Volume 22 [SIB - SZO]: Sphinx to Xxii


9th Edition of Encyclopedia Britannica - free ninth edition online encyclopedia Britannica Volume 22 [SIB - SZO]: Sphinx to Xxii Sphinx SPHINX, a hybrid creature of Egyptian and Greek art and mythology. In Egypt the sphinxes are colossal images of granite or porphyry, with a human head and breast and the body of a lion (wingless) lying down. The largest and most famous is that of Gizeh, described in vol. vii. p. 772. The head of the sphinx is usually that of a man, but female heads are said to occur occasionally. From Egypt the fi… Spikenard, Or Nard SPIKENARD, or NARD (Hebrew nerd ; Gr. vdp8os, from Sanskrit naladwtha, the change from " r " to " I " seeming to indicate that the word came through Persia),2 a celebrated perfume which seems to have formed one of the most durable aromatic ingredients in the costly unguents used by the Romans and Eastern nations. The ointinent prepared from it (" ointment of pistic nard "3) is mentioned in the New… Spinal Cord SPINAL CORD. Spinello Aretino SPINELLO ARETINO (c.1330-c.1410), painter, the son of a Florentine named Luca, who had taken refuge in Arezzo in 1310 when exiled with the rest of the Ghibelline party, was born at Arezzo about 1330. Spinello was a pupil of Jacopo di Casentino, a follower of Giotto, and his own style was a sort of link between the school of Giotto and that of Siena. In the early part of his life he worked in Flore… Spinet SPINET. See PIANOFORTE, vol. xix. p. 67 sq. SPINNING. See YARN. SPINOLA, AMBROGIO SPINOLA, MARCHESE DI (c. 15711630), a celebrated general, belonged to a noble and wealthy Italian family, and was born at Genoa about 1571. After the siege of Ostend had languished for more than two years under the direction of the archduke Albert, Spinola, who, though not a soldier by profession, had seen something … Spinoza, Baruch SPINOZA, BARUCH (1632-1677), or, as he afterwards signed himself, Benedict de Spinoza, philosopher, was born at Amsterdam on 24th November 1632. His parents belonged to the community of Jewish emigrants from Portugal and Spain who, fleeing from Catholic persecution in the Peninsula, had sought refuge in the nearly emancipated Netherlands. The name, variously written De Spinoza, D'Espinoza, and Des… Spires SPIRES (Germ. Speyer or Speier), the chief town of the Rhenish palatinate, Bavaria, and formerly a free imperial city, is situated on the left bank of the Rhine, at to its high antiquity, owing to the fact that it was burned Romanesque churches of the Rhineland, Spires cathedral has a peculiar importance in the history of architecture as probably the earliest Romanesque basilica in which the nave … Spiritualism SPIRITUALISM. The term " spiritualism " is used by philosophical writers to denote the opposite of materialism. the physical world effects inexplicable by the known laws of nature. The belief in such occasional manifestations has probably existed as long as the belief in the existence. of spirits apart from human bodies, and a complete examination into it would involve a discussion of the religion… Spitzbergen SPITZBERGEN. This group of rocky, barren, and Situa snowclad islands, lost in the solitudes of the Arctic Ocean, tion. 400 miles north-north-west of the North Cape of Norway (see vol. xix. pl. II.), but nevertheless well known for at least four centuries to European whalers and seal-hunters, has of late acquired new interest from the scientific expeditions by which it has been selected either as a… Spohr, Ludwig SPOHR, LUDWIG (1784-1859), violinist and composer, was born at Brunswick on 25th April 1784, but spent his childhood at Seesen, where in 1789 he began to study the violin, and worked so industriously that at six years old he was able to take the leading part in Kalkbrenner's trios. He received his general education at the Brunswick grammar-school,---taking lessons on the violin from Kunisch and st… Spoleto SPOLETO (Lat. Spoletium), a city of Italy, in Umbria, placed in a commanding position near the Via Flaminia, between Rome and Perugia, is said to have been colonized in 240 B.c. (Liv., Epit., xx.; Vell. Pat., i. 14), and is called by Cicero (Pro Bath., 21) " colonia Latina in primis firma et illustris." After the battle of Trasimenus (217 u.c.) Spoletium was attacked by Hannibal, who was repulsed … Sponsor SPONSOR. The presence of some suitable sponsor or sponsors to give the answers required and undertake the vows involved would seem to be almost essential to the right administration of the sacrament of baptism, in the case of infants at least. In this aspect, however, as in many others, the early history of the development of the rite of baptism remains obscure. The Greek word for the person under… Spontini, Gasparo Luigi Pacifico SPONTINI, GASPARO LUIGI PACIFICO (1774-1851), dramatic composer, was born at Majolati (Ancona) in Italy, 14th November 1774, and educated at the Conservatorio de' Turchini at Naples under Sala, Tritto, and Salieri. After producing some successful operas at Rome, Florence, Naples, and Palermo, he settled in 1803 at Paris. His reception in the French capital was anything but flattering. His first co… Spoonbill SPOONBILL. The bird now so called was formerly - all belonging to the Pelargomorphw of Prof. Huxley. known in England as the Shovelard or Shovelar, while that They breed in societies, not only of their own kind, but which used to bear the name of Spoonbill, often amplified in company with Herons, either on trees or in reed-beds, into Spoon-billed Duck, is the SHOVELER (see vol. xxi. making large n… Sporades SPORADES, the islands " scattered " (as the name, from trim' pciv, "to sow," imports) about the Greek Archipelago, are distinguished on the one hand from the Cyclades, which are grouped around Delos, and on the other from the islands attached, as it were, to the mainland of Europe and Asia. The distinction is not in either case a very definite one, and hence both ancient and modern writers differ … Sports, The Book Of SPORTS, THE BOOK OF, or more properly the DECLARATION OF SPORTS, was issued by James I. in 1617 on the recommendation of Thomas Morton, bishop of Chester, for use in Lancashire, where the king on his return from Scotland found a conflict on the subject of Sunday amusements between the Puritans and the gentry, many of whom were Roman Catholics. Permission was given for dancing, archery, leaping, va… Spotswood, Or Spotiswood SPOTSWOOD, or SPOTISWOOD, JOHN (1565-1639), archbishop of St Andrews, was the son of John Spotswood, minister of Calder and " superintendent " of Lothian, and was born in 1565. He was educated at Glasgow, and succeeded his father in the parish of Calder when but eighteen years of age. In 1601 he attended Ludowick, duke of Lennox, as his chaplain, in an embassy to the court of France, and returned … Spottiswoode, William SPOTTISWOODE, WILLIAM (1825-1883), mathematician and physicist, was born in London, 11th January and Balliol College, Oxford. His bent for science showed Meditationes Analyticx. This was his first publication of mathematical researches. In 1856 Spottiswoode travelled entitled A Tarantasse Journey through Eastern Russia in the Autumn of 1856 (London, 1857). In 1870 he was elected president of the L… Sprat SPRAT, a marine fish (Clupea sprattus), named "garvie" studies dear to him, and in the enjoyment of the honours in Scotland, one of the smallest species of the genus bestowed upon him by over seventy learned societies, and Clupea or herrings, rarely exceeds 5 inches in length, and also by monarchs. In 1828 the death of a son, professor occurs in large shoals on the Atlantic coasts of Europe, of su… Spremberg SPREMBERG, a small town of Prussia, in the province form of a Greek cross, with porticos of granite ; it is 385 of Brandenburg, is situated about 75 miles to the south- feet long and 296 wide, and has a central dome surmounted east of Berlin, partly on an island in the river Spree and by a lantern with a ball on the pinnacle (360 feet). It partly on the west bank. It carries on considerable manu- … Sprengel, Kurt SPRENGEL, KURT (1766-1833), German botanist and adjacent to the city, is the Lincoln monument (1874), physician, was born on 3d August 1766 at Boldekow in beneath which that president was buried. The monument, Pomerania. His father, a clergyman, provided him with designed by Larkin G. Mead, consists of a granite obelisk, a thorough education of wide scope; and the boy at an reaching a height of 98… Springfield SPRINGFIELD, a city of the United States, county seat of Greene county, Missouri, occupies a pleasant and healthy site on the Ozark Hills, 238 miles by rail southwest of St Louis by the St Louis and San Francisco Railroad, which here joins with the Kansas City, Fort Scott, and Gulf Railroad. Springfield SPRINGFIELD, a city of the United States, the county seat of Hampden county, Massachusetts, on the east bank of Connecticut river, opposite West Springfield, with which it is connected by road and railway bridges. By rail it is 98 miles west by south of Boston