Fiji Islands FIJI ISLANDS. The Fiji, or more correctly Viti, archipelago (Fiji being the pronunciation in the eastern part of the group frequented by the Tongans) is one of the most important in the South Pacific. Its nearest neighbours are the Samoan group 300 miles to Vac N.E., and the Tongan or Friendly rather nearer to the S.E. Lying between 177? E. and 178? W. long., and between 15? 40' and 20' S. lat., i… Filan Gaetano FILAN GAETANO (1752-1788), an eminent Italian publicist, was born at Naples on the 18th of August 1752. He was the third son of Ctesar prince of Arianiello, and through his mother he was connected with the ducal house of Fragnito. Gaetano was from his infancy destined for the profession of arms ; when only seven years of age he received a military appointment, and at fourteen he began actual servi… Filangieri, Carlo FILANGIERI, CARLO (1783-1867), an Italian general, son of the economist Gaetano Filangieri, was born at Naples in 1783, not long before his father's death. In 1799 he came to France, and, through the influence of the first consul, was admitted to the prytanee, then the training school for young officers, where he remained for the usual period of two years. Entering the French army, he was promoted… Filbert FILBERT. File FILE, a bar of steel having sharp teeth on its surface, and used for abrading or smoothing hard substances. Some uncivilized tribes polish their weapons with such things as rough stones, pieces of shark skin, or fishes' teeth. The operation of filing is recorded in 1 Sam. xiii. 21 ; and, among other facts, the similarity of the name for the filing instrument among various European peoples points t… File-fish And Trigger-fish FILE-FISH and TRIGGER-FISH are names given to fishes of the genus _Batistes (and Monacant/nto) inhabiting all tropical and subtropical seas. Their body is compressed and not covered with ordinary scales, but with small juxtaposed scutes. Their other principal characteristics consist in the structure of their first dorsal fin (which consists of three spines) and in their peculiar dentition. The fir… Filelfo, Francesco FILELFO, FRANCESCO (1398-1481), was born in 1398 at Tolentino, in the March of Ancona. When he appeared upon the scene of human life, Petrarch and the students of Florence had already brought the first act in the recovery of classic culture to conclusion. They had created an eager appetite for the antique, had disinterred many important Roman authors, and had freed Latin scholarship to some extent… Filibuster FILIBUSTER, a name first given to the buccaneers, a band of piratical adventurers who maintained themselves chiefly in the Caribbean seas during the 17th century (see BUCCANEER). Filicaia, Vincenzo Da FILICAIA, VINCENZO DA (1642-1707), sprung from an ancient and noble family of Florence, was born in that city December 30, 1612. From an incidental notice in one of his letters, stating the amount of house rent paid during his childhood, his parents must have been in easy circumstances, and the supposition is confirmed by the fact that be enjoyed all the advantages of a liberal education, first un… Filigree FILIGREE, formerly written filigrain or filigrame (the Italian filigrana, Fr. filigrane, Span. filigrana, Germ. Drahtgeflecht), jewel work of a delicate kind made with threads and beads usually of gold and silver. The compound word from the Latin Aunt, thread, and grannie, grain, is not found in Ducange, and is indeed of modern origin. Though filigree has become a special branch of jewel work in m… Filippino FILIPPINO. Fillan, St FILLAN, ST. The accounts given by various writers of this saint, in so far as they supply any details, are, as in many similar cases, purely legendary and conjectural. That such an ecclesiastic existed, that he was of Irish origin, and that he was venerated in Glendochart and Strathfillan in Perthshire as early as the 8th or 9th century, may be held as certain. There was an ancient monastery in th… Fillmore, Millard FILLMORE, MILLARD (1800-1874), thirteenth president of the United States of America. His family was of English stock, and had early settled in New England. His father, Nathaniel Fillmore, made in 1795 a clearing within the limits of what is now the town of Summer Hill, Cayuga co., New York, and there the future president was born, January 7, 1800. The father went by the title of " the squire," and… Film FILM. Filmer, Sir Robert FILMER, SIR ROBERT, a writer of the Pith century, remarkable for his singular political theory, which deserves notice on account of the great attention which it excited, was the son of Sir Edward Filmer of East Sutton in Kent. