Fire-clay, Fire-bricks

FIRE-CLAY, FIRE-BRICKS. Fire-clays may be defined as native combinations of hydrated silicates of alumina, mechanically associated with silica and alumina in various states of subdivision, and sufficiently free from silicates of the alkalies and from iron and lime to resist vitrification at high temperatures ; the absence of the vitrifiable element is, however, merely a question of degree, as no n…

Firenzuoia, Agnolo

FIRENZUOIA, AGNOLO (1493?c. 1545), Italian poet and litterateur, was born at Florence, September 28, 1493. The family name was taken from the town of Firenzuola, situated at the foot of the Apennines, its original home. The grandfather of Agnolo had obtained the citizenship of Florence and transmitted it to his family. Agnolo was destined for the profession of the law, and pursued his studies firs…

Fireworks

FIREWORKS.

Firmicus, Maternus Julius

FIRMICUS, MATERNUS JULIUS, the name of a Latin writer, and most probably of two, who lived in the reign of Constantine and his successors. About the year 347 one of them composed a work entitled De Erroribus Proltuarant Relig;onum, which he inscribed to Constantius and Constans, the sons of Constantine, and winch is still extant. During the life of Constantine a person of the same name as the auth…

Firozpur

FIROZPUR, the civil headquarters of the district of the same name, also a military cantonment, is situated on the old bank of the Sutlej, in 30? 57' N. lat. and 74? 10' E. long. The city contains a population of 20,592, according to the census of 1868, of whom 7181 are Hindus, 11,171 Mahometans, 1347 Sikhs, and 893 "others." It has been constituted a municipality of the second class ; municipal in…

Firozpur, Or Ferozepore

FIROZPUR, or FEROZEPORE, a district of British India in the Lahore division or cornmissionership under the jurisdiction of the lieutenant-governor of the Punjab, lies between 30? 18' 12" and 31? 10' 36" N. lat., and 74? 5' and 75? 29' E. long. It is bounded on the N. by Lahore, Amritsar, and Kapurthala state, E. by Jahndhar and Ludhiana, S. by Patiala, Nablia, and Faridkot states, and W. by Sirsa.…

Fischart

FISCHART (1546-1590), JOHANNES, the great German satirist of the 16th century, was born probably at Strasburg (according to some accounts at Mainz), in 1546, and was educated at Worms, in the house of Kaspar Scheid, whom he mentions in the preface to his .Eulenspiegel as his " cousin and preceptor." After taking the degree of Doctor der Rechte at Basel in 1570, he left Germany for a time, and is s…

Fisheries Of Different Forms Of Marine Life

FISHERIES OF DIFFERENT FORMS OF MARINE LIFE under the heading Sea Fisheries, which form the particular subject of the present artiele,1 may be included the various operations engaged in for the capture of the different forms of marine life which, in some manner or other, minister to the wants or convenience of man. The most important of these fisheries - those only, in fact, to which the title str…

Fisher, John

FISHER, JOHN, bishop of Rochester, was born at Beverley in Yorkshire, but the year of his birth is uncertain, some placing it in 1459, others in 1461, and others in 1465. He was educated in the collegiate church of Beverley, and in 1484 he removed to Michael House in Cambridge, of which college he was elected master in the year 1495. Having applied himself to the study of divinity, he took orders …

Foster, Stephen Uollins

FOSTER, STEPHEN UOLLINS (1826-1864), a prolific American song and ballad writer, was born at Alleghany, Pennsylvania, July 4, 1826. He was the youngest child of a merchant who became mayor of his native city, and a member of the State legislature, and was related by marriage to President Buchanan. As a boy Stephen was delicate, and through life he was of a quiet retiring disposition - in strong co…

Fothergill, Joan

FOTHERGILL, JOAN (1712-1780), F.A.S., an eminent physician, a member of the Society of Friends, was born at Carr End in Yorkshire. He took the degree of M.D. at Edinburgh in 1736. After visiting the Continent, he in 1740 settled in London, and gained there an extensive practice. In the epidemics of influenza in 1775 and 1776 he is said to have had sixty patients daily. In his leisure he made a stu…

Foucault, Jean Bernard Leon

FOUCAULT, JEAN BERNARD LEON (1819-1868), a distinguished French physicist, was the son of a well-known publisher at Paris, where he was born September 18, 1819. After an education received chiefly at home, he studied medicine, which, however, he speedily abandoned for physical science, the improvement of Daguerre's photographic processes being the object to which he first directed his attention. D…

Fouche, Joseph

FOUCHE, JOSEPH (1763-1820), duke of Otranto, minister of police under Napoleon I., was born in a small village near Nantes, 26th May 1763. He was the son of a ship captain, and at the age of nine years began the study of mathematics at the college of his native place, with the view of entering the merchant marine. That such a calling would have proved congenial to him is not very probable, and at …

Foucher, Simon

FOUCHER, SIMON (1644-1696), a sceptical writer during the latter part of the 17th century, was born at Dijon on the 1st March 1644. Extremely little is known of his life. He was the son of a merchant at Dijon, and appears to have taken orders at a very early age. For some years he held the position of honorary canon at Dijon, but this he resigned in order to take up residence in Paris. He graduate…

Fould, Achille

FOULD, ACHILLE (1800-1867), French financier and politician, was born at Paris, November 17, 1800. The son of a rich Jewish banker, he was associated with and afterwards succeeded his father in the management of the business, As early as 1842 he entered political life, having been elected in that year as a deputy for the department of the Hautes Pyrenees. From that time to his death he actively bu…

Foul's, Andrew And Robert

FOUL'S, ANDREW and ROBERT, two learned Scotch printers and publishers, whose enterprise and devotion to the interests of the higher education deserve to be gratefully remembered. Robert, the elder of the two, was born in 1707, and his brother in 1712. Their father was a maltman in Glasgow, and they consequently had very ordinary opportunities for intellectual culture in their early years. Robert w…

Founding

FOUNDING, the art of reproducing solid objects in metal or other fusible substances by pouring the melted substance into moulds. It is also known as casting, and objects so produced are said to be of cast metal. Works where founding or casting is carried on arc termed foundries, and their proprietors founders. The verb to found is not, however, in current use, being almost entirely replaced by cas…

Foundling Hospitals

FOUNDLING HOSPITALS are intended to save children from death by exposure, and it is therefore difficult to describe them properly apart from the general subject of infanticide. This practice was extremely common among i nearly all ancient nations. It may still be studied in such horrible institutions of savage life as the Areoi of the Society Islands, or the Meebra of New South Wales ; and it may …

Fountain

FOUNTAIN, a spring of water. The term is applied in a restricted sense to such springs as, whether fed by natural or artificial means, have arrangements of human art at a point where the water emerges. Pure water is so necessary to man, and the degree of plenty, constancy, and purity in which it is procured, transported, prepared for use, and distributed in populous districts is so fair a standard…

Fountains Abbey

FOUNTAINS ABBEY.

Fouque, Friedrich Heinrich Karl

FOUQUE, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH KARL, BARON DE LA MoTrE (1777-1843), one of the most industrious and popular of German authors in the early part of this century, was born February 12, 1777, at Brandenburg on the Havel. The family of De la Motto Fonque was, as the name suggests, of French extraction, but had been driven from France by the revocation of the edict of Nantes ; and Fouque's grandfather, hav…

Fouquet, Nicolas

FOUQUET, NICOLAS (1615-1680), viscount of Melun and of Vault, marquis of Belle-Isle, superintendent of finance under Louis XIV., was born at Paris in 1615. Destined to official life, he was carefully educated; and so evident was his superior ability that he was appointed master of requests at the age of twenty. He was only thirty-five when he obtained the important post of procureur-gen&al to the …

Fourchambault

FOURCHAMBAULT, a town of France in the department of Nievre, on the right bank of the Loire, with a station on the railway about 5 miles S.E. of Nevers.

Fourcroy, Antoine Francois

FOURCROY, ANTOINE FRANCOIS, COMTE DE (1755 - 1809), a celebrated chemist, son of an apothecary in the household of the duke of Orleans, was born at Paris, June 15, 1755. Some of his ancestors had been distinguished at the bar, but the branch of the family to which he belonged had become greatly reduced in circumstances. At the age of fourteen Fourcroy left the college at Harcourt, where he had pro…

Fourier, Francois Charles Marie

FOURIER, FRANcOIS CHARLES MARIE (1772-1837), one of the most celebrated socialist writers, was born at Besancon in Franche-Cotnte, on the 7th April 1772. his father was a draper in good circumstances, and Fourier received an excellent education at the college in his native town. After completing his studies there he travelled for some time in France, Germany, and Holland. On the death of his fathe…

Fourier, Jean Baptiste Joseph

FOURIER, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH (1768-1830), French mathematician, was born at Auxerre, March 21, 1768. He was the son of a tailor, and was left an orphan in his eighth year ; but through the kindness of a friend, who observed in him the promise of superior abilities, admission was gained for him into the military school of his native town, which was then under the direction of the Benedictines of S…

Fournier, Pierre Simon

FOURNIER, PIERRE SIMON (1712-1768), French engraver and ty-pefounder, was born at Paris, September 15, 1712. He was the son of a printer, and was brought up to his father's business. After studying drawing under the painter Colson, he practised for some time the art of wood-engraving, and ultimately turned his attention to the engraving and casting of types. He designed many new characters, and hi…

Fowl

FOWL (Danish Fugi, German Vogel), originally used in the sense that Bird' now is, but, except in composition, - as Sea-Fowl, Wild-Fowl, and the like, - practically almost confined 2 at present to designate the otherwise nameless species which struts on our dunghills, gathers round our barn-doors, or stocks our poultry yards - the type of the genus Gallus of ornithologists, of which four well-marke…

Fowler

FOWLER, Jon/sr (1826-1864), inventor of the steam plough, was born at Melksham, Wilts, July 11,1826.