on the route to Albany, and it forms a very important railway junction. The western part of Springfield is built on low and level ground, t… Springfield SPRINGFIELD, a city of the United States, county seat of Clarke county, Ohio, lies at the confluence of Mad river and Lagonda Creek (sub-tributaries of the Ohio through the Miami), 84 miles north-east of Cincinnati. Spurz Heim, Kaspar SPURZ HEIM, KASPAR, phrenologist, was born at Longwich near Treves on 31st December 1776, and died at Boston, United States, on 10th November 1832. Squaring SQUARING (or QIIADRATITRE) OF THE CIRCLE is the problem of finding a square equal in area to a given circle. Like all problems, it may be increased in difficulty by the imposition of restrictions ; consequently under the designation there may be embraced quite a variety of geometrical problems. It has to be noted, however, that, when the " squaring " of the circle is especially spoken of, it is al… Squill SQUILL, the name under which the bulbous root of Urginea maritinza, Baker, is used in medicine. The plant was formerly placed in the genus Scilla, from which it has been separated because the seeds are flat and discoid instead of triquetrous, as in the latter genus. The name of " squill " is also applied by gardeners to the various species of Scilla. The medicinal squill is a native of the countri… Squint SQUINT. See OPHTHALMOLOGY, vol. xvii. p. 785. SQUIRREL. In the article MARMOT (vol. xv. p. 559) an account was given of the three genera forming the See " Ueber die Zahl r," in Math. Annalen, xx. p. 213. 2 Nouv. Annales, 3d ser., ii. p. 5. Arctonzyina, or Marmot sub-family of the large family Sciuride, and in the present article the members of the other and more typical sub-family, the Sciurina, … Stade STADE, a small commercial town in the province of Hanover, Prussia, is situated on the navigable Schwinge, 3 miles above its confluence with the Elbe, and 20 miles to the north-west of Hamburg. It carries on a number of small manufactures and has some shipping trade, chiefly with Hamburg, but the rise of Harburg has deposed it from its former position as the chief port of Hanover. There are severa… Stael, Madame De STAEL, MADAME DE (by her proper name and title ANNE LOUISE GERMAINE NECKER, BARONESS OF STAELHOLSTEIN), was born at Paris on April 22, 1766, and died there on July 14, 1817. Her father was the famous financier Necker, her mother Suzanne Curchod, who is almost equally famous as the early love of Gibbon, as the wife of Necker, as the mistress of one of the most popular salons of Paris, and as the mo… Stafford STAFFORD, a parliamentary and municipal borough of England, and the county town of Staffordshire, is situated on the left bank of the river Sow, almost in the heart of England. It is 123 miles from London and 291 from Birmingham, and is in the southern division of the hundred of Pirehill. The principal trades of the town are tanning and the manufacture of boots and shoes, more especially for ladie… Stahl, Georg Ernst STAHL, GEORG ERNST (1660-1734), chemist, was born on 21st October 1660 at Ansbach, studied at Jena, and became court-physician to the duke of Weimar in 1687. In 1694 he was appointed professor of medicine in Halle and in 1716 physician to the king of Prussia. He died at Berlin on May 14, 1734. His Theoria Modica Vera appeared at Halle in 1707 (see MEDICINE, Vol. xv. p. 812), and his Experimenta et… Stalybridge STALYBRIDGE, a municipal and parliamentary borough of England, partly in Lancashire but principally in Cheshire, is situated on the Tame, 1 mile east of Ashton-under-Lyne, and 71- east of Manchester. The Tame is crossed by bridges connecting the counties of Chester and Lancaster. The principal public buildings are the town-hall (1831), the Foresters' hall (1836), the district infirmary, the mechan… Stamford STAMFORD, a borough of the United States, in Fairfield county, Connecticut, is situated on Long Island Sound, 35 miles north-east of New York city, on the New York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad. Stamford STAMFORD, a municipal borough and market-town, chiefly in Lincolnshire but partly in Northamptonshire, is situated on the river Welland, and on branches of the Midland, the London and North Western, and the Great Northern railway lines, 89 miles north of London and 55 south of Lincoln. The ancient bridge over the Welland was in 1849 superseded by a new structure of stone, erected at a cost of ?850… Stammering, Or Stuttering STAMMERING, or STUTTERING, designates a spasmodic affection of the organs of speech in which the articulation of words is suddenly checked and a pause ensues, often followed by a repetition in rapid sequence of the particular sound at which the stoppage occurred. Of this painful affection there are many grades, from a slight inability to pronounce with ease certain letters or syllables, or a tende… Stamps STAMPS. The stamp duty is a tax imposed upon a great variety of legal and other documents, and forms a branch of the national revenue. The stamp is a cheap and convenient mode of certifying that the revenue regulations have been complied with. Stamp duties appear to have been invented by the Dutch in 1624. They were first imposed in England in 1694 by 5 and 6 Will. and Mary, c. 21, as a temporary … Stanfield, William Clarkson STANFIELD, WILLIAM CLARKSON (1794-1867), marine the impetuosity of his fiery heart the arbitrary measures painter, was born of Irish parentage at Sunderland in 1794. which the ministry favoured. Lord Stanhope's character As a youth he was a sailor, and during many long voyages was without any taint of meanness, and his conduct was he acquired that intimate acquaintance with the sea and marked by a… Stanislau STANISLAU (Pol. Stanislaus STANISLAUS (1677-1766), king of Poland. Stanislaus Augustus STANISLAUS AUGUSTUS, the last king of Poland, was born at Wolczyn in Lithuania in 1732 and died at St Petersburg in 1798. Stanley, Arthur Penrhyn STANLEY, ARTHUR PENRHYN (1815-1881), dean of Westminster from 1863, was born at Alderley in Cheshire on December 13, 1815. His father, the Rev. E. Stanley, rector of Alderley, bishop of Norwich from 1837 to 1849, was the younger brother of Sir John Stanley of Alderley Park, seventh baronet, who in 1839 was created Baron Stanley of Alderley, and was the representative of a branch of the same family… Stanton, Edwin STANTON, EDWIN Al`NIAsxmis (1833-1869), American formed (see vol. ii. p. 631, figs. 3 to 6). Under the micro-statesman, was born in Ohio, December 19, 1814, graduated scope these granules are seen to consist of a nucleus or - at Kenyon College in 1833, and was admitted to the bar hilum surrounded by layers arranged concentrically or ex-of his native State. Just at the end of Buchanan's ad- centric… Staraya Russa STARAYA RUSSA, a district town of Russia, in the starch cellulose, - or rather of a series of gradations from government of Novgorod, 62 miles to the south of that the one to the other, the starch cellulose being principally city, on the river Polist, by means of which and Lake in the external layers, while the granulose is found in the Ihneil it is brought into easy steamer communication with cen… Star-chamber STAR-CHAMBER, the name given in the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries to an English high court of justice, consisting of the members of the ordinary council, or of the privy council only, with the addition of certain judges, and exercising jurisdiction, mainly criminal, in certain cases. The origin and early history of the court are somewhat obscure. The Curia Regis of the 12th century, combining jud… Stargard STARGARD, an ancient manufacturing town in eastern Pomerania, Prussia, is situated on the left bank of the navigable Ihna, 20 miles to the east of Stettin. Starling STARLING (A.S. Star, Stearn, and Sterlyng; Lat. steel-blue, most of the feathers when freshly grown being spotless. It is the Sturnus vulgaris of ornithologists. To describe the habits of the Starling' within the limits here allotted is impossible. A more engaging bird scarcely exists, for its familiarity during some months of the year gives opportunities for observing its ways that few others aff… Starodub STARODUB, a district town of Russia, in the government of Tchernigoff, 116 miles to the north-east of that town, on the marshy banks of a small tributary of the navigable Sudost. It is regularly built, with broad straight streets, the houses being surrounded by large gardens. Its 23,890 inhabitants - Little Russian descendants of former Cossacks, with about 5000 Jews - support themselves chiefly b… Stassfurt STASSFURT, a town in the Prussian province of Saxony, and one of the chief seats of the German salt-producing industry, is situated on both sides of the Bode, 19 miles to the south-west of Magdeburg. Although ;aline springs are mentioned here as early as the 13th century, the first attempt to bore for salt was not made until 1839, while the systematic exploitation of the salt-beds, to which the to… State, Great Officers