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he matriculated in 1604. His death has been fixed at widely different dates, but of these the most probable is 1653. Filmer w… Filter FILTER, an arrangement for the separation of impurities from liquids, by passage through porous material. The filtering process is common in nature. The clearness of spring water is due to it ; for such water generally comes from a considerable depth in the ground (as appears, e.g., from its equable temperature throughout the year) ; and having traversed a variety of porous strata, it lies undergo… Fin FIN'. Finale Dell' Emilia FINALE DELL' EMILIA, a town of Italy, circle of Mirandola, province of Modena, is situated on the right bank of the Panaro, 10 miles from its junction with the Po. Finance And Its Forms FINANCE AND ITS FORMS in the 13th and 14th centuries, the words finare, finacio, and financia were employed, principally by writers in France, to denote those bargains by which the indefinite liabilities of ancient tenures were commuted for fixed sums payable to the immediate lord of the tenant. It was at this time that the commutation became general, except when the service of the tenant was of a… Finch FINCH (German Fink, Latin Fringilla), a name applied (but almost always in composition - as Bullfinch, Chaffinch, Goldfinch, Hawfinch, &c.) to a great many small birds of the Order Passeres, and now pretty generally accepted as that of a group or family - the Fringillidm of most ornithologists. Yet it is one the extent of which must be regarded as being uncertain. Many writers have included in it … Finch, Daniel And Heneace FINCH, DANIEL and HENEACE. Finck, Heinrich FINCK, HEINRICH, a celebrated German musical composer, of whose life little more is known than that he was of Saxon origin, and that between 1492 and 1506 he was chapelmaster to two successive kings of Poland, at whose court in Warsaw he resided. Finck, Hermann FINCK, HERMANN, the nephew of the subject of last notice, has frequently been mistaken for him. Finden, William FINDEN, WILLIAM (1787-1852), English line engraver, was born in 1787. lie served his apprenticeship to one James Mitan, but appears to have owed far more to the influence of James Heath, whose works he privately and earnestly studied. His first employment on his own account was engraving illustrations for books, and among the most noteworthy of these early plates were Smirke's illustrations to Don… Fine FINE, in law, is a pecuniary penalty inflicted for the less serious offences. Fines are necessarily discretionary as to amount ; but a maximum is generally fixed when the penalty is imposed by statute. And it is an old constitutional maxim that fines must not be unreasonable. In Magna Charta, c. 111, it is ordained " Liber homo non amercietur pro parvo delicto nisi secunthim modern ipsius delicti,… Fingal FINGAL, the name of the chief hero in the English prose epics called the Poems of Ossian, written in the last century by James Macpherson, and based to a certain extent upon poems and prose tales to be found in manuscripts written in Irish - the literary language common to both Ireland and Gaelic Scotland, or still preserved in memory by the Celtic-speaking people of both countries. The Finn nu Ba… Finiguerra FINIGUERRA, MAso (contraction for TommAso), Florentine goldsmith, is distinguished as the inventor of the method of taking impressions from engraved plates. The date of his birth is not ascertained, and conjectures vary from 1400 to 1426. He was one of the best workers in niello, a form of decorative art then very much in vogue in Italy, which, however, in the next century fell into neglect. He is… Finland FINLAND (Finnish Suomi, or Suomenmact, the Swampy Region, of which Finland - Fen Land - is said to be a Swedish translation), a grand-duchy forming an administrative division or government of Russia, lies between 59? 48' and 70? 6' N. lat., and 20? 29' and 32? 47' E. long. It is bounded on the N. by Norway, on the E. by the governments of Archangel and Olonetz, on the S. by the Gulf of Finland, an… Finlay, George FINLAY, GEORGE (1799-1875), the historian of Greece " from its conquest by the Romans to the present time," was born of Scottish parents at Faversham, Kent, on the 21st of December 1799. His father, Major John Finlay, R.E., F.R.S., who had held for some time the post of inspector of the Government powder-mills at Faversham and Waltham Abbey, died when George was still very young (1802); but the bo… Fiorenicola FIORENICOLA, a small town of Italy, in the province of Piacenza, about 13 miles from the city of that name, on the right of the Arda, which is there crossed by a noble bridge. Firdousi FIRDOUSI. Abu 'ICasim Mansiir, who took the 720M cle phone of Firdousi, was a Persian poet of great eminence, and is chiefly known to European readers by his magnificent epic poem the Shahnantah, or " Book of Kings," a complete history of Persia in nearly 60,000 verses. He was born at Shadab, a suburb of Ttis, about the year 329 of the Hegira (941 A.D.). His father, Maulana Ahmed, son of Maulana F… Fire FIRE is considered in the present article in relation to the destruction by it of life and property. History is full of accounts of the devastation it has caused in the towns and cities of nearly every country of the civilized world. The following list embraces the most memorable of the Such great fires as the above are due, first, to the combustible contents of buildings and of the materials th… Fire And Its Uses FIRE AND ITS USES So general is the knowledge of fire and its uses that it is a question whether we have any authentic instance on record of a tribe altogether ignorant of them. A few notices indeed are to be found in the voluminous literature of travel which would decide the question in the affirmative ; but when they are carefully investigated, their evidence is found to be far from conclusive. … Volume 10 [G-GOT]: Bailyta Class to Geta [next] [back] Volume 8 [ELE-FAK] Copyright © 2013 Net Industries and its Licensors – All Rights Reserved – Terms of Use Share this page: Tweet More To Explore	Contact & About Privacy Policy