Fowler, Charles

FOWLER, CHARLES (1792-1867), architect, was born at Collumpton, Devon, May 17,1792. After serving an apprenticeship of five years at Exeter, he went to London in 1814, and entered the office of David Laing, where he remained till he commenced practice for himself. His first work of importance was the Court of Bankruptcy in Basinghall Street, finished in 1821. Although he gained in the following ye…

Fowler, William

FOWLER, WILLIAM (c. 1560-1614), one of the poets who frequented the court of James VI. before his accession to the throne of England, was born about the year 1560. After attendinu'' St Leonard's College, St Andrews, between 1573-74 and 1578, he seems to have selected the legal profession, and in 1580, when about twenty years of age, he was at Paris studying the civil law. He subsequently became pr…

Fownes, Morge

FOWNES, MORGE (1S15-1849), Ph.D., F.R.S., an eminent chemist, was born in London. lie early showed an interest in scientific pursuits, and when seventeen or eighteen years of age joined with Dr Henry Watts and Mr Everett in establishing a philosophical class at the Western Literary Institution in Leicester Square. In 1837 he entered the laboratory of Everett, lecturer on chemistry at the Middlesex…

Fox, Charles James

FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1740-1806), horn on the 21th of January 1749, at 9 Conduit Street, in the city of Westminster, was the third son of Henry Fox, first Lord Holland. His mother was the eldest daughter of the second duke of Richmond. As his great-great-grandmother was duchess of Portsmouth, he had in his veins the blood of Charles II. of England and Henry IV. of France. His paternal grandfather, S…

Foxe, John

FOXE, JOHN (1517-1587), was born at Boston in Lincolnshire in 1517. At the age of sixteen he entered Brasenose College, Oxford, where at twenty-one he took the degree of B.A., and five years later that of M.A. He attained a fair reputation for scholarship, was elected to a - fellowship at Magdalen, and wrote several Latin plays on Scriptural subjects, of which the best, the De Christ? Triunzphante…

Fox, George

FOX, GEORGE (1624-1690), the founder of the "Society of Friends " or " Quakers," was born at Drayton, Leicestershire, in July 1624. His father, Christopher Fox, called by the neighbours " Righteous Christer," was a weaver by occupation ; and his mother, Mary Lego, "an upright woman and accomplished above most of her degree," came of a family that had suffered much in former days of religious perse…

Foxglove

FOXGLOVE.

Fox, Richard

FOX, RICHARD, an English prelate, statesman, and diplomatist, bishop successively of Exeter, Bath and Wells, Durham, and Winchester, and founder of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, was born about the close of the reign of Henry VI. He was a native of Ropesley, near Grantham, in Lincolnshire, and his parents are said to have been in humble circumstances. His education, however, was not neglected, fo…

Foy, Maxikilien Sibastien

FOY, MAxIKILIEN SIBASTIEN (1775-1825), French general and political orator, was born at Ham in Picardy, February 3, 1775. He was the son of an old soldier who had fought at Fontenoy, and had become post-master of the town in which he lived. His father died in 1780, and his early instruction was given by his mother, a woman of English origin and of superior ability. He continued his education at th…

Fraas, Karl Nikolas

FRAAS, KARL NIKOLAS (1810-1875), a German botanist and agriculturist, was born at Stettelsdorf, near Bamberg, 8th September 1810. After receiving his preliminary education at the gymnasium of Bamberg, he in 1830 entered the university of Munich, where lie took his doctor's degree in 1834-. Having devoted great attention to the study of botany, he went to Athens in 1835 as inspector of the court ga…

Fracastorio, Hieronymo

FRACASTORIO, HIERONYMO (1483-1553), ft learned physician and poet, was born at Verona in 1483. It is related of him that at his birth his lips adhered so closely that a surgeon was obliged to divide them with his incision knife, and that during his infancy his mother was killed by lightning, while he, though in her arms at the moment, escaped unhurt. Fracastorio became eminently skilled, not only …

Frahn, Christian Martin

FRAHN, CHRISTIAN MARTIN, a numismatist and historian, was born at Rostock, 4th June 1782, and died at St Petersburg, 28th August 1851.

Francais, Antoine

FRANCAIS, ANTOINE, Count, better known as Francais of Nantes, a French politician and author, was born at Beaurepaire in the department of Isere on January 17, 1756, and died at Paris, 7th March 1836. In 1791 he was elected to the Legislative Assembly by the department of Loire Inferieure, and soon attained a high position among his fellow representatives ; but he was not re-elected to the Convent…

Francavilla

FRANCAVILLA, a town of Italy, in the province of Lecce, about 21 miles W.S.W. of Brindisi, sometimes called Francavilla, Fontana, to distinguish it from Franca-villa in Sicily and other towns of the same name.

France Agriculture

FRANCE AGRICULTURE Agriculture The rural population of France is equal to about a half of the total number of the inhabitants. The census of 1872 gave a return of 18,513,325, or 52.71 per cent. of the whole population. That number was divided thus: - In the general description of the country, some information has been given as to the nature of the soil and its various kinds of produce, which must…

France Charitable Institutions

FRANCE CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS Charitable Institutions. Although there is no poor law in France, charitable establishments, either private or created and managed by the state, are very numerous, and, on the whole, efficient. Orphelinctts (orphans' houses) receive infants which have neither parents nor friends to care for them ; creches and salles d'asile (infant schools) gratuitously give shelter …

France Commerce And Banking Establishments

FRANCE COMMERCE AND BANKING ESTABLISHMENTS Commerce and Banking Establishments. Commerce is naturally divided into home and foreign trade, the former being greatly more important than the latter. It is impossible to give a strict and correct valuation of the inland traffic, but, judging of the whole from the few accessible details, we may, without exaggeration estimate its amouut at about 35 or 40…

France Education

FRANCE EDUCATION educationThe National Convention laid the foundation of the system of public instruction that is still in force in France ; ! the Government of the first Napoleon developed and completed it. At the head of public instruction is a minister, who has the title of grand-master of the university, this term describing, not an institution for liberal education as in Great Britain and Ger…

France Finance

FRANCE FINANCE Finance All the agents who have the charge of collecting taxes are Mi under the minister of finance, who, besides, distributes to of! the other departments the sums necessary for their expenses. finr' In each department a tresorier payeur general receives the taxes raised in his district, and is accountable for them to the central office of the treasury at Paris. These tresoriers pa…

France French Literature Origins

FRANCE FRENCH LITERATURE ORIGINS Origins. - Tho history of French literature in the proper sense of the term can hardly be said to extend further back than the 11th century. The actual manuscripts which we possess are seldom of older date than the century subsequent to this. But there is no doubt that by the end at least of the 11 th century the French language, as a completely organized medium of…

France Geography And Statistics Situation And Extent Face Of The Country Climate And

FRANCE GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTICS SITUATION AND EXTENT FACE OF THE COUNTRY CLIMATE AND SOILClimate and Soil.

France History Introduction The

FRANCE HISTORY INTRODUCTION THE extinct tribes which once thinly peopled the soil of France have left but scanty traces of their existence in the weapons and ornaments dug out of gravel-beds and river courses. However interesting they may be to the student of ethnology and of the origin of man, they find no place in history ; for neither in blood, nor manners, nor speech have they left any mark on…

France Law And Administration Of Justice

FRANCE LAW AND ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE Judicial proceedings may be classed under civil, commercial, and criminal jurisdictions ; there are besides some special departments, such as military and maritime tribunals, councils of discipline, and the cone des comptes. In civil matters, every canton has a juge de paix, whose decision is final when the amount in dispute does not exceed 100 francs (Xl);…

France Manufactures Mines And Quarries

FRANCE MANUFACTURES MINES AND QUARRIES Manufactures, Mines, and Quarries. One of the foremost branches of manufacture in France - is that which has for its object the working up of textile materials. The gross amount of its produce is not less than 3,500,000,000 francs a year, and statistics published in 1873 return it as employing 308,481 men, 306,898 women, 69,948 children, 2777 steam-engines, a…

France Police

FRANCE POLICE Police. - The public peace is maintained by an armed police or gendarmerie, partly on foot and partly mounted ; and in all emergencies, when this force is found insufficient for the preservation or execution of the laws, the troops may be called in to assist, subject, however, to the orders of the police.

France Prisons

FRANCE PRISONS Prisons. - Although the prisons are attached to the ministry of the interior, it is impossible to treat of the administration of justice without saying a word about them. The convicts who have to serve more than one year are distributed into 24 central prisons (maisons centrates). Departmental prisons receive those whose sentence does not exceed one year. Political convicts are kept…

France Religion

FRANCE RELIGION Religion. Three churches are recognized and supported by the state in France, - the Roman Catholic, the Protestant (subdivided into Calvinist and Lutheran), and the Hebrew. In Algeria the Mussulman creed is equally recognized. Roman Catholic. - The Roman Catholic Church is much stronger than the others. It may perhaps be said that France is the country where this church is the most…

France Roads Railways Navigable Rivers And Canals Harbours

FRANCE ROADS RAILWAYS NAVIGABLE RIVERS AND CANALS HARBOURS Before referring to the state of agriculture, manufactures, and commerce in France, it is important to have an idea of the means of communication by which the different productive districts are connected with one another. The minister of public works has the superintendence of all roads and ways, natural or artificial, by land or by water.…

Francesca

FRANCESCA.

Francescii Ini, Baldassa Re

FRANCESCII INI, BALDASSA RE (1611-1689), a painter of the Tuscan school, named, from Volterra the place of his birth, Il Volterrano, or (to distinguish him from Ricciarelli) II Volterrano Giuuioro, was the son of a sculptor in alabaster. At a very early age he learned from Coshno some of the elements of art, and he started as an assistant to his father. This employment being evidently below the le…

France The Bourbon Monarchy

FRANCE THE BOURBON MONARCHY The year I598 closes the mediaeval history of France ; h henceforth she takes her part in modern history. The power of the feudal noblesse has passed away ; the earlier rivalries between France and Austria take a new character; the centralized absolutist monarchy begins. We are coining to the days of the great ministers, - first Sully, then Richelieu, lastly Colbert, un…

France The Empire

FRANCE THE EMPIRE Imperialism is an overlordship over nations. It is more than this ; it is, strictly speaking, the representation of both the empire of old Rome and the Holy Roman Empire, with all the high claims involved therein. In this sense, imperialism claims temporal lordship over all the earth, and rears its head side by side with the papacy, which asserts a spiritual headship as wide and …

France The Feudal Monarchy

FRANCE THE FEUDAL MONARCHY Hugh Capet, eldest son of Hugh the Great, duke of France, was but a Neustrian noble when he was elected king. The house of the Carolings was entirely set aside, , its claims and rights denied, by the new force now growing up, the force of feudalism. The head of the barons should be one of themselves ; he should stand clear of the imperial ideas and ambitions which had ru…

France The French Language By Geography

FRANCE THE FRENCH LANGUAGE BY GEOGRAPHY Geography. - French is the general name of the north-north-western group of Romanic dialects, the modern Latin of northern Gaul (carried by emigration to some places - as Lower Canada - out of France). In a restricted sense it is that variety of the Parisian dialect which is spoken by the educated, and is the general literary language of France. The region i…

France The Republic

FRANCE THE REPUBLIC The new governmen of France reflected the changes which had taken place. Paris sent the chief Jacobins to I- it ; the Girondists sat on the right and had a large majority ; the Jacobins on the left, high up, with the .soubriquet of the Mountain ; below sat the " Plain " and the " Marsh," the timid moderates, who leant towards the Girondists. Paris was behind all, fierce and blo…

France The Revolution The French Revolution

FRANCE THE REVOLUTION THE FRENCH REVOLUTION We are come to the verge of the French Revolution, T/ which surpasses all other revolutions the world has seen in its completeness, the largeness of its theatre, the long pre- tHi paration for it, the enunciation by it of new points of view in politics, its swift degradation into imperialism, its influ- , ence on the modern history of Europe. It has been…

France The Second Empire

FRANCE THE SECOND EMPIRE The second empire lasted from November 4, 1S52, to September 4, 1870, a period of nearly 18 years. It was openly modelled on the first empire, and Napoleon III. never forgot that he was his uncle's nephew. His mother, the ex-queen of 1Iolland, was Hortense Eugenie de Beauharnais, daughter of the empress Josephine by her first husband, the viscount Alexandre de Beauharnais …

France The Second Revolution Second French Revolution

FRANCE THE SECOND REVOLUTION SECOND FRENCH REVOLUTION The agitation of the country at first was seen chiefly in speeches made at fervid banquets. When the session of 1848 opened, the opposition, led by Odillon-Barrot, showed itself strong and resolute ; the interference of Government against a popular banquet in Paris led to the outbreak of the Revolution (22d February 1848). On the 23d the nation…

France The Third Republic

FRANCE THE THIRD REPUBLIC In spite of all precautions the news oozed out at Paris all too soon for the dismayed imperialists. On September 4 the third Republic was proclaimed on the advice of M. Thiers, with. a Government of national defence ; the chief members were Jules Favre, Jules Simon, and G'ambetta; General Trochu was its military head. Gradually the Germans closed in on Paris ; no serious …

Francf, Isle Of

FRANCF, ISLE OF.