Of STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF. All the principal ministers of the British crown are popularly called the great officers! of state. Under this designation are more or less accurately included the premier for the time being, the other members of the cabinet, and the leading functionaries of the court. But properly speaking the great offices of state are only nine in number, and it is to the holders of th… Staten Island STATEN ISLAND, an island of New York State, duchy of Castro, the Orvietano, the Sabina, Umbria, the forming, with some adjacent islands, Richmond county, Perugino, the March of Ancona, Romagna, the Bolognese, with a population of 38,991 in 1880, is situated about 5 the Ferrarese, and the duchies of Benevento and of miles south of New York city, from which it is separated Pontecorvo. by New York Ba… State Papers STATE PAPERS. See RECORDS, PUBLIC. tution. On the formation of the kingdom of Italy in 1860 they ? STATES OF THE CHURCH, or PAPAL STATES (Ital. were reduced to the Comarca of Rome, the legation of Velletri, and the three delegations of Viterbo, Civita Vecchia, and Frosinone ; Stato della Chiesa, Stato Pontificio, State Romano, Stato and in 1870 they disappeared from the political map of Europe. Ec… States STATES. ing the whole Peninsula, and that the contemptuous indifference with which they had left the northern mountains to a handful of refugees was destined to bring its own punishment. The early history of the Christian states of Spain is wrapped in a mist of fable and legend, but it is not hard to discern the main outlines. A scanty band of warriors, headed by Pelayo, probably a member of the V… Statistics STATISTICS. The word "statistic" is derived from the Latin status, which, in the so-called Middle Ages, had come to mean a "state " in the political sense. "Statistic," therefore, originally denoted inquiries into the condition of a state. Since the beginning of the 18th century the denotation of the word has been extended so as to include subjects only indirectly connected with political organiza… Statistics STATISTICS .465 of interest, either to obtain additional information needful for its clearness. There might be columns showing the increase or administrative purposes, or, in countries possessed of representative decrease for each county and for the whole kingdom during the institutions, to supply statistics asked for by parliaments or con- ten years, and another column showing what proportion, ex… Statius STATIUS, Pumus PAPINIUS, Roman poet, lived from about 45 to 96 A.D., so far as can be judged from indications afforded by his poems. He was, to a great extent, born and trained to the profession of a poet. The Statii were of Graeco-Campanian origin, and were gentle, though impoverished, and the family records were not without political distinctions. The elder Statius, our poet's father, was the Or… Statute STATUTE, or Act of Parliament, is a law made by the sovereign power in the state, that is, the king, by and with the advice and consent of the lords spiritual and temporal and commons in parliament assembled. It forms a part of the lex scripta, or written law, which by English legal authorities is used solely for statutory law, a sense much narrower than it bore in Roman law. To make a statute the… Statute Merchant And Statute Staple STATUTE MERCHANT AND STATUTE STAPLE were two old forms of security, long obsolete in practice, though references to them still occur in some modern statutes. Staunton STAUNTON, a city of the United States, the county-seat of Augusta county, Virginia, lies at the foot of the Blue Ridge Mountains, on the Lewis Creek (a tributary of the Shenandoah), 136 miles west-north-west of Richmond. Staunton, Howard STAUNTON, HOWARD (1810-1871), Shakespearean scholar and writer on chess, was born about 1810. He was educated at Eton and Oxford, but left the university without taking a degree and settled in London, devoting much of his attention to the study of the English dramatists of the Elizabethan age. In conjunction with this he also took a great interest in the stage, and as an amateur once played Lorenz… Stavanger STAVANGER, a seaport town of Norway, the administrative centre of an "amt" of the same name (population 114,164 in 1876), is situated on the west coast, on the south side of a beautiful fjord, about 127 miles north-west of Christiansand. A railway to connect Stavanger with Christiania has been planned, but as yet only the terminal portions have been constructed, the Stavanger portion, which runs s… Stavropol STAVROPOL, a government of Northern Caucasia, a colony close to Pyatigorsk) have settled in the most Russia, having an area of 26,530 square miles, and a fertile and best watered parts of Stavropol in the course population (rapidly increasing by Russian immigration) of the present century. The Russian population is grow-last returned at 637,893. It is bounded by Astrakhan inu? very rapidly, and al… Steam Hammer STEAM HAMMER. Steele STEELE, Sin RICHARD (1672-1729), one of the most active and prominent men of letters in the reign of Queen Anne, inseparably associated in the history of literature with his personal friend Addison. He cannot be said to have lost in reputation by the partnership, because he was far inferior to Addison in purely literary gift, and it is Addison's literary genius that has floated their joint work ab… Steelyard, Merchants Of The STEELYARD, MERCHANTS OF THE, were Hanse merchants who settled in London in 1250 at the steelyard on the river side, near Cosin Lane, now Iron Bridge Wharf. Henry III. in 1259, at the request of his brother Richard, earl of Cornwall, conferred on them important privileges, which were renewed and confirmed by Edward I. It was chiefly through their enterprise that the early trade of London was develo… Steen, Jan Havicksz STEEN, JAN HAVICKSZ (1626-1679), subject-painter, produced at Munich in 1681, the only copy known to and Riches, which were presented by the Hanse merchants exist is a MS. score preserved in the royal library at but of these four last-named works no trace can now be discovered. Niobe was the last opera Steffani composed was born at Leyden in 1626, the son of a brewer of the at Munich. Notwithstand… Steffani, Agostino STEFFANI, AGOSTINO (1655-1730), ecclesiastic, diplo- Invested with these high honours, Steffani could scarcely matist, and musical composer, was born at Castelfranco in continue to produce dramatic compositions in public with-1655, and at a very early age was admitted as a chorister out grievous breach of etiquette. But his genius was too at St Mark's in Venice. In 1667 the beauty of his voice rea… Steibelt, Daniel STEIBELT, DANIEL (c. 1760-1823), pianist and com- for Westphalia. In 1796 he was made supreme presiposer, was born between the years 1755 and 1765 at dent of the provincial chambers of Westphalia, an appoint-Berlin, where he studied, at the expense of the crown ment which gave him opportunity to evince his great prince Frederick William, under Kirnberger. Very little administrative talents. In 178… Steinamanger STEINAMANGER (Hung. Steiner, Jahob STEINER, JAHOB (1796-1863), one of the greatest geometricians of all ages, was born on the 18th of March 1796 at the Swiss village of Utzendorf (canton Bern). Here he grew up helping his father iu his agricultural pursuits, learning to write only at the age of fourteen. At eighteen he became a pupil of Pestalozzi, and afterwards studied at Heidelberg. Thence he went to Berlin, earning a livelihood… Stein, Heinrich Friedrich Karl STEIN, HEINRICH FRIEDRICH KARL, BARON V031 END his powers, and the municipal ordinance was pu on November 19, 1808. In the interim be co-operated Z11111(1757-1831), one of the greatest of German statesmen, zealously with Scharnhorst in the reconstitution of the and perhaps the most influential forerunner of Bismarck in army, carried out a number of important financial and ad-1 Add. MSS. 5055 8/. m… Stendal STENDAL, a manufacturing town and important railway junction in Prussian Saxony, and the former capital of the Altmark, is picturesquely situated on the Uchte, 33 miles to the north-east of Magdeburg. Among the relics of its former importance are the cathedral, built in 1420-24 (though originally founded in 1188) and restored in 1857, the Gothic church of St Mary, founded in 1447, a "Roland column… Stephanus Byzantius STEPHANUS BYZANTIUS, the author of a geoone Hermolaus. Stephen STEPHEN I , bishop of Rome from about 254 to 257, followed Lucius I. Stephen STEPHEN (1105-1154), king of England, the second son of Stephen, earl of Blois, and Adela, daughter of William the Conqueror, was born at Blois in 1105. He obtained the county of Mortain by the gift of his uncle Henry I. and that of Boulogne by marriage with Maud, daughter of Count Eustace. As one of the chief barons of Normandy he had sworn to aid in securing the succession to the crown of Englan… Stephen STEPHEN V., pope from 885 to 891, succeeded Adrian III., and was in turn succeeded by Formosus. Stephen STEPHEN, Sin JAMES (1789-1859), historian, was the son of James Stephen, master in chancery, author of The Slavery of the Test India Colonies and other works, and was born in London 3d January 1789. He was educated at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, graduating B.A. in 1812, after which he studied for the bar and was called at Lincoln's Inn. He obtained an extensive practice as a chancery barrister, being… Stephen Ii STEPHEN II., pope from March 752 to April 757, was in deacon's orders when chosen to the vacant see within twelve days after the death of Zacharias.' The main Zacharias died March 15, 752, and a presbyter named Stephen was forthwith chosen to succeed him, who, however, died four days afterwards and before consecration. This Stephen is occasionally called Stephen IL, the number of popes of the name… Stephen Iii STEPHEN III., pope from August 1, 768 to January 24, 772, was a native of Sicily, and, having come to Rome during the pontificate of Gregory III., gradually rose to high office in the service of successive popes. Stephen Iv STEPHEN IV., pope from June 816 to January 817, succeeded Leo III., whose policy be continued. Stephen Ix STEPHEN IX., pope from August 1057 to March 1058, succeeded Victor II. (Gebhard of Eichstiidt). His baptismal name was Frederick, and he was a younger brother of Godfrey, duke of Upper Lorraine, who, as marquis of Tuscany (by his marriage with Beatrice, widow of Boniface, marquis of Tuscany), played a prominent part in the politics of the period. Frederick, who had been raised to the cardinalate b… Stephens STEPHENS, the incorrect English form of the name of Estienne, the distinguished French family of scholars and printers. The founder of the race was HENRI ESTIENNE (d. 1520), the scion of a noble family of Provence, who came to Paris in 1502, and soon afterwards set up a printing establishment at the top of the Rue St Jean de Beauvais, on the hill of Sainte-Genevieve opposite the law school. He die… Stephens, Alexander Hamilton STEPHENS, ALEXANDER HAMILTON (1812-1883), American statesman, was born in Georgia, February 11, 1812. In spite of many difficulties imposed by poverty and ill-health, he became a lawyer and politician of great reputation and popularity. He was one of the Whig leaders of his State until about 1850, and then drifted into the Democratic party through the rising discussions of slavery, serving in Cong… Stephens, John Lloyd STEPHENS, JOHN LLOYD (1805-1852), traveller, was born 28th November 1805, at Shrewsbury, N.J., United. States. Having been admitted to the bar, he practised his profession for about eight years in New York city. In 1834, the state of his health rendering it advisable that lie should travel, he visited Europe, and for two years made a tour through many countries of that continent, extending his tra… Stephenson, George STEPHENSON, GEORGE (1781-1848), perfecter of the locomotive, was the son of Robert Stephenson, fireman of a colliery engine at Wylam, near Newcastle, where he was born 9th June 1781. In boyhood he was employed as a cowherd, and occupied his leisure in erecting clay engines and similar mechanical amusements. Afterwards he drove the ginhorse at a colliery, and in his fourteenth year became assistant… Stephenson, Robert STEPHENSON, ROBERT (1 803-1 859), engineer, son of the preceding by his first wife Fanny Henderson, was born at Willington Quay, 16th October 1803. Remembering his own early difficulties owing to deficient instruction, his father bestowed special care on his education, sending him in his twelfth year to attend Mr Bruce's school in Percy Street, Newcastle, where he remained about four years. In 181… Stephen, St STEPHEN, ST, described in late MSS. of Acts xxii. 20 and in subsequent ecclesiastical tradition as rporrO/Laryrvs, was one of the first seven deacons who were chosen by the church in Jerusalem at the instance of the apostles. He is spoken of as "a man full of faith and the Holy Spirit," and, though his official function was rather the " serving of tables " than the ministry of the word, the narrat… Stephen Vi STEPHEN VI., pope from May 896 to July?August 897, succeeded Boniface VI., and was in turn followed by Romanus. Stephen Vii STEPHEN VII. (February 929 to March 931) and STEPHEN VIII. (July 939 to October 942) were virtually nonentities, who held the pontificate during the so-called " pornocracy " of Theodora and Marozia (see ROME, vol. xx. p. 787-8). Stereoscope STEREOSCOPE is an optical instrument for representing in apparent relief and solidity all natural objects by uniting into one image two representations of these objects as seen by each eye separately. That the two eyes form different images of any objects which are near enough to have dissimilar perspective projections has been long known, and may be readily tested by any one. Euclid proved it geo… Sterling STERLING, a city of the United States, in Whiteside county, Illinois, on Rock River (a tributary of the Mississippi), 110 miles west of Chicago. Sterling, John STERLING, JOHN (180G-1844), author, was descended from a family of Scottish origin which had settled in Ireland about the Cromwellian period. His father, Edward Sterling, born at Waterford 27th February 1773, had been called to the Irish bar, but, having fought as a militia captain at Vinegar Hill, afterwards volunteered with his company into the line. On the breaking up of his regiment he went to… Sternberg STERNBERG, a manufacturing town in Moravia, Austria, is situated 9 miles to the north of Ohniitz and 47 miles to the north-east of Briinn. Sterne, Laurence STERNE, LAURENCE (1713-1768), one of the greatest of English humorists, was the son of an English officer, and great-grandson of an archbishop of York. Nearly all our information about the first forty-six years of his life before he became famous as the author of Tristram Shandy is derived from a short memoir jotted down by himself for the use of his daughter. It gives nothing but the barest facts… Stesichorus STESICHORUS of Himera, a very famous lyric poet, lived between 630 and 550 B.C. His name was originally Tisias, if we may trust Suidas, but it was changed to Stesichorus on account of his eminence in choral poetry. He was famed in antiquity for the richness and-splendour of his imagination and his style, although Quintilian censures his redundancy and Hermogenes remarks on the excessive sweetness … Stettin STETTIN, the chief town of Pomerania, and the leading seaport in Prussia, is situated on the Oder, 17 miles to the south of the Stettiner Hail and 30 miles from the Baltic Sea. The main part of the town occupies a hilly site on ive railway swing-bridge) with the suburbs of Lastadie (" lading place," from lastadium, "burden,") and Silberwiese, on an island formed by the Parnitz and Dunzig, which h… Steuart STEUART, Sin JAMES DENHAM (1712-1780), BART., author of An Inquiry into the Principles of Political Economy (see POLITICAL ECONOMY, vol. xix. p. 365), was the only son of Sir James Steuart, solicitor-general for Scotland under Queen Anne and George I., and was born at Edinburgh on October 21, 1712. After passing through the university of Edinburgh he was admitted to the Scottish bar at the age of … Steubenville STEUBENVILLE, a city of the United States, county seat of Jefferson county, Ohio, lies 43 miles west of Pittsburgh, on the west bank of the Ohio river, here a third of a mile wide and crossed by a railway bridge. Stevenson, Robert STEVENSON, ROBERT (1772-1850), civil engineer, was have risen to so high a position. A Catholic would per-the only son of Alan Stevenson, partner in a West Indian haps not have been so ready as Stevinus to deny the value house in Glasgow, and was born in that city 8th June 1772. of all authority, whether of an Aristotle, of an Euclid, or of Having lost his father in infancy, he removed with his a … Stevens, Thaddeus STEVENS, THADDEUS (1792-1868), was born at Peacham, Vermont, U.S., April 4, 1792, graduated at Dartmouth College in 1814, and than settled in Pennsylvania. He soon became a leading lawyer of Lancaster, Pa., so far interested in politics as to be elected by the Whig party to the State legislature for several terms and to the federal house of representatives 1849-63. When the mass of the Northern Wh… Stewart, Dugald STEWART, DUGALD (1753-1828), one of the most influential of the Scottish philosophers, was born at Edinburgh on the 22d of November 1753. His father, Matthew Stewart (1715-85), was professor of mathematics in the university of Edinburgh from 1747 till 1772, and was an eminent investigator in his own department, applying the geometrical methods of Simson, who had been his teacher in Glasgow. Dugald… Steyr, Steier, Or Steyer STEYR, STEIER, or STEYER, an industrial town in Upper Austria, is situated on an island at the junction of the Steyr and Enns, 20 miles to the south of Linz and 92 miles to the west-south-west of Vienna. Stickleback STICKLEBACK is the name applied to a group of small fishes (Gastrosteus) which inhabit the fresh and