Franche Comte

FRANCHE COMTE, from 1674 till the great Revolution one of the provinces of France, was bounded on the E. by the principality of Montbeliard or Mompelgard and Switzerland, S. by Bresse, Bugey, and Gex, N. by Lorraine, and W. by the duchy of Burgundy and Champagne. It lay to the west of the Jura, and included the valley of the upper Saone and the greater part of the valley of the Doubs. In earlier h…

Franchise

FRANCHISE, in law, means some right or privilege, of a local or exclusive character, e.g., the right of free fishery.

Francia

FRANCIA, a celebrated Bolognese painter was born towards 1450, and died 6th January 1517. His real name was Francesco Raibolini, his father being Marco di Giacomo Raibolini, a carpenter ; he was apprenticed to a goldsmith named Francia, and from him probably he got the nickname whereby he is generally known; he, moreover, studied design under Marco Zoppo. The youth was thus originally a goldsmith,…

Francia

FRANCIA, JosE GAsrAir, RODRIGUEZ, commonly called Dr Francia, dictator of Paraguay, one of the most remarkable men connected with the history of South America, The date of his birth is not definitely ascertained, but probably falls about 1757. According to one account, he was of French descent ; but the truth seems to be that his father, Garcia Rodriguez Franca, was a native of S. Paulo in Brazil,…

Franciabigio

FRANCIABIGIO (1482-1525), a Florentine painter. The name of this artist is generally given as Marcantonio Franciabigio ; it appears, however, that his only real ascertained name was Francesco di Cristofano ; and that he was currently termed Francia Bigio, the two appellatives being distinct. He was born in Florence, and studied under Albertinelli for some months. In 1505 he formed the acquaintance…

Francis

FRANCIS I. (1194-1547), king of France, son of Charles of Orleans, count of Angouleme, and Louisa of Savoy, was born at Cognac 12th September 1494. As heir-presumptive of the throne of France, he received special favours from Louis XII., who created Min duke of Valois and in 1512 gave him the command of the army of Navarre. In this position, though achieving no important results, he conducted hims…

Francis

FRANCIS I. (1708-1765), head of the Holy Roman Empire, the eldest son of Leopold, duke of Lorraine, was born on the 8th of December 1708. His full name was Francis Stephen. At the age of fifteen he was sent to Vicula, where he received the Silesian duchy of Teschen. In 1735, in return for Lorraine, which Charles VI., at the end of the war of the Polish succession, gave to Stanislaus Les::czynskl, …

Francis

FRANCIS, Sin PHILIP (1740-1818), a conspicuous Whig politician and, even apart front his supposed connexion with the Letters of Junius, a powerful pamphleteer, was born in Dublin on the 22d of October 1740. He was the only son of Dr Philip Francis, a man of some literary celebrity in his time, who is still known by his translations of Horace, "Eschines, and Demosthenes. Ile received the first rudi…

Francis Borgia, St

FRANCIS BORGIA, ST (1510-1572), duke of Gandia, and afterwards general of the Jesuit order, was the son of John, duke of Gandia, a scion of the well-known family of Borgia or Borja to which Poises Calixtus III. and Alexander VI. had belonged, and of Joanna of Aragon, daughter of Alphonso, a natural son of Ferdinand the Catholic. He was born at Gandia (Valencia), on the 10th of October 1510, and fr…

Franciscans

FRANCISCANS. The Franciscan orders include the three orders of the Minorites, and all the less important associations who trace their rule to Francis of Assisi. The three orders of the Minorites, or Franciscans proper, include the Minorite friars, properly so-called, under a succession of generals of the whole order from the foundation; the order of the Poor Ladies or Poor Clares - the Franciscan …

Francis Ii

FRANCIS II. (1768-1835), the last Holy Roman Emperor, and, as Francis I., first emperor of Austria, was born in Florence on the 12th Feburary 1768. He was the son of the emperor Leopold II., after whose death, in 1792, he succeeded to the hereditary dominions of the house of Austria, being crowned emperor in the same year. Before this time he had gained some experience of war during the conflict o…

Francis, St

FRANCIS, ST (1182-1226), a well-known saint of the Roman Catholic Church, the founder of the great order of Franciscans, was born at Assisi in the year 1182. His father was a trader in goods which he appears chiefly to have purchased in the south of France, to which he made frequent journeys ; and his son was born during one of these journeys, and in consequence received from the grateful father o…

Francis, St

FRANCIS, ST, of SALES (1567-1622), bishop of Geneva, and a well-known devotional writer of the Roman Catholic Church, was born at the Chateau de Sales, near Annecy in Savoy, in 1567. His father, known as M. de Boisy, was a Savoyard, seigneur, soldier, and diplomatist ; his mother was also of a noble family and an heiress, the title de Boisy being derived from one of her hereditary possessions. Fra…

Francis, St, Of

FRANCIS, ST, OF Paola (1416-1507), founder of the order of Minims (Ordo Minim orum Fratrum Eremitarum Fratris Francisci de Paula), was born of humble parentage at Paola in Calabria in the year 1416. His education appears to have made very little progress until he reached his thirteenth year, when, in accordance with a vow, he was taken by his father to the Franciscan convent of San Marco in Calabr…

Franck

FRANCK.

Francke, August Herman

FRANCKE, AUGUST HERMAN.N (1663-1727), an influential German philanthropist and theologian, was born on the 22d of March 1663 at Lubeck, where his father, a doctor of laws, at that time held a professional appointment. He was educated, chiefly in private, at Gotha, (to which his family had removed in 1666), and afterwards at the universities of Erfurt, Kiel, and Leipsic. During his student career, …

Francken

FRANCKEN. Eleven painters of this family cultivated their art in Antwerp during the 16th and 17th centuries. Several of these were related to each other, whilst many bore the same Christian name in succession. Hence unavoidable confusion in the subsequent classification of paintings not widely differing in style or execution. When Franz Francken the first found a rival in Franz Franeken the second…

Franck Or Frank

FRANCK or FRANK, SEBASTIAN (C. 1500-1513), not unfrequently called by the Latinized form of his name Franc-us, an important German writer of the Reformation period, was born about 1500 at Donauworth, and regularly styled himself Franck of Wiird. Of his early years nothing is known except by inference. It appears that he studied at Heidelberg, and about 1524 was ordained a Roman Catholic priest. In…

Franconia

FRANCONIA, in German FrANKEN, a name of very different application in different historical periods. it properly signifies the land of the Franks, and is consequently identical in original meaning with the word Francia or France. In the beginning of the 4th century the Frankish territory stretched from the Loire eastward to the basin of the Rhine and the Main ; but it was shortly afterwards broken …

Franeker

FRANEKER, a town of Holland, province of Friesland, is situated. 10 miles W. of Leeuwarden, on the canal between that town and Haarlingen.

Frangois De Neufchateau

FRANgOIS DE NEUFCHATEAU, NICOLAS Louis, COUNT (1750-1828), a French statesman and poet, was born at Saffais, in the district of Meurthe, 17th April 1750. He studied at the college of Neufchateau in the Vosges, and at the age of fourteen published a volume of poetry which obtained the approbation of Rousseau, and secured or its author so much ?clat that Nenfchateau conferred on him its name, and he…

Frankenberg

FRANKENBERG, an important manufacturing town of Saxony, circle of Zwickau, is situated on the Zschopau, 7 miles N.E. of Chemnitz.

Fr Ankenha Usen

FR ANKENHA USEN, a town of Germany, principality of Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt, is situated on the Little Nipper, 36 miles N.N.E? of Gotha.

Frankenstein

FRANKENSTEIN, a town in the Prussian province of Silesia, government of Breslau, is situated 35 miles S. by W. of the town of that name.

Frankenthal

FRANKENTHAL, a town in the Rhenish district of Bavaria, is situated on the Isenach, 9 miles N.W. of Mannheim, and is connected with the Rhine by a canal 4- miles iu length.

Frankfort

FRANKFORT, a city of the United States, capital of Franklin county and of the State of Kentucky, is picturesquely situated on both sides of the Kentucky river, on a space of elevated ground bounded by a bluff 150 feet high. It is distant 29 miles W.N.W. from Lexington, and 65 miles E. from Louisville, by rail. The river is crossed at Frankfort by two bridges, and that portion of the town lying on …

Frankincense

FRANKINCENSE,' or OLIBANUM2 (Gr., Xiflavana6s, later Nos; Lat., (us or thus ; Heb.,1cbonahga Ar., ;4 Turk., ghyunluk ; Hind., gancla-birosa5), a gum-resin obtained from certain species of trees of the genus Boswellia, and natural order Burseracece. The members of the genus are pos.? sessed of the following characters : - Bark often papyraceens ; leaves deciduous, compound, alternate, and imparipin…

Franklin

FRANKLIN, Sin JOHN (1786-1847), rear-admiral, was born at Spilsby, Lincolnshire, April 1G, 1786. Sprung from a line of free-holders, or " franklins," his father inherited a small family estate, which was so deeply mortgaged by his immediate predecessor that it was found necessary to sell it ; but by his success in commercial pursuits he was enabled to maintain and educate a family of twelve childr…

Franklin

FRANKLIN.