brackish waters as well as the coasts of the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere. Although some of the species live chiefly either in fresh or in salt water, they readily accommodate themselves to a change, and, as far as the European kinds are concerned, all may be met with in the brackish w… Stigmatization STIGMATIZATION, literally the infliction of stigmata, like those of Christ. An ancient and widespread method of showing tribal of Hercules in Egypt (ii. 113), says that it is not lawful to capture runaway slaves, who take refuge therein if they receive certain marks on their bodies, devoting then to the deity. Some such idea is perhaps alluded to by Paul (Gal. vi. 17) in the words, "from hencefort… Stilicho, Flavitts STILICHO, FLAVITTS, Roman general and statesman, was of Vandal origin, and was born about 359 A.D. At an early age he entered the imperial army, where his father before him had served under Valens ; and he speedily attained high promotion. He had already become magister equitum when in 384 he was sent by Theodosius as his ambassador to Persia ; his mission was very successful, and soon after his r… Stillingfleet, Edward STILLINGFLEET, EDWARD (1635-1699), a conspicuous figure in the church of the Restoration, was descended from the Stillingfleets of Stillingfieet, in the neighbourhood of York, and was born at Cranbourne in Dorset on the 17th April 1635. There and at Ringwood he received his preliminary education, and at the age of thirteen was entered at St John's College, Cambridge, as Isaac Barrow five years bef… Still, John STILL, JOHN (c. 1543-1607), bishop of Bath and Wells, and now best known as the probable author (" Mr S., Master of Arts ") of Gammer Gurton's Needle, the earliest comedy but one in the English language (see DRAMA, vol. vii. p. 428), was a native of Grantham, Lincolnshire, and was born about 1543. Stillwater STILLWATER, a city of the United States, at the head of Washington county, Minnesota, on the west bank of the St Croix river, 18 miles north-east of St Paul. Stilt, Or Long-legged Plover STILT, or LONG-LEGGED PLOVER, a bird so called for reasons obvious to any one who has seen it, since, though no bigger than a Snipe, the length of its legs (their bare part measuring 8 inches), in proportion to the size of its body, exceeds that of any other bird's. The first name (a translation of the French .Rchasse, given in 1760 by Brisson) seems to have been bestowed by Rennie only in 1831 ; … Stirling STIRLING, a royal and parliamentary burgh and the county town of Stirlingshire, is finely situated on the slopes of Loch Lomond. Larch and Scotch firs principally occupy the modern plantations in the other parts of the county. In 1886 there were only 31 acres under orchards, 27 under market gardens, and 53 under nursery grounds. Manufactures. - The Carron ironworks, founded in 1760, for a long tim… Stirling STIRLING, a midland county of Scotland, is bounded ons age resting on strata of red and white sandstone (see vol. x. p. 346). The lower grounds are deeply buried under glacial drifts, and conspicuously marked by broad terraces that represent former sea-margins. On one of these, at a height of 50 feet above the present sea-level, lies the Carse of Falkirk. Another stands at an elevation of about 10… Stirling, James STIRLING, JAMES (1692-1770), mathematician, third son of Archibald Stirling of Garden, and grandson of Sir Archibald Stirling of Keir (Lord Garden, a lord of session), was born at Garden, Stirlingshire, in 1692. Part of his early education was probably obtained at Glasgow, but at eighteen years of age he went to Oxford, where, chiefly through the influence of the earl of Mar he was nominated (1711… Stitanraer STItANRAER, a royal burgh of Wigtownshire, Scotland, is situated on the North Channel, at the head of Loch Ryan, 7z miles north-east of Portpatrick, and 59 miles south-south-west of Ayr. In the centre of the town is the old baronial castle of the 15th century occupied by Claverhouse when he held the office of sheriff of Galloway. The principal public buildings are the old town-hall, the new town-h… Stobjeus, Joannes STOBJEUS, JOANNES, a native of Stobi in Macedonia, - whence the surname Stobmus or Stobensis, - is known to us as the compiler of a very valuable series of extracts from Greek authors. Of his life nothing is known, but he probably belongs to the latter half of the 5th century. From his silence in regard to Christian authors, it is inferred with some probability that he was not a Christian; that he… Stock Exchange STOCK EXCHANGE, a market for the purchase or sale of all descriptions of public securities. Previous to 1773 the London stockbrokers conducted their business in and about the Royal Exchange, but in that year, having formed themselves into an association under the designation of the Stock Exchange, they, after temporarily locating their headquarters in Sweeting Ally, Threadneedle Street, removed to… Stockholm STOCKHOLM, the capital of Sweden, is situated at the point where Lake Millar mixes its waters with those of the Baltic, and at the meeting-place of two provinces, Upland and Sodermanland. The old cities of Sweden are regularly found in places where in early times the inhabitants of neighbouring districts came together for purposes of exchange or sometimes of worship, or where a river brought the i… Stockport STOCKPORT, a market-town and municipal and parliamentary borough of England, in Cheshire and partly in Lancashire, is situated on an elevation above the Mersey at the junction of the Tame and Goyt, and of a number of railway lines, 46 miles east-north-east of Chester, 37 east of Liverpool, and 6 south-south-east of Manchester. Owing to the lie of the ground the streets are very irre gular and unev… Stocks STOCKS, as a form of punishment, are now quite obsolete. Stockton STOCKTON, a city of the United States, county seat of San Joaquin county, California, at the head of the Stockton navigable channel which joins the San Joaquin river, and 48 miles south-south-east of Sacramento, by the western division of the Central Pacific Railroad. Stockton-on-tees STOCKTON-ON-TEES, a market-town and municipal and parliamentary borough and seaport of Durham, on the borders of the North Riding of Yorkshire, into which the parliamentary borough extends, is situated on the Tees, which is crossed by an iron bridge (completed in 1887 at a cost over ?80,000, to supersede the stone bridge of 1769) leading to South Stockton, and on the Stockton and Darlington and th… Stoics STOICS, a school of philosophers founded at the close of the 4th century B.C. by Zeno of Citium, and so called from the Stoa or painted corridor (a-roe. rrocKay) on the north side of the market-place at Athens, which, after its restoration by Cimon, the celebrated painter Polygnotus had adorned with frescos representing scenes from the Trojan War. But, though it arose on Hellenic soil, from lectur… Stoke-upon-trent STOKE-UPON-TRENT, a market-town and municipal and parliamentary borough of Staffordshire, is situated on the Trent, on the Trent and Mersey Canal, where it unites with the Cauldon Canal, and on the London and North-Western and North Staffordshire railway lines, 2 miles east of Newcastle-under-Lyme, and 15 north of Stafford. It is connected with Burslem and other places by steam tramway. The princi… Stolberg, Count Christian STOLBERG, COUNT CHRISTIAN (1748-1821), German poet, was born at Hamburg on the 15th October 1748. His father, Count Christian Giinther, was a privy councillor in Denmark. Stolberg studied at Gottingen, where he formed one of a " Dichterbund," which afterwards became famous. It included, besides Stolberg and his brother, Boie, Burger, Miller, Voss, Holty, and Leisewitz. In 1777 he became an officia… Stolberg, Count Frederick Leopold STOLBERG, COUNT FREDERICK LEOPOLD (1750-1819), the brother of the preceding, was born on the 7th November 1750, at Bramstedt in Holstein. Like his brother he studied at Gottingen, and was a member of the " Dichterbund." In 1776 he went to Copenhagen as ambassador of the prince-bishop of Liibeck, and in 1789 he was sent to Berlin as the ambassador of the king of Denmark. His first wife, whom he had… Stolberg, Or Stolli3erg STOLBERG, or STOLLI3ERG, an industrial and mining town in Rhenish Prussia, is situated on.the Vicht, 7 miles east of Aix-la-Chapelle. It is the centre of a very active and varied industry, exporting its produce to all parts of the world. The leading branch is metal-working, which is here carried on in important zinc, brass, and iron foundries, smelting; works of various kinds, puddling and rolling… Stolp, Or Stolpe STOLP, or STOLPE, an ancient trading-town in the bleak coast-plain of eastern Pomerania, Prussia, is situated on the castle of the 16th century, now used as a prison, and one Hanseatic League. Stomach, Diseases Of The STOMACH, DISEASES OF THE. Only the more common and serious varieties of gastric disease can be here referred to. The majority of them exhibit, as their most marked and sometimes their only feature, the symptoms of DYSPEPSIA (q.v.). Hence the diagnosis of the forms of stomach disease is frequently a matter of much difficulty. Nevertheless a careful consideration of the history and the refers in gen… Stone STONE, a market-town of Staffordshire, England, on the river Trent, and on the North Staffordshire Railway, 7 miles south of Stoke and 7 north of Stafford. Stonehenge STONEHENGE, one of the most remarkable examples of the ancient stone circles, is situated in Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire, about 7 miles north of Salisbury. It consists of two circles and two ovals with a large stone in the centre. The outer circle, about 300 feet in circumference, is composed of upright stones about 16 feet in height and 18 feet in circumference, with others Jof similar size placed… Stonington STONINGTON, a borough and seaport of the United States, in New London county, Connecticut, is situated on Long Island Sound, 139 miles from New York by the railway to Providence and Boston. Storace, Stephen STORACE, STEPHEN ( 1763-1796), dramatic composer, was born in London in 1763. His father, Stefano Storace, an Italian contrabassist, taught him the violin so well that at ten years old he played successfully the most difficult music of the day. After completing his education at the Conservatorio di Sant' Onofrio at Naples, he produced his first opera, Gli Sposi Mcdcontenti, at Vienna, in 1785. Her… Storax STORAX. Stork STORK (A.S. Store ; Germ. Starch), the Ciconia alba of ornithology, and, through picture and story, one of the best known of foreign birds ; for, though often visiting Britain, it has never been a native or even inhabitant of the country. It is a summer-visitant to most parts of the European continent, - the chief exceptions being France (where the native race has been destroyed), Italy, and Russi… Story, Joseph STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845), was born at Marble- the editor of the Novelist's Library, and, Stothard's master head, Massachusetts, September 18, 1779, graduated at having died, he resolved to devote himself to art. In Harvard in 1798, and was admitted to the bar in Massa- 1778 he became a student of the Royal Academy, of which chusetts in 1801. He was a member of the Democratic he was elected associ… Stourbridge STOURBRIDGE, a market-town of Worcestershire, England, stands on an eminence on the south bank of the Stour, and on the Great Western Railway, on the borders of Staffordshire, 4 miles south-west of Dudley and 10 west of Birmingham. A branch canal connects the town with the Staffordshire and Worcestershire Canal. The Stour is crossed by a railway viaduct erected in 1882 at a cost of ?13,835. The to… Stoves And Fireplaces STOVES AND FIREPLACES are structures of iron and other materials in which fuel is burned for heating and ventilating apartments and for cooking food. Following the primitive open hearth, the first separate heating apparatus used by Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans was the brazier, an open basin of metal in which charcoal was consumed. The brazier is still in common use for industrial purposes, and in… Stow STOW, Joan (1525-1605), historian and antiquary, was the son of Thomas Stow, a tailor, and was born in whole reut for his house and garden was only 6s. 6d. a the nunnery of Minories. He learned the trade of his father, but possibly did not practise it much after he grew up to manhood. In 1549 he " kept house " near the well within Aldgate, but afterwards he removed to Lime Street ward, where he re… Stowell, William Scott STOWELL, WILLIAM SCOTT, BARON (1745-1836), one Swedish convoy case (The "Maria," 1 Rob., 350; see too The of the ablest and most accomplished of English judges, "Recovery," 6 C. Rob., 348-9) Lord Stowell, in defiance of the complaints of those greedy merchants who, as Pufendorf, himself by engaged in the transport of coal); his mother was the but of the law of nations." " The seat of judicial auth… Strafford, Thomas Wentworth STRAFFORD, THOMAS WENTWORTH, EARL OF (1593-1641), son of Sir William Wentworth, of Wentworth Woodhouse, near Rotherham, was born in 1593 in Chancery Lane, London. He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge, and in 1611 was knighted, and married Margaret, daughter of Francis, earl of Cumberland. In 1614 he represented Yorkshire in the Addled Parliament, but, as far as is now known, it was not … Straits Settlements STRAITS SETTLEMENTS, the collective name given to the British possessions in the MALAY PENL.N.SULA (see vol. xv. p. 320, and Plate VI.), derived from the straits which separate the peninsula from Sumatra and which form so important a sea-gate between India and China. The Straits Settlements are defined, by letters patent 17th June 1885, as consisting of the island of Singapore (which contains the … Stralsund STRALSUND, a seaport and small manufacturing town in 'Western Pomerania, Prussia, is situated on the Strelasund, an arm of the Baltic Sea, 2 miles wide, which separates the island of Riigen from the mainland, 115 miles to the north of Berlin and 85 miles to the northwest of Stettin. The position of the town on a small triangular islet, only connected with the mainland by moles and bridges at the a… Strange, Sir Robert STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792), an eminent line engraver, was descended from the Scottish family of Strange, or Strang, of Balcasky, Fife, and was born in the Mainland of Orkney, on July 14, 1721. In his youth he spent some time in an attorney's office; but, having manifested a taste for drawing, he was apprenticed, in 1735, to Richard Cooper, an engraver in Edinburgh. After leaving Cooper in 174… Strasburg STRASBURG (Germ. Strassburg, Fr. Strasbourg), the principal town of Alsace, and a fortress of the first rank, is situated at the junction of the Ill and the Breusch, about two miles to the west of the Rhine, in one of the most fertile districts in the upper Rhenish plain. It lies about 90 miles to the north of Basel, 250 miles to the east of Paris, and 370 miles to the south-west it has been the s… Stratford STRATFORD, usually designated STRATFORD-ON-AVON,, a market-town and municipal borough of England, in Warwickshire, near the Gloucestershire border, is pleasantly situated on the Avon, and on the Great Western and Midland Railway lines, 26 miles south of Birmingham and 8 south-west of Warwick. The Avon is crossed by a stone bridge of fourteen arches, built by Sir Hugh Clopton in the reign of Henry … Stratford STRATFORD, a town of Canada, capital of Perth county, Ontario, lies on the river Avon (a tributary of the Thames which discharges into Lake St Clair), about 45 miles by rail south-east of Goderich, at the junction of the Goderich and Buffalo division with the main line of the Grand Trunk Railway. Stratford De Redcliffe STRATFORD DE REDCLIFFE, STRATFORD CANNING, VISCOUNT (1786-1880), diplomatist, was the first cousin of George Canning the statesman, and the youngest son of Stratford Canning, who, having been disinherited for marrying beneath his rank, settled in London as a merchant in Clement's Lane, where young Canning was born 4th November 1786. Shortly afterwards the father died, and the family removed to Wan… Straubing STRAUBING, an ancient town in the most fertile part of Lower Bavaria, is situated on the right bank of the Danube, 25 miles to the south-east of Ratisbon. Its oldest and most characteristic building is the tall square tower of the town-hall, with its five pointed turrets, dating from 1208. The church of St James is a good Late Gothic edifice (1292-1512), with some paintings ascribed to Wohlgemuth,… Strauss, David Friedrich STRAUSS, DAVID FRIEDRICH (1808-1874), author of the Lebo:, Jesu, was born at Ludwigsburg, near Stuttgart, January 27, 1808. He was the son of a small tradesman who loved literature and thought more than business, and his mother was a bright intelligent woman whose piety was practical rather than meditative, while she had an open eye for the beauties of art and nature. In his thirteenth year the bo… Strauss, Johann STRAUSS, JOHANN (1804-1849), orchestral conductor. and composer of dance-music, was born at Vienna, March 14, 1804. In 1819 he obtained his first engagement as a. violinist in a small band then playing at the Sperl, in the Leopoldstadt. Shortly afterwards he joined Lanner, with whom he remained associated as deputy-conductor until 1825, when he organized a little band of fourteen performers on his… Strawberry STRAWBERRY (Fragaria). Apart from its interest as a dessert fruit (see HmancuraunE, vol. xii. p. 276), the strawberry has claims to attention by reason of the peculiarities of its structure and the excellent illustrations it STRAW MANUFACTURES. Straw forms the raw offers of the inherent power of variation possessed by the material of some not unimportant industries. It serves for plant and of the … Street, George Edmund STREET, GEORGE EDMUND (1824-1881), one of the ablest architects of the present century, was