Franklin, Benjamin

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN (1706-1790), one of the most eminent journalists, diplomatists, statesmen, and philo? sophers of his time, was born in the city of Boston, and in the colony of Massachusetts Bay, on the 17th of January 1706. He was the youngest of ten children, and the youngest son for five consecutive generations. His father, who was born at Ecton, in Northamptonshire, England, where the family…

Franks, The

FRANKS, THE. When, in the year 241 A.D., the soldiers of Aurelian, who just before had been on the north German frontier, marched out of Rome on their way to the Persian war, they sang (Vopiscus in Aurelian?, c. 7) a rough barrack song" Mille Sarmatas, mine Francos, semel et semel oceidimus; Mille mile mile n,ille mile Persas quterimus;" and the words, caught up by the admiring mob, became a stree…

Franzen, Frans Michael

FRANZEN, FRANS MICHAEL (1772-1847), Swedish poet, was born at Uleaborg in Finland, 9th February 1772. At thirteen he entered the university of Abo, where he graduated in 1789, and became " eloquentire docens " in 1792. Three years later he started on a tour through Denmark, Germany, France, and England, returning, in 1796 to accept the office of university librarian at Abo. In The poetical works o…

Franzensbad, Kaiser-franzensbad, Egerbrunnen

FRANZENSBAD, KAISER-FRANZENSBAD, EGERBRUNNEN, and formerly SCHLADAER SAUELLING, a well-known Bohemian watering-place which owes its most popular name to the emperor Francis II. It is a little over three miles N.W. of Eger, at a height of about 1500 feet above the sea, in the neighbourhood of the Fichtelgebirge, the Bohmerwald, and the Erzgebirge. There are altogether eight mineral springs, of whic…

Frascati

FRASCATI, a town of Italy, in the province of Rome and about 101 miles south of the city, with a station at the terminus of a branch railway from time main line between Rome and Naples. It is the seat of a bishop, and a favourite summer residence of the Roman nobility. Among the public buildings are tho old cathedral of S. Rocco, dating from the beginning of the 14th century ; the new cathedral of…

Fraserburgh

FRASERBURGH, a seaport town of Scotland, Aberdeenshire, on the south side of Kinnaird's Head, 42 miles north of Aberdeen. It is built nearly in the form of a square, and most of the streets cross each other at right angles. The cross is a fine structure of a hexagonal form, covering an area of 500 feet, and surmounted by a stone pillar 12 feet high, ornamented by the British arms and the arms of F…

Fraser, James Baillie

FRASER, JAMES BAILLIE (1783-1856), Scottish diplomatist, traveller, and author, was born at Reelick or Relig in the county of Inverness, in June 1783. He was the eldest of the four sons of Edward S. Fraser of Reelick, all of whom found their way to the East, and gave proof of their ability. When Reza Koolee Murza and Nejeff Koole6 Murza, the exiled Persian princes, visited England, he was appointe…

Fraser, Simon

FRASER, SIMON.

Fratricelli

FRATRICELLI was a common name given to a number of obscure mediteval sects who flourished in the 13th and 14th centuries. They were also called Bioschi, Bighini, Bocasoti, Frerots, &c., and included such sects as the Brethren of the Full Spirit, the Brethren of the Free Spirit, the Beghards, the Brethren of the Common Life, &c. The history of these medival sects is very obscure ; but it seems now …

Fraud

FRAUD, in law, is a word of wide import, to which it is difficult to assign any exact definition. The courts have in fact deliberately refrained from defining it, because they did not wish to limit their power of dealing with fraudulent transactions. The word, however, carries its own meaning on the face of it, and there is practically no.differeuce between fraud in the popular and fraud in the le…

Frauenburg

FRAUENBURG, a town of Prussia, province of East Prussia, government district of Konigsberg, is situated on the Frisch Haff, and at the mouth of the Baude, 41 miles S.W. of Konigsberg.

Frauenfeld

FRAUENFELD, a town of Switzerland, capital of the canton of Thurgau (or Thurgovia), is situated in a beautiful and fertile district on the Murg, 23 miles N.E. of Zurich.

Frauenlob

FRAUENLOB, the name by which a German poet of the 13th century is almost exclusively known, though his real name was Heinrich von Meissen. How he acquired the sobriquet has not been decided, - whether it was from his song in honour of the Virgin (Die Heilige Jungfrau), or because in another of his pieces he defended the use of the word Frau instead of Hreib, or simply because he sang much in prais…

Fraunhofer, Joseph

FRAUNHOFER, JOSEPH vox (1787-1826),a celebrated optician, was born at Straubing in Bavaria, March 6,1787. His father, a poor glazier, having died in 1798, young Fraunhofer in August of the following year was apprenticed to Weichselberger, a glass-polisher and looking-glass maker. Having by day no time that he could call his own, he studied the few old books that he possessed during leisure snatche…

Fraustadt

FRAUSTADT, a garrison town, and the chief town of a circle in the government district of Posen, Prussia, is situated in a flat sandy country 50 miles S.S.W. of Posen.

Frayssinous, Denis Antoine

FRAYSSINOUS, DENIS ANTOINE Luc, COMTE DE (1765-1841), a Gallican prelate and Bourbonist minister, distinguished as an orator and as a controversial writer, was born of humble parentage at Curieres, in the department of Aveyron, on the 9th of May 1765. Alter a course of training, first at the diocesan seminary of Rodez and afterwards in Paris under the priests of Saint Sulpice, he was ordained prie…

Fredemckstad

FREDEMCKSTAD, a fortified town of Norway, stift of Christiania, is situated at the mouth of the Glommen, 48 miles S.E. of Christiania.

Fredericia, Or Fridericia

FREDERICIA, or FRIDERICIA, a fortified town of Denmark, near the south-east corner of Jutland, on the shores of the Little Belt opposite the island of Funen, about 15 miles S. of Veile. It has railway communication with both south and north, and steamboats ply regularly across the Belt. It is well built, and possesses a handsome town-hall, four churches, and a synagogue. There is a considerable sh…

Frederick

FREDERICK.

Frederick

FREDERICK V. (1596-1632), elector palatine and king of Bohemia, son of Frederick IV. and of Louisa Julia, daughter of William of Orange, was born at Amberg in 1596, and succeeded his father in 1610, under the guar dianship of Duke John of Deux-Ponts. In 1613 he married Elizabeth, daughter of James I. of England ; and on undertaking the government of his palatinate two years afterwards, lie became …

Frederick

FREDERICK I. (1123-1190), surnamed by the Italians Barbarossa, Holy Roman emperor, and one of the greatest of German sovereigns, was the son of Frederick the One-eyed of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, and of Judith, daughter of Henry the Black, duke of Bavaria, and was born most probably in 1123. He succeeded his father as duke of Swabia in 1147, and in the same year accompanied Ids uncle Conrad II…

Frederick

FREDERICK I. (1657-1713), the first king of Prussia, was born at Konigsberg, 1657. He was the son of the Great Elector by his first marriage. In consequence of a fall from the arms of his nurse his spine was so seriously injured that he was deformed for life. His stepmother intrigued against him incessantly in the interests of her children; and she succeeded in persuading her husband to make a wil…

Frederick

FREDERICK I. (1369-1428), elector and duke of Saxony, surnamed the Pugnacious, eldest son of Landgraf Frederick the Severe of Thuringia and of Catherine countess of Henneberg, was born at Altenburg, March 29, 1369. On the death of his father in 1381, he and his two brothers succeeded to the inheritance under the guardianship of their mother, but were compelled to grant a portion of it to their fat…

Frederick

FREDERICK I. (1425-1476), elector palatine, surnamed the Victorious, second son of Elector Louis III., was born in 1425. He inherited a part of the palatinate on the death of his father in 1439, but delivered it up to his brother Louis IV. On the death of Louis in 1449, he became guardian of the infant heir Philip, and administrator of the kingdom. In 1452, on account of the threatening relation i…

Frederick

FREDERICK, in German FRIEDRIcir, the name, signifying Rich in Peace, borne by a considerable number of European (principally German) sovereigns.

Frederick Augustus

FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I. (1750-1827), king of Saxony, son of Elector Frederick Christian, was born at Dresden, 23d December 1750, succeeded his father, under the guardianship of Prince Xavier, in 1763, and was declared of age in 1768. In the following year he married Princess Maria-Amelia of Deux-Ponts. On account of the claims of his mother on the inheritance of her brother, the elector of Bavaria, …

Frederick Augustus

FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I., elector of Saxony.

Frederick Augustus Ii

FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II., elector of Saxony.

Frederick Augustus Il

FREDERICK AUGUSTUS IL (1797-1854), king of Saxony, eldest sou of Prince Maximilian and of Caroline-Maria Theresa of Parma, was born May 18, 1797. The unsettled times in which his youth was passed necessitated his frequent change of residence, but care was nevertheless taken that his education should not be interrupted, and be also acquired through his journeys in foreign states and his intercourse…

Frederick Ii

FREDERICK II. (1411-1461), elector and duke of Saxony, surnamed the Meek, son of the former and of Catherine of Brunswick, was born August 22, 1411, and succeeded his father in 1428.

Frederick Ii

FREDERICK II. (1482-1556), elector palatine, surnamed the Wise, fourth son of Philip the Noble-minded, was born in 1482, and succeeded his brother Louis as elector in 1544.

Frederick Ii

FREDERICK II. (1194-1250), Holy Roman Emperor, surnamed the Hohenstaufen, the most remarkable historic figure of the Middle Ages, grandson of the preceding, and son of Henry VI. and of Constance, heiress of the throrie of Sicily, was born at Jesi, near Ancona, 26th December 1194. He was elected king of the Romans in 1196 ; and, his father having died 28th September 1197, he was in May 1198, crowne…

Frederick Ii

FREDERICK II. (1712-1786), king of Prussia, born on the 24th January 1712, was the son of Frederick William I., and is usually known as Frederick the Great. He was brought up with extreme rigour, his father devising a scheme of education which was intended to make him a hardy soldier, and prescribing for him every detail of his conduct. So great was Frederick William's horror of everything which d…

Frederick Iii

FREDERICK III. (1515-1576)' elector palatine, sur- named the Pious, eldest son of John II., palatine of Sinn mein, was born in 1515, succeeded his father in 1556, and became elector palatine on the death of Otto Henry in 1559.

Frederick Iii

FREDERICK III. (1286-1330), surnamed the Fair, son of King Albert I. of Germany, duke of Austria, and rival for the German crown with Louis IV. the Bavarian.

Frederick Iii

FREDERICK III. (1463-1525), elector and duke of Saxony, surnamed the Wise, grandson of the preceding and son of Duke Ernst, was born at Torgan, January 17, 1463. On the death of his father in 1486, he succeeded him in the sole government of Saxony, but divided the other possessions of the Ernestine line with his brother John the Constant. Frederick founded the university of Wittenberg in 1502, and…

Frederick Iv

FREDERICK IV. (1574-1610), elector palatine, surnamed the Upright, son of Elector Louis VI. and of Elizabeth of Hesse, was born in 1574, succeeded his father under the guardianship of his uncle John Casimir in 1583, and after the death of the latter in 1592 ruled as independent governor.

Frederick Iv

FREDERICK IV. (1415-1493), German king, as emperor Frederick III., son of Duke Ernest of Styria, was born at Innsbruck, September 21, 1415. Along with his brother Albert the Prodigal he assumed in 1435 the government of Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, and, having been elected in 1440 to succeed Albert II. as king of Germany, lie was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1442. He devoted his chief attenti…

Fredericksburg

Frederick William

FREDERICK WILLIAM I. (1688-1770), king of Prussia, son of Frederick I. by his second marriage, was born in 1688, He spent a considerable time in early youth at the court of his grandfather, the elector of Hanover. On his return to Berlin he was placed under General von Dohna, who trained him to the energetic and regular habits that ever afterwards characterized him. He was soon imbued with a passi…

Frederick William

FREDERICK WILLIAM (1620-1688), elector of Brandenburg, was born in Berlin in 1620. He is usually called The Great Elector," and next to Frederick the Great he was the chief founder of the power of Prussia. A man of immense energy and determination, he devoted himself to his country, missing no opportunity, whether by intrigue or by force of arms, of adding to its extent and its influence. When at …

Frederick William Ii

FREDERICK WILLIAM II. (1744-1797), king of Prussia, was the nephew of Frederick the Great. His father, Augustus William, the second son of Frederick William I., having died in 1757, Frederick William was nominated by the king successor to the throne. He was of an easygoing nature, fond of pleasure, and without the capacity for hard work that characterized his foremost predecessors. His loose mode …

Frederick William Iii

FREDERICK WILLIAM III. (1770-1840), king of Prussia, was the eldest son of Frederick William II., and was born on the 3d August 1770. He was carefully trained under the supervision, in early youth, of his grand-uncle, Frederick the Great. As crown prince he accompanied his father in 1791 to the interview with the emperor at Pillnitz, and in the following year visited with him the army in the Rhine…

Frederick William Iv

FREDERICK WILLIAM IV. (1795-1861), king of Prussia, the son of Frederick William III., was born on the 15th October 1795. He took an active part in the War of Liberation, and in 1814 spent some time in Paris, in whose museums and picture galleries he acquired a warm love of art. On returning to Berlin he cultivated his artistic tastes under the guidance of Rauch and Schinkel, receiving at the same…

Fredericton

FREDERICTON, a city and port of entry of New Brunswick, Canada, capital of the province, is situated on the St John river, 88 miles from its mouth.

Free Church Of Scotland

FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND, THE, is the name of a well-known ecclesiastical organization which includes a considerable proportion of the inhabitants of Scotland. In one sense the Free Church dates its existence from the Disruption of 1843, in another it claims to be the rightful representative of the National Church of Scotland as it was reformed in 1560.1 In order to indicate the nature of the groun…

Freehold

FREEHOLD, in the English law of real property, is an estate in land, not being less than an estate for life. An estate for a term of years, no matter how long, was considered inferior iu dignity to an estate for life, and unworthy of a freeman (see ESTATE). " Some time before the reign of Henry II., but apparently not so early as Domesday, the expression liberum tenemenium was introduced to design…

Freemasonry

FREEMASONRY (Fr. Franc-maconnerie, Ger. Freimaurerei), is the name given to that system of ritual and rules which Freemasons observe. It may also be applied to the masonic art, or the practice of masonic ritual and rule. The institution is not older than the beginning of the 18th century, but it has been lately said to include more than 10,000 lodges and more than 1,000,000 members. Before conside…

Freeport

FREEPORT, a city of Illinois, United States, the capital of Stephenson county, is situated on the Pekatonica river, 110 miles W.N.W. of Chicago.

Freetown

FREETOWN, a town of West Africa, capital of the British colony of Sierra Leone, stands on the south side of the estuary of the Sierra Leone river, about 5 miles from the cape of that name in 8? 29' N. lat. and 13? 10' W. long. It is situated on a plain which slopes up gradually ters, the best of which is inhabited by Europeans, half-castes, and immigrants, who are either tradesmen or artificers, a…

Free Trade

FREE TRADE. This expression has been appropriated, in a somewhat technical manner, to denote an unimpeded intercourse between such manufacturing and commercial communities as, having reciprocal interests, are under separate governments, and thereupon have separate financial systems. Thus the term is not applied to the facilities which town and country, labourer and capitalist, have obtained for re…

Freewill Baptists

FREEWILL BAPTISTS,'a denomination of Baptists in the United States and Canada, holding similar doctrines to those of the General Baptists of England.

Freiberg, Or Freyberg

FREIBERG, or FREYBERG, a town of Saxony, is situated on the Miinzbach, not far from its confluence with the Mulde, and 19 miles S.W. of Dresden. It is well built, and is still surrounded by its old walls. It is the seat of the general administration of the mines throughout the kingdom, and its celebrated academy of mines, founded in 1765, is frequented by students from all parts of Europe. Connect…

Freiburg

FREIBURG, distinguished as Freiburg unter dent Fiirstenstein, a garrison town in the government district of Breslau, Silesia, is situated on the Polsnitz, 35 miles S.

Freiburg, Or Freybuitg

FREIBURG, or FREYBUItG, usually distinguished as Freiburg in the Breisgau, is a city formerly of the Austrian dominions but now in the grand-duchy of Baden, about 12 miles E. of the Rhine, at the foot of the Schlossberg, one of the heights of the Black Forest range. It is one, of the stations on the railway between Basel and Mannheim, and lies about 40 miles northwards from the former city. The to…

Freiburg, Or Fribourg

FREIBURG, or FRIBOURG (the French form of the name), a canton of Switzerland, is situated in the district to the S.E. of the Lake of Neuchatel and the N.E. of the Lake of Geneva. At no point do its boundaries actually touch on the Lake of Geneva, but in two places they come within two or three miles of its shores. Owing to the refusal of the cantonal authorities in 1802 to incorporate the Reformed…

Freidank, Freigedank

FREIDANK, FREIGEDANK, or in Middle High German VninaNc, the name by which a certain German didactic poet allusion to the character of his style, "he always spoke and never sang." Wilhelm Grimm started the hypothesis that Freidank was to be .dentified with Walther von der Vogel. weide ; but it found almost no acceptance from other German scholars, and was formally refuted by Franz Pfeil-cm in his Z…

Freiligrath, Ferdinand

FREILIGRATH, FERDINAND (1810-1876), a popular German poet, was born June 17, 1810, at Detmold, where his father was a teacher in the Stadtschule. Ile was educated at the gymnasium of his native town, and at the age of fifteen was apprenticed to an uncle who kept a grocer's shop in Soest. Freiligrath lied no great liking for trade. He was an insatiable reader, especially of books of travel and adve…

Freind, Jo Iin

FREIND, JO IIN (1675-1728), English physician, was born in 1675 at Croton in Northamptonshire. He made great progress in classical knowledge under Dr Busby at Westminster, and at Christ Church, Oxford, under Dr Aldrich, and while still very young, produced, along with Foulkes, an excellent edition of the speeches of lEschines and Demosthenes on the affair of Ctesiphon. After this he began the stud…

Freischutz

FREISCHUTZ is, in German folklore, a marksman who by a compact with the devil has obtained a certain number of bullets destined to hit without fail whatever object he wishes. As the legend is usually told, six of the Freibugeln or "free bullets " are thus subservient to the marksman's will, but the seventh is at the absolute disposal of the devil himself. Various methods were adopted in order to p…

Freising, Freysing, Or Freisingen

FREISING, FREYSING, or FREISINGEN; a town of Bavaria, district of Upper Bavaria, is situated on the Isar, 20 miles N.N.E. of Munich.

Freiwaldau

FREIWALDAU, a town in Austrian Silesia, circle of Troppau, is situated in a pleasant valley 40 miles W.N.W. of Troppau.

Frejus

FREJUS, the ancient Forum Julii, a town of France, department of Var, about a mile from the Mediterranean, and 15 miles S.E. of Draguignan. It is the seat of a bishop, and has some handsome moaern buildings, among which are the cathedral and the episcopal palace, both of Gothic architecture, and constructed partly of the remains of Roman edifices. It possesses manufactures of cork and soap, and am…

Fremont

FREMONT, a city of the United States of America, capital of Sandusky, county Ohio, is situated on the Sandusky river at the bead of navigation, 30 miles east of Toledo by rail.

French, Nicholas

FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678), an Irish political pamphleteer, was born in Wexford in 1604. After receiving ordination at Louvain, he became Roman Catholic priest at Wexford, and in 1643 he was appointed bishop of Ferns. Having taken a prominent part in the political disturbances of this period, he deemed it prudent, after the universal submission which followed the storming of Wexford by Oliver Cr…

Frere, John

FRERE, JOHN HooluiAm (1769-1841), an English diplomatist and author, was born in London, May 21, 1769. His father, John Frere, a gentleman of a good Suffolk family, had been educated at Caius College, Cambridge, and would have been senior wrangler in 1763 but for the powerful competition of Paley ; his mother, daughter of Mr John Hookham, a rich London merchant, was a lady of no small ability and …

Freret

FRERET, NionAs (1688-1719), a French scholar, one of the most learned men of his age, was born at Paris, February 7 or 15, 1688. His father was procureur to the parliament of Paris, and destined him to the profession of the law. His passion for knowledge declared itself almost from his birth ; and so early (lid lie apply himself to studies of the most diverse kind, and accumulate vast stores of in…

Freron

FRERON, Louis STANISLAS (1765-1802), a French Revolutionist, son of the preceding, was born at Paris in 1765. His name was, on the death of his father, attached to L'Annee Litteraire, which was continued till 1790, and edited successively by the Abb6s Royou and Geoffroy. On the outbreak of the Revolution, Freron, who was a schoolfellow of Robespierre and Camille Desmoulins, established the violent…

Freron, Elie Catherine

FRERON, ELIE CATHERINE (1719-1776), a French critic and controversialist, was born at Quimper in 1719. employed by the Abbe des Fontaines as a contributor to his Observations sur les licrits 11odemes. After the death of the latter in 1746 he founded a similar journal of his own, entitled Lettres de la Comtesse de * *. It was suppressed in 1749, but he immediately replaced it by Lettres STI?' quelq…

Fresco

FRESCO. Fresco-painting is the art of mural painting upon freshly-laid plaster lime whilst it remains damp, with colours capable of resisting the caustic action of the lime with which they are mixed or brought into contact. Fresco-painting might be called lime-painting, lime being the vehicle with which the colours are fixed, but the term would not be sufficiently distinctive, because colours mixe…

Frescobaldi, Girolamo

FRESCOBALDI, GIROLAMO, a celebrated musical composer, was born at Ferrara in 1587. Little is known of his life except that he studied music at his birthplace under Alessandro MiRevak, and owed his first reputation to his beautiful voice. According to one account he went to Belgium, at that time still a centre of the art, where he is said to have lived till 1608, after which period he appears to ha…

Fresnel, Augustin Jean

FRESNEL, AUGUSTIN JEAN (1788-1827), an illustrious French physicist, the son of an architect, was born at Broglie, in the department of Eure, in France, May 10, 1788. His early progress in learning was slow, and when eight years old he was still, unable to read. At the age of E thirteen he entered the Ecole Centrale in Caen, and at sixteen and a half the Ecole Polytechnique, where he acquitted him…

Fresnillo

FRESNILLO, a town of Mexico, in the state of Zacatecas, is situated 30 miles N.W. of Zacatecas, on a branch of the Santiago river, in the plain which divides the mountains of Santa Cruz and Deganos from the Zacatecas range.