born at Woodford in Essex in 1824. He obtained his architectural education in the office of Mr Owen Carter at Winchester, and afterwards worked for five years as an " improver " with Sir G. G. Scott in London. At an early age Street became deeply interested iii the principles of Gothic architecture, and dev… Streets STREETS. See ROADS. part of the theory of engineering which deals with the nature and effects of stresses in the parts of engineering structures. Its principal object is to determine the proper size and form of pieces which have to bear given loads, or, conversely, to determine the loads which can be safely applied to pieces whose dimensions and arrangement are already given. It also treats of the… Strickland, Agnes STRICKLAND, AGNES (1806-1874), a popular historical writer, was born in 1806, the third daughter of Thomas Strickland, of Roydou Hall, Suffolk. Her first literary efforts were historical romances in verse in the style of Walter Scott, - Worcester Field (published without date), Demetrius and other Poems (1833). From this she passed to prose histories, written in a simple style for the young. ? A p… Striegau STRIEGAU, an industrial town of Prussia, in the province of Silesia, is situated on a small, tributary of the Weistritz, 30 miles to the south-west of Breslau. Strontium STRONTIUM, a metallic chemical element intermediate in its character between barium and calcium, with which it forms a natural " triad." Though widely diffused as a frequent companion of calcium (including oceanic), it occurs nowhere in abundance. Its most important mineral forms are the sulphate, SrSO4, known as Ccelestine (from the sky-blue colour of certain varieties), and the carbonate, discov… Strophanthus STROPHANTHUS, a genus of plants of the natural order Apocynem, deriving its name from the long twisted thread-like segments of the corolla, which in one species attain a length of 12 or 14 inches. The genus at present comprises about 18 species; confined to tropical Africa and Asia, only one species, indigenous to the former continent, being known outside the tropics. Several of the African specie… Stroud STROUD, a market-town of Gloucestershire, is situated on the Swindon and Gloucester branch of the Great Western Railway, on a branch of the Midland Railway, and on the Thames and Severn Junction Canal, 10 miles south of Gloucester and 30 north-east of Bristol. It is picturesquely situated on an eminence environed by higher hills, but is built in a somewhat straggling and irregular fashion. Among t… Struensee, Johann Friedrich STRUENSEE, JOHANN FRIEDRICH, COUNT (1737 - 1772), Danish statesman, was of German extraction, and was born August 5, 1737, at Halle, where his father Adam Struensee, of seine eminence as a hymn writer, was pastor. He graduated M.D. at Halle in 1756, and obtained the office of physician to the town of Altona through the influence of his father, who had removed thither. On account, however, of a cha… Struve, Friedrich Georg Wilhelm STRUVE, FRIEDRICH GEORG WILHELM (1793-1864), astronomer, was born at Altona on April 15, 1793. In 1808 he entered the university of Dorpat, where he first studied philology, but soon turned his attention to astronomy. In 1813 he was appointed observer in the new university obserjatory and a few years later professor of astronomy. He remained in Dorpat, occupied with researches on double stars and … Stry, Or Stryj STRY, or STRYJ, a town of Galicia, Austria, is pleasantly situated on a tributary of the Dniester, about 40 miles to the south of Lemberg. Strype STRYPE, Jonx (1643-1737), historian and biographer, was the son of John Strype or Van Stryp, a native of Brabant, who to escape religious persecution went to England, and settled near London, in a locality afterwards known as Strype's Yard, formerly in the parish of Stepney, but subsequently annexed to that of Christ Church, Spitalfields. Here he carried on the business of a merchant and silk thro… Stuart, Gilbert STUART, GILBERT (1755-1828), a distinguished Amer- rent free for seven years. His name is perpetuated by lean portrait-painter, was born in Narragansett, Rhode Central Mount Stuart. He died in England June 5, 1866. Island, U.S., December 3, 1755. His father, a native of STUHLWEISSENBURG (Hung. Szaes-Felterror; Lat. Perth, Scotland, and the son of a Presbyterian minister, Alba Ilegia), the capital … Stuart, John STUART, JOHN M`DouALL (1818-1866), a South-Aus- Sturgeons are ground-feeders. With their projecting tralian explorer, was born in England in 1818 and arrived wedge-shaped snout they stir up the soft bottom, and by in the colony about 1839. He accompanied Captain Sturt's means of their sensitive barbels detect shells, crustaceans, 1844-45 expedition as draughtsman, and between 1858 and and small fi… Stuart, Stewart STUART, STEWART, Or STEUART, the surname of a family who became heirs to the Scottish and ultimately to the English crown. Their descent is traced to a Norman baron Alan, whose eldest son William became progenitor of the earls of Arundel, and whose two younger sons Walter and Simon came to Scotland, Walter being appointed high steward of David I., who conferred on him various lands in Renfrewshire… Styria STYRIA (Germ. Steiermark or Steyernzark), a duchy and crownland in the Cis-Leithan part of the Austrian empire, is bounded on the north by Upper and Lower Austria, on the E. by Hungary, on the S. by Croatia and Carniola, and on the W. by Carinthia and Salzburg. Its area is 8630 square miles. Almost the entire district is mountainous, being occupied by various chains and ramifications of the easter… Styx STYX, a 'river which the Greeks fabled to flow in the world of the dead. Homer speaks of it as a river of Hades by which the gods swore their most solemn oaths, Hesiod says that Styx was a daughter of Ocean, and that, children with her ; hence as a reward Zeus ordained that the most solemn oath of the gods should be by her and that her children (Emulation, Victory, Power, and Force) should always … Suakin SUAKIN, or StrwAx.nr, more correctly SAW(RIN, the chief port of the Soudan on the Red Sea and the starting-place of caravans for Kassala and Berber, occupies a small island, placed in a deep bay in 19? 5' N. lat. The customhouse and Egyptian Government offices present a good frontage to the sea, and the principal houses are stately white structures, three stories high, not unlike those of Jiddah. … Suardi, Bar SUARDI, BAR.TOI.03IMEO, usually known as BRAMANTINO from his master Bramante, was a distinguished painter and architect of the Milanese school. He was specially famed for his knowledge of perspective, and Lomazzo (Tract. d. Pitt., iii. 1) praises him highly for the deceptive realism of his painting. The dates of his birth and death are unknown, but he was probably quite young when, about 1495, he … Suarez, Francisco SUAREZ, FRANCISCO (1548-1617), Spanish theologian and philosopher, was born at Granada on the 5th of January 1548. After completing his studies at the university of Salamanca, he entered the Society of Jesus in 1564. The accounts of his early years represent him as backward in his development, and it was not without difficulty that he obtained admission to the order. Under the direction of Father … Subiaco SUBIACO, a town of Italy, in the province of Rome, 25 miles east of Tivoli and 42 from the capital, is picturesquely situated on the right bank of the Teverone. It has iron-works and paper-mills, and in 1881 the population of the town was 6503 (commune, 7017), having decreased from 7452 in 1868. Subiaco, the Sublaqueum of the Romans, was so called from its position under the artificial lakes const… Su Bleyras, Pierre SU BLEYRAS, PIERRE (1699-1749), French painter, who passed nearly his whole life at Rome, was born at Uzes (Gard) in 1699. He left France for Italy in 1728, having carried off the great prize. He there painted for the canons of Asti Christ's Visit to the House of Simon the Pharisee (Louvre, engraved by Subleyras himself), a large work, which made his reputation and procured his admission into the … Succession Duty SUCCESSION DUTY is a sum paid to the state by a person benefited by the succession to certain kinds of property. Legacies were first taxed in 1780. It was not until 1853 that a tax was levied upon succession to real property, or succession under any instrument other than a will by which property is enjoyed in succession to a deceased person. The duty is paid on succession to both real and personal… Suchet, Louis Gabriel SUCHET, LOUIS GABRIEL, Duo D'ALBUFERA (17701826), marshal of France, one of the most brilliant of Napoleon's generals, was the son of a silk manufacturer at Lyons, where he was born on 2d March 1770. He originally intended to follow his father's business; but the Revolution of 1789 altered the bent of his ambition, and, having in 1792 served as volunteer in the cavalry of the national guard at Lyo… Su-chow SU-CHOW. There are in China three cities of this name which deserve mention. (1) Su-chow, formerly one of the largest cities in the world, and still in 1880 credited with a. population of 500,000, in the province of Kiang-su, on the great Imperial Canal, 55 miles west-north-west of Shanghai. The site is practically a cluster of islands to the east of Lake Tai-hu, and streams and canals give commun… Suckling, Sir John SUCKLING, SIR JOHN (1609-1642), one of the most admired poets and men of fashion at the court of Charles I., and an active spirit in politics as well as in fashionable gaieties, belonged to a Norfolk family. His father was a high official under James I. and a comptroller of the household under Charles I.; finance seems to have been his strong point, and he managed his own affairs so well as to acc… Sucre SUCRE, the capital of Bolivia, formerly known as Chuquisaca, but renamed in honour of General Sucre, the first president of the republic. Lying in 19? 