Fresnoy, Charles Alphonse Du

FRESNOY, CHARLES ALPHONSE DU (1611-1665), a painter and writer on his art, was born in Paris, son of an apothecary. He was destined for the medical profession, and well educated in Latin and Greek ; but, having a natural propensity for the fine arts, he would not apply to his intended vocation, and was allowed to learn the rudiments of design under Perrier and Vouet. At the age of twenty-one he we…

Fret

FRET A, in Teutonic mythology, ono of the Vanen, or spirits of the breathing wind, which have their abode in Vansheim, or middle air between the upper and under world.

Fret Civet

FRET CIVET, Louts CLAUDE DESAULSES DE (1779? 1842), French, navigator, was born at Montelimart in Dauphiny, August 7, 1779. In 1793 he entered the French navy. After taking part in several engagements against the English, he joined in 1800, along with his brother Henri Louis (1777-1840), who afterwards rose to the rank of admiral, the expedition sent out under Captain Baudin in the " Naturaliste "…

Freudenstadt

FREUDENSTADT, a town of Wiirtemberg, circle of the Black Forest, on the right bank of the Burg, 42 miles W.S.W. of Stuttgart.

Freudenthal

FREUDENTHAL, a town of Austrian Silesia, circle of Troppau, on the Black Water, 22 miles W. of Troppau.

Freytag, Georg Wiliielm Friedrich

FREYTAG, GEORG WILIIELM FRIEDRICH (1788-1861), Arabist, was born at Liineburg on the 19th of September 1788. After the usual preliminary training lie entered the university of Gottingen as a student of philology and theology. From 1811 to 1813 he acted as repetent or theological tutor there, but in the latter year he accepted an appointment as sub-librarian, at Konigsberg, unable, it is said, any …

Friar

FRIAR, from the Latin frater through the French frere (Ital. irate or fra, Span. frayle or fray), a secondary form of a word which is common to all the Aryan languages, is a name commonly applied in English to any lay member of any mendicant order. One who has received ordination is usually dignified with the appellation of father. The church of Rome at present recognizes a considerable number of …

Fribourg

FRIBOURG.

Friction

FRICTION is the resistance which every material surface presents to the sliding of any other such surface upon it. This resistance is due to the roughness of the surfaces; the minute projections upon each enter more or less into the minute depressions on the other, and when motion occurs these roughnesses must either be worn off, or continually lifted out of the hollows into which they have fallen…

Friedland

FRIEDLAND, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Meeklenburg-Strelitz, circle of Stargard, is situated on the Mfiblenteich, 35 miles N.E. of Strelitz.

Friedland

FRIEDLAND, a town of Prussia, in the government district of Konigsberg, province of Prussia, is situated on the Alle, 27 miles S.E. of Kdnigsberg.

Friendly Islands

FRIENDLY ISLANDS. The group thus named by Captain Cook, and otherwise called after the name of its chief island Tonga, was discovered by Tasman in 1643. It lies in the South Pacific, on the S.W. limits of the area occupied by the Polynesian race, about 350 miles S.S.W. from Samoa, and 250 E.S.E. from Fiji. The long chain of islands, numbering about 150, though with a collective area hardly exceedi…

Friendly Societies

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES, according to the comprehensive definition of the Friendly Societies Act 1875, which now regulates such societies in Great Britain and Ireland, are "societies established to provide by voluntary subscriptions of the members thereof, with or without the aid of donations, for the relief or maintenance of the members, their husbands, wives, children, fathers, mothers, brothers or s…

Friends, Society Of

FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF.

Fries, Elias

FRIES, ELIAS A.IAGNUS (1794-1878), an eminent Swedish botanist, was born at Smaland, August 15, 1794. As his father, the pastor of the church at Femsjo, was a zealous and accomplished botanist, Fries during his walks with him early acquired an extensive knowledge of flowering plants ; and about the age of twelve he was led by the discovery of a remarkably brilliant Ilyd72u1n to commence the study …

Fries, Jacob Friedrich

FRIES, JACOB FRIEDRICH' (1773-1843), a distinguished post-Kantian writer on philosophy, was born at Barby, Saxony, August 23, 1773. He was educated in a community of the Moravian brethren, and in their seminary was trained for theology. In 1795 he entered at the university of Leipsic, and for some years studied philosophy there and at Jena. In 1801, after having acted for a time as private tutor, …

Friesland, Or Vriesland

FRIESLAND, or VRIESLAND, sometimes called West Friesland, to distinguish it from East Friesland in Hanover, is the most northerly province of the Netherlands.

Frigate-bird

FRIGATE-BIRD, the name commonly given by our sailors, on account of the swiftness of its flight, its habit of cruising about near other species and of daringly pursuing them, to a large Sea-birdl - the Fregata aluila of most ornithologists - the Pregatte of French and the Rabihorcado of Spanish mariners. It was placed by Linnaeus in the genus Pelecanus, and until lately its assignment to the famil…

Frischlin

FRISCHLIN, Nicommus (1547-1590), scholar and poet, was born on the 22d of September 1547, at Balingen, Wiirtemberg, where his father was parish minister. He was educated at Tubingen, and in 1568 was promoted to the chair of poetry and history. In 1575 for his comedy of Rebecca, which he read at Ratisbon before the emperor Maxmilian II., he was rewarded with the laureateship and with the honour of …

Frisians

FRISIANS, - in classical Latin Frisii, in medimval Latin Frisones or Frisiones, and on inscriptions of the later empire sometimes Friscevones, - a people of Teutonic stock, who, at their first appearance in history, are found in possession of the same district of Europe which they still, at least partially, occupy. So far as can be judged they have never been of an aggressive disposition, and it i…

Frisi, Paolo

FRISI, PAOLO (1728-1784),a celebrated mathematician and astronomer, was horn at Milan, April 13, 1728. At the age of fifteen he entered the monastery of the Barnabite friars, where, by self-instruction, he acquired a considerable knowledge of geometry. Under Professor Olivetano, at the university of Padua, he continued his mathematical studies. After a time he was sent to Lodi to give lectures on …

Frith Or Fryth

FRITH or FRYTH, JOHN (fir. 1503-1533), an eminent Reformation movement in Germany soon caused him to be suspected as a heretic, and lad to his imprisonment for some months. On being at the instance of Wolsey released from confinement, towards the close of 1526 or early in 1527, he fled to the Continent, where he appears to have resided chiefly at the newly founded Protestant university of Marburg,…

Fritzlar

FRITZLAR, a town formerly of Electoral Hesse and now of Prussia, at the head of a circle in the district of Cassel, about 16 miles S.S.W. of Cassel, on the left bank of the Eder, a left-hand sub-tributary of the Weser. It is an old-fashioned place still surrounded with watchtowers, and it possesses a large number of churches, an Ursuline nunnery, and an old Franciscan monastery, now partly used as…

Friuli

FRIULI (in Italian, Friuli ; in French, Frimd ; in German, Fria zd; and in the local dialect, Furlanei), a district at the head of the Adriatic,at present dividedbetween Italy and Austria, the Italian portion being included in the province of Udine, and the Austrian comprising the countship of Giirtz and Gradiska and the so-called Idrian district. In the north and east it is occupied by portions o…

Froben, Joannes

FROBEN, JOANNES (Latinized name Frobeniits), a German printer and scholar, was born at Hammelburg in Franconia about 1460. After completing his university career with great distinction at Basel, he established a printing office in that city about the year 1491, and was the first German who brought the art to anything like perfection. He was on intimate terms of friendship with Erasmus, who not onl…

Frobisher, Sir Martin

FROBISHER, SIR MARTIN (c. 1535-1594), English navigator and explorer, was the fourth child of Bernard Frobisher, and was born, it is usually stated, at Doncaster, but more probably at Altofts in the parish of Normanton, Yorkshire, some time between 1530 and 1540. The family came originally from North Wales. Martin was sent to London to his mother's brother, Sir John York, and in 1554 went with a s…

Froebel

FROEBEL, Fainpuicn WILllum AUGUST (1782-1852), philosopher, philanthropist, and educational reformer, was born at Oberweissbach, a village of the Thuringian Forest, on the 21st April 1782. He completed his seventieth year, and died at Marienthal, near Bad-Liebenstein, on the 21st June 1852. Like Comenius, with whom lie had much in common, he was neglected in his youth, and the remembrance of his o…

Frog

FROG, the common name of an extensive group of Batrachians forming, along with the toads, the amphibian order A mourn. They are divided into 9 families, containing 92 genera and 440 species, and are found in all quarters of the globe, being most abundant in the tropical and subtropical regions, but also occurring within the Arctic circle. Most of the families have a very limited distribution, and …

Frohlich, Abraham Emanuel

FROHLICH, ABRAHAM EMANUEL (1796-1865), a German-Swiss poet, was born February 1, 1796, at Brugg, in the canton of Aargau, where his father was a teacher. At the age of fifteen he was sent to study theology in the academy of Zfirich. In 1817 he was ordained, and returned as teacher to his native town, where he lived for ten years. He was then appointed professor of German language and literature in…

Frome

FROME, a parliamentary borough and market town of Somersetshire, is situated on the small river Frome, an affluent of the Avon, 11 miles S. of Bath. It was formerly called Frome Selwood, from its situation on the borders of the extensive forest of Selwood. The river is crossed at Frome by a stone bridge of five arches. The town is irregularly built on an acclivity, and the older streets, with the …

Fromentin

FROMENTIN, EasuiENE (1820-1876), French painter, was born at La Rochelle in December 1820. After leaving school he studied for some years under Louis Cabat, the landscape painter. Fromentin was one of the earliest pictorial interpreters of Algeria, having been able, while quite young, to visit the land and people that suggested the subjects of most of his works, and to store his memory as well as …

Fronde

FRONDE, Wan OF THE (1648-1652).

Frontinus, Sextus Julius

FRONTINUS, SEXTUS JULIUS, a Roman soldier, and the author of some interesting works, was born of a patrician family at Rome about 40 A.n. Nothing is known of Ins early life or history till we find him acting as p?c-etor urbanus, under Vespasian, in 70, an office from which lie soon retired to make way for Domitian. Five years later he was sent into Britain to succeed Petilins Cerealis as governor …

Fronto, Marcus

FRONTO, MARCUS Con Emus, a Roman grammarian, rhetorician, and advocate, was born of an Italian family at Cirta in Numidia, a Libyan of the Libyans, as lie calls himself, AL'pes rwv Acgi;wv. The date of his birth is unknown, but as he was quiestor in 138, it must have been before 113, and not improbably between 100 and 110. lie came to Rome in the reign of Hadrian, and soon gained such renown as an…

Frosinone

FROSINONE, a town of Italy, in the province of Rome, on the railway between Rome and Naples, about 62 miles from the former and 101 from the latter.

Frost

FROST, Wm:um EDWARD (1810-1877), a painter of mythological and fanciful subjects, was born at Wandsworth, near London, in September 1810. He showed at an early age considerable talent for drawing, and his father placed him under as good instruction as was available in the neighbourhood. About 1825 be was introduced to Etty, who advised that he should attend o. celebrated drawing school in Bloomsbu…

Frostbite

FROSTBITE.

Fr Te Dla Nd

FR TE DLA ND, VALENTINE.

Frugoni, Carlo Innocenzo

FRUGONI, CARLO INNOCENZO (1692-1768), an Italian poet, was born at Genoa 21st November 1692. In accordance with the custom of the family to which he belonged, being destined, as the youngest son, for the ecclesiastical profession, he was, at the ago of fifteen, in opposition to his strong wishes, shut up in a convent ; and although in the following year be was induced to pronounce monastic vows, h…

Frumentius

FRUMENTIUS, an early Christian missionary and bishop who is recognized by the Abyssinian church as its apostle and founder, and usually bears in Abyssinian literature the title of Abba Salama or Father of Salvation. According to Rufinus, an ecclesiastical historian of the latter part of the 4th century, who gives yEdesius himself as his authority, a certain Tyrian philosopher, accompanied by his k…

Fruytiers

FRUYTIERS, Pumir, a pupil of the Jesuits' college at Antwerp in 1627, entered the Antwerp guild of painters without a fee in 1631. He is described in the register of that institution as " illuminator, painter, and engraver." The current account of his life is "that he worked exclusively in water colours, yet was so remarkable in this branch of his art for arrangement, drawing, and especially for f…

Fry, Or Gurney

FRY, or GURNEY, ELIZABETH (1780-1845), an eminent philanthropist and, after Howard, the chief promoter of prison reform in Europe, was born in Norwich on the 21st of May 1780. Her father, John Gurney, afterwards of Earlham Hall, a wealthy merchant and banker, represented an old family which for sonic generations had bebnged to the Society of Friends ; and her mother, Catharine Bell, was a great gr…

Fu Ad Pasha

FU AD PASHA, MEHMED (1814-1869), a Turkish statesman and author, was born at Constantinople in 1814. His father, Izzet-Effendi Kitchegizadey, better known as Izzet-Mollah, was a man of wealth and position, and had a high-reputation as a poet ; but he fell into disgrace with the Turkish Government, and his estates were confiscated. Fuad being therefore compelled to adopt a profession chose that of …

Fuchsia

FUCHSIA, so named by Plumier in honour of the botanist Leonhard Fuchs (v. supra), a genus of plants of the coloured, quadripartite, deciduous calyx ; 4 petals, alterna.ting with the calycine segments ; 8, rarely 10, exserted stamens, a long and filirorm style, and inferior ovary ; and fleshy, ovoid, many-seeded berries or fruit. All the members of the genus, with the exception of the New Zealand s…

Fuchs, Johann Joseph

FUCHS, JOHANN JOSEPH.

Fuchs, Jotiann Nepomuk Von

FUCHS, JOTIANN NEPOMUK VON (1774-1856), an eminent chemist and mineralogist, was born at Mattenzell, near Bremberg, in the neighbourhood of the Baierischer Wald, May 15, 1774. Having acquired a knowledge of medicine at Vienna and Heidelberg, he in 1801 turned his attention to chemistry and mineralogy, which he studied at Freiberg, Berlin, and Paris. In 1807 he became professor of those sciences at…

Fuchs, Leonhard

FUCHS, LEONHARD (1501-1566), a celebrated German physician, and one of the fathers of scientific botany, was born at Wembdingen in Bavaria, January 17, 1501. At the age of five years ho lost his father, but under the care of his mother he early made great progress in learning. In his tenth year he was sent to school at Heilbronn, whence, a twelvemonth later, ho was removed to Erfurt. After a year …

Fuel

FUEL. This term includes all substances that may be usefully employed for the production of heat by combustion with atmospheric air or oxygen. Any element or combination of elements susceptible of oxidation, i.e., any substance electropositive to oxygen, may under particular conditions be made to burn; but only those that ignite by a moderate preliminary heating, and burn with comparative rapidity…

Fuente De Cantos

FUENTE DE CANTOS, a town of Spain in the pro. vince of Badajoz, and midway between the cities of Badajoz and Seville.

Fuente Del Maestre

FUENTE DEL MAESTRE, a town of Spain in the province of Badajoz, about 25 miles S.S.W. of Merida.

Fuenterrabea

FUENTERRABEA, an ancient town and frontier fortress of Spain, in the province of Guiprizeoa and bishopric of Pamplona, 11 miles E.N.E. of San Sebastian and 2 miles from Irun. It stands on the slope of a hill on the west bank of the Bidassoa, and near the point where its estuary begins. At one time it possessed considerable strategic importance, and it has frequently been taken and retaken in wars …

Fuero

FUERO. The Castilian use of this Latin word (forum) in the sense of a right, privilege, or charter is most probably to be traced to the Roman conventus juridici, otherwise known as jurisdictiones, or fora, which in Pliny's time were already numerous in the Iberian peninsula. In each of these provincial fora the Roman magistrate, as is well known, was accustomed to pay all possible deference to the…

Fugger

FUGGER, the name of a Swabian family which, by remarkable energy in industry and commerce, acquired enormous wealth, and rose to high rank in the state. The founder of the family was John Fugger, a respectable master-weaver at Graben, near Augsburg. His eldest son, John, associated trade in linen with weaving in Augsburg, of which he became a citizen by marriage in 1370. Here he rose to an honoura…

Fuh-chow

FUH-CHOW, more usually Foo-Cnow, and in German Fu-Tscuiu, a city of China, capital of the province of Fuh-keen, and one of the principal ports open to foreign commerce. In the local dialect it is called Hokchin. It is situated on the river Min, about 35 miles from the sea, in 26? 5' N. lat. and 119? 20' E. long., 140 miles N. of Amoy, and 280 S. of Hang-Chow. The city proper, lying nearly three mi…

Fuhr1ch

FUHR1CH, JosErn VON (1800-1876), a painter and contemporary of Cornelius and Overbeck, was born at Kratzau in Bohemia in 1800. Deeply impressed as a boy by rude pictures adorning the wayside chapels of his native country, his first attempt at composition was a sketch of the Nativity for the festival of Christmas in his father's house. He lived to see the day when, becoming celebrated as a composer…

Fulda

FULDA. The monastery of Fulda occupies the place in the ecclesiastical history of mid Germany which Monte Cassino holds in Italy, St Galle in south Germany, Corvey in north Germany, Tours in France, and Iona in Scotland. It was the centre of a missionary work, both of conversion and reformation, organized on monastic principles. The monastery of Fulda was only one of several founded by Boniface, t…

Fulham

FULHAM, a suburb of London, in the county of Middlesex, is situated on the Thames, 51 miles S.W. of St Paul's, and opposite Putney, with which it is connected by a curious old wooden bridge erected in 1729. In 1642 a bridge of boats was constructed across the river at this point by the earl of Essex, in order to convey his army into Surrey. Fulham has been connected with the see of London from a p…

Fuller, Sarah Margaret

FULLER, SARAH MARGARET.

Fuller's Earth

FULLER'S EARTH (Germ. Walkererde, Fr. Terre a foulon, Argile smectique), so named from its use by fullers as an absorbent of the grease and oil of cloth, is an earthy hydrated silicate of aluminium, containing, according to one analysis, silica 53.0, alumina 10, ferric oxide 9.75, magnesia 1.25, lime .5, sodium chloride ?1, water 24 per cent., and a trace of potash. It has a specific gravity of 1.…

Fuller, Thomas

FULLER, THOMAS (1608-1661), the witty divine and nistorian, eldest son of a father of the same name who was rector of Aldwincle St Peter's, Northamptonshire, was born at the rectory house of that country parish in the year 1608, and was baptized on 19th June in that year. Dr Robert Townson and Dr John Davenant, bishops of Salisbury, were his uncles and godfathers. The boy's training was influenced…

Fulmar

FULMAR, from the Gaelic Fulmaire, the Falnatrus glacialis of modern ornithologists, one of the largest of the Petrels (Procellariick) of the northern hemisphere, being about the size of the Common Gull (Larus calms) and not unlike it in general coloration, except that its primaries are grey instead of black. This bird, which ranges over the North Atlantic, is seldom seen on the European side below…

Fulton, Robert

FULTON, ROBERT (1765-1815), an American engineer and mechanician, was born in 1765 at Little Britain in Pennsylvania. At the age of seventeen he adopted the profession of a portrait and landscape painter, but he also, even then, devoted a considerable portion of his time to mechanical pursuits. In his twenty-second year he visited England, with the view of improving himself in art by the instructi…

Fumitory

FUMITORY, or Fumaria, Linn. (Germ. Erdrauch, Fr. Fuincterre), a genus of annual, rarely perennial, herbs of the natural order Fumariacew, with stems usually branched and straggling, often climbing by means of their petioles ; leaves alternate and decompound, with narrow segments ; flowers in racemes, small, tubular, and purple or whitish, with purple tips ; sepals 2, and deciduous ; petals 4, and …

Funchal

FUNCHAL.

Function

FUNCTION. Functionality, in Analysis, is dependence on a variable or variables ; in the case of a single variable a, it is the same thing to say that v depends upon n, or to say that v is a function of u, only in the latter form of expression the mode of dependence is embodied in the term "function." We have given or known functions such as a2 or sin is, and the general notation of the form Oa, wh…

Funds, Funding System

FUNDS, FUNDING SYSTEM.

Funeral Rites

FUNERAL RITES, ceremonies attending the burial, burning, or disposal otherwise of the dead. The prevalent modes of disposal are very various. The rudest is that of certain nomadic tribes, who, from the exigency of their wandering life, simply expose their dead, unless the custom of some tribes in modern Guinea be still ruder, who, like the ancient Ichthyophagi, throw their dead into the sea, and t…

Funfhaus, Funfiixusel

FUNFHAUS, FUNFIIXUSEL, formerly HANGENDENLISSEN, a flourishing and populous suburb to the south-west of Vienna, forming, along with Sechshaus proper and Rudolfsheim, the commissariat of Sechshaus, and trending in a westerly direction towards Schfinbrunn.

Funfkirchen

FUNFKIRCHEN, Hung. Pees, a royal free city of Hungary, capital of the vhrmegye or county of Baranya, is situated on the declivity of Mount Mecsek, and on the railway to Mohtths, 105 miles S.S.W. of Buda, 46? G' N. let., 18? 13' E. long. It is one of the oldest and finest towns in Hungary, and is the seat of a bishop and of the county administration. It consists principally of a public square, and …

Fungus

FUNGUS (Gr. toimig, whence are derived rnyoetes, employed as a termination to the names of certain orders of fungi, and also the term mycetology, or more commonly mycology, the science of fungi) is the name applied to a distinct class of cellular cry ptogams or Thallophyta. Though as plants the class is well marked by the invariable absence of chlorophyll, and consequently of the physiological phe…

Fun, Johann Josep Ii

FUN, JOHANN JOSEP II (1661-1741), the composer of more than 400 works of various kinds and dimensions, but chiefly remembered as the author of a theoretical work on music. Ho was born in 1660 at 3Iarein in Styria, probably of poor parents. Of his youth and early training nothing is known. All we can ascertain is that in 1696 he was organist at one of the principal churches of Vienna, and in 1698 w…

Fureedpore

FUREEDPORE.

Furetare, Antoine

FURETARE, ANTOINE, best known as the author of a Dictionnaire Universel de la Langue Franfaise, was born at Paris in 1620, and died 14th May 1688. He first studied law, and practised for a time as an advocate, but finally entered the church and became abbd of Chalivoy. In his leisure moments he devoted himself to letters, and in virtue of his satires - Nouvelle Allegorique on Histoire des derniers…

Furies

FURIES (FuaLE, also called DIR,F.) are not native to Latin mythology, but adopted and modified front the Greek Erinyes (see ERINYES). Originally denoting the avenging power exerted by nature against all transgressors of its regular order, and spoken of by older poets (Homer, YEschylus, &c.) either simply in the singular or in the plural as an indefinite number, the Erinyes assumed later a more rig…

Furnace

FURNACE. Under this name are included all contrivances for the production and utilization of heat by the combustion of fuel. The word is common to all the Romance tongues, appearing in more or less modified forms of the Latin fornax. But in all those languages the word has a more extended meaning than in English, as it covers every variety of heating apparatus; while here, is addition to furnaces …

Furniture

FURNITURE is the name, of obscure origin, used to describe the chattels and fittings required to adapt houses, churches, ships, &c., for use. The sculptures, paintings, and metal work of antiquity, of the Middle Ages, and of the Renaissance, now kept in museums and private collections, have, with few exceptions, formed part of decorations or of furniture made for temples, churches, or houses. Most…

Furruckabad

FURRUCKABAD.

Furstenberg

FURSTENBERG, the name of two noble houses of Germany. I. The more important is in possession of a mediatized principality in the district of the Black Forest and the Upper Danube, which comprises the countship of Heilegenberg, about 7 miles to the N. of the lake of Constance, the landgravates of Stiihlingen and Baar, and the lordships of Jungnau, Trochtelfingen, Hausen, and Moskirch or Messkirch. …

Furstenwalde

FURSTENWALDE, a town in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, government of Frankfort, on the right bank of the Spree, and on the railway between Berlin and Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 28 miles E. of the former city.

Furst, Julius

FURST, JULIUS (1805-1873), Orientalist, was born of Jewish parents at Zerkowo in Posen, 12th May 1805. His friends designed him for the rabbinical profession, and at a very early age he had gained an extensive acquaintance both with Biblical and with Talmudical Hebrew. In his fifteenth year he entered the Berlin gymnasium, whence he passed to the university in 1825; but straitened circumstances co…

Furth

FURTH, an important manufacturing town of Bavaria, circle of Middle Franconia, at the confluence of the Pegnitz with the Rednitz, 5 miles N.W. of Nuremberg, with which it is connected by railway. It is largely indebted for its importance to the industry and perseverance of the Jews, who at the beginning of the present century composed nearly one-half of the whole population, and now amount to abou…

Furze, Gorse, Or Whin

FURZE, GORSE, or WHIN, Ulex, Linn."(German, Steckginster ; French, A.jonc), a genus of thorny papilionaceous shrubs, of few species, confined to west and central Europe and north-west Africa. The leaves, except those of seedling plants, which are trifoliate, are exstipulate, and have the form of prickles; the flowers are axillary, yellow, and sweet-scented, and have a coloured calyx deeply divided…

Fuseli, Henry

FUSELI, HENRY (1741-1825), an eminent painter and writer on art, was born at Zurich in Switzerland on the 7th February 1711; he himself asserted, in 1745, but this appears to have been a mere whim. He was the second child in a family of eighteen. His father was John Caspar Fiissli, of some note as a painter of portraits and landscapes, and author of Lives of the Helvetic Painters. This parent dest…

Fusel Oil

FUSEL OIL, the name applied to the volatile oily liquids, of a nauseous fiery taste and smell, which are obtained in the rectification of spirituous liquors made by the fermentation of grain, potatoes, the mare of grapes, and other material, and which, as they are of higher boiling-point than ethylic alcohol, occur in largest quantity in the last portions of the distillate. Besides ethylic or ordi…

Fustian

FUSTIAN, a term which includes a variety of heavy woven cotton fabrics, chiefly prepared for men's wear.

Fustic, Or Yellow Wood

FUSTIC, or YELLOW WOOD, also known as old fustio (Germ. Gelbholz, Fr. Bois jaune), is a dye-stuff consisting of the wood of Madura tinctoria, Don, a largo tree of the natural order Morocco', growing in the West Indies and tropical America, and having oblong, taper-pointed leaves, and an edible fruit. Fustic occurs in commerce in blocks, which are brown without, and of a brownish-yellow within. It …

Fust, Johann

FUST, JOHANN (1 , - 1466), often considered as the inventor or one of the inventors of printing, belonged to a rich and respectable burgher familyof Mainz, which is known to have flourished from 1423, and to have held many civil and religious offices, but was not related to the patrician family Fuss. The name was always written Fust, until in 1506 Johann Schoffer, in dedicating the German translat…

Futtehpoor

FUTTEHPOOR.

Grenoble

GRENOBLE IIantes-Alpes, Prime, Isere.

Grenoble

GRENOBLE llnutes-Alpes, Ardeelie, DroMB.

Limoges

LIMOGES Corieze, Creu,;e, Haute-Vienne.

Lyons

LYONS. ...... ?Ain, Loire, Rhine.

Lyons

LYONS. _Winne, Ain, Loire, SnOne-et-Loire.

Lyons And Vienne

LYONS AND VIENNE \ [dun, Langres, Dijon, St Claude, Grenoble.

Nancy

NANCY ......

Organization

ORGANIZATION. - The organizations of Paris and Berlin are similar, and are based upon the idea of small detachments of men, lighter machines, and a large number of stations, and on the presumption that no fire will have got beyond the control of the small detachment before it is discovered and made known. The results have been generally satisfactory under the conditions existing in those cities. I…

Paris

PARIS Chartres, Means, 0116ms, Blois Versailles.

Paris

Poitiers

POITIERS Charente-Infaieure, Deux-Sevres, Vendde, Vienne. Thom Amer, CantaL Haute-Loire, Puy-de-DomeReuxv Eure, Seine-Infdrieure. TouLousE Ari6ge, Haute-Garonne, Tarn, Tarn-et-Garonne. t Tribunals of commerce to decide disputed points arising out of business transactions are instituted in all the more important commercial towns, and consist of judges chosen from among the leading merchants, and el…

Preire, Francisco Joie

PREIRE, FRANCISCO JOIE (1713-1773), a Portuguese historian and philologist, was born at Lisbon in 1713. He belonged to the monastic society of St Philip Neri, and was a zealous member of the literary association known as the Academy of Arcadians, in connexion with which he adopted the pseudonym of Candido Lusitano. He contributed much to the improvement of the style of the Portuguese prose literat…

Pteridopiiyta

PTERIDOPIIYTA. - Cormophyta with two distinct stages in the life-cycle. Sporophore with high vegetative differentiation. Oophore inconspicuous and destitute of vascular tissue. Class I. Filicince. - Leaves highly developed. Sporangia numerous on the fertile leaves. Sub-Class 1. Fitices. - Leaves without stipnlar appendages. Sporangia epidermal, containing spores of one kind developed in each from …

Puller, Andrew

PULLER, ANDREW (1754-1815), a distinguished preacher and theological writer of the Baptist denomination, was born on the 6th of February 1754, at Wicken, in Cambridgeshire, where his father was a small farmer, and received the rudiments of his education at the free school of Soham to which place his parents had removed about 1760. Early in life he began to assist in the work of the farm, and he co…

Rennes

RENNES .........

Sens And Auxerre

SENS AND AUXERRE ..... Troyes, Nevus, Moulins. TOULOI SE AND NAIIBONNE 31011IRDSRII, Fanners, Carcassonne. TOL: ILS Le Mans, Angers, Nantes, Laval. Every archbishop has three vicars-general, and every bishop two, making a total of 190. They are assisted by a chapter attached to each cathedral church, and presided over by the bishop. The cures leave a minimum salary which varies from 1500 to 1200 f…

Suds

SUDS. IIERES. NEC. SIT. ADGNATUS. PROXIMUS. FAMILIAn. IIABETO, and SI. AGNATUS. NEC. ESCIT. GENTILIS. FAM1LIA3I. NANCITOR ; that is, if a man die intestate, leaving no natural heir, who had been under his potestas, the nearest agnate, or relative tracing his connexion with the deceased_ exclusively through males, is to inherit the familia, or family fortune of every sort. Failing an agnate, a memb…

The Fine Art Of Human Activities

THE FINE ART OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES is the abstract or collective name given to the results of a whole group of human activities ? the activities themselves which constitute the group being severally called the FINE ARTS. In antiquity the fine arts were not explicitly named, nor even distinctly recognized, as a separate class. In other modern languages besides English they are called by the equivalen…

This

THIS important part of continental Europe extends from m boundaries of France are - on the N. the English Channel (Manche), the Straits of Dover (Pas-de-Calais), Belgium, ' and Luxembourg ; on the E. Germany (Alsace-Lorraine), Switzerland, and Italy ; on the S. the Mediterranean and Spain ; on the W. the Atlantic Ocean. From north to south its length is about 576 miles, measured from Dunkirk to th…