2' 45" S. lat. and 65? 17' IV. long., at a height of 9183 feet above the sea, in a valley which drains southwards to the Pilcomayo (see PLATE. RIVER), it enjoys an agreeable climate and has its markets well supplied with fruits and vegetables. The c… Sudbury SUDBURY, an ancient borough and market town of England, chiefly in Suffolk, but partly in Essex, is situated on the river Stour, forming the boundary between the two. counties, and on a branch of the Great Eastern Railway, 19 miles south of Bury St Edmunds and 58 north-east of London. It is well built and well paved and contains a. number of good houses. It is ,chiefly interesting from its three p… Sue, Joseph Marie SUE, JOSEPH MARIE (1804-1859), generally known as EUGENE SUE, French novelist, ranked by some as the chief practitioner of the melodramatic style in fiction, was born at Paris on 10th December 1804. Unlike most voluminous writers of light literature, Sue was a man of fortune. He was the son of a surgeon in Napoleon's army, and is said to have had the empress Josephine for godmother. But in later l… Suetonius SUETONIUS. Caius Suetonius Tranquillus was one of the many second-rate authors and men of letters who lived in the early period of the Roman empire. He was the contemporary of Tacitus and the younger Pliny, and his literary work seems to have been chiefly done in the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. His father was an officer in the army and military tribune in the XIIIth legion, and he himself began … Sueur, Eustache Le SUEUR, EUSTACHE LE (1617-1655), one of the founders of the French academy of painting, was born 19th November 1617 at Paris, where he passed his whole life, and where he died on 30th April 1655. His early death and retired habits have combined to give an air of romance to his simple history, which has been decorated with as many fables as that of Claude. We are told that, persecuted by Lebrun, who… Suez SUEZ (Susvms), the port of Egypt on the Red Sea and southern terminus of the Suez Canal (see below), situated at the head of the Gulf of Suez in 29' 58' 37" N. lat. and 32? 31' 18" E. long. (see vol. iv. pl. XXXVI.). The new harbours and quays are about 2 miles south of the town, with which they are connected by an embankment and railway, crossing a shallow which is dry at low water ; the termina… Suez Canal SUEZ CANAL. The great engineering features have been already treated of under CANAL (VOL iv. pp. 789-792). The opening of the canal to a great extent revolutionized the main lines of international traffic. More especially it has restored to the Mediterranean countries a share in the commerce of the world such as they have not possessed since the beginning of the modern period. In doing so it has n… Sugar SUGAR. Formerly chemists called everything a "sugar" which had a sweet taste, and acetate of lead to this day is known as "sugar of lead" in commerce and familiar chemical parlance ; but the term in its scientific sense soon came to be restricted to the sweet principles in vegetable and animal juices. Only one of these - cane sugar - was known as a pure substance until 1619, when Fabrizio Bartolet… Sugar-bird SUGAR-BIRD, the English name commonly given in the West India Islands to the various members of the genus Certhiola (generally regarded as belonging to the Family Ccerebidw1) from their habit of frequenting the curing-houses where sugar is kept, apparently attracted thither by the swarms of flies. These little birds on account of their pretty plumage and their familial ity are usually favourites. … Suhl SUHL, a manufacturing town in an isolated portion of Prussian Saxony, is picturesquely situated on the Lauter, on the southern slope of the Thuringian Forest, 64- miles to the north-east of Meiningen and 29 miles to the southwest of Erfurt, The armonrers of Suhl are mentioned as early as the 9th century, but they enjoyed their highest vogue from 1550 to 1634. The knights of south Germany especiall… Suicide SUICIDE. The phenomenon of suicide has at all times attracted a large amount of attention from moralists and social investigators. Though of very small dimensions, even in the countries where it is most prevalent, its existence is rightly looked upon as a sign of the presence of maladies in the body politic which, whether remediable or not, deserve careful examination. To those who look at human a… Suidas SUIDAS, the author of a Greek lexicon. His personal life is totally unknown and even his date is uncertain. He must have lived before Eustathius (12th century), who quotes him repeatedly. Under the heading "Adam" the author of the lexicon gives a brief chronology of the Rates per Million. Rates per Million. Persons. Males. I Females. Persons. Males. Females. world, ending with the death of the emp… Sulla SULLA. (138-78 B.c.). The life of Lucius Cornelius Sulla makes one of the most important chapters in Roman history. Both as a general and as a politician he stands in the foremost rank of the remarkable figures of all time. It was by his ability and his force of character that Sulla, who had neither great wealth nor noble ancestry' to back him up, pushed himself to the front in early manhood, dist… Sulmona, Or Solmona SULMONA, or SOLMONA, a city of Italy, in the province of Aquila (Abruzzo Ulteriore), now reached by a branch line from the railway between Pescara and Aquila, lies, at a height of 1575 feet above the sea, at the junction of the Vella with the Gizio (a tributary of the Pescara), which supplies water-power to its paper-mills, fulling-mills, copper-works, &c. Besides its cathedral (S. Panfilo), rebui… Sulphur SULPHUR.1 The sulphur minerals, which are very numerous and varied, arrange themselves under three heads, - (1) metallic sulphates, of which hydrated sulphate of lime, CaSO4. 2H20, gypsum, is the most abundant ; (2) metallic sulphides, a numerous family, including the majority of metallic ores, of which, however, only iron pyrites serves as a source for sulphur ; (3) elementary sulphur. In the org… Sultanpur, Or Sultanpoor SULTANPUR, or SULTANPOOR, a district of British India, in the Rai Bareli (Roy Bareilly) division of Oudh, under the jurisdiction of the Iieutenant-governor of the North-Western Provinces, lying between 26? 39' and 27' 58' N. lat. and 81? 36' and 82? 44' E. long. With an area of 1707 square miles, it is bounded on the N. by Faizabad, on the E. by Jaunpur, on the S. by Partabgarh, and on the W. by R… Sumach SUMACH. See LEATHER, vol. xiv. p. 382. Plate IX. SUMATRA, in Malay called Pulu Partcha or Indalas, is one of the largest and most important islands of the East Indian Archipelago. It stretches from north-west to south-east for a distance of 1047 miles, - Tandjong Batu, the northrnost point, being situated in 5? 40' N. lat. and the southmost in 5? 59' S. lat. The greatest breadth is about 230 miles… Sumbaiva SUMBAIVA (properly SAMBAWA or SAMAWA), an island of the East Indian Archipelago, one of the Sunda group, lies between 8? 6' and 9? 3' S. la,t. and 116? 47' and 119? 12' E. long., to the east of Lombok, from which it is separated by the narrow Alias strait. Its area is estimated at 5186 square miles. The population was computed to number about 150,000 in 1887. The deep Bay of Salee or Sumbawa on th… Sumbal SUMBAL,- or SUMBUI1 also called MUSK ROOT, a drug recently introduced into European medical practice. It consists of the root of _Peruke Sumbul, Hook., a tall Urnbelliferous plant found in the north of Bokhara, its range apparently extending beyond the Amur. It was first brought to Russia in 1835 as a substitute for musk ; it was subsequently recommended as a remedy for cholera, and in 1867 was in… Summary Jurisdiction SUMMARY JURISDICTION. By a court of summary jurisdiction is meant a court in which cases are heard and determined by a justice or justices of the peace, without the intervention of a jury. Such a court has duties to perform of two different kinds. It either hears and determines a case in a judicial capacity, or it acts rather in a ministerial capacity where a prima facie case has been established,… Summons SUMMONS (summonitio) is a legal form demanding the attendance of a person in parliament (see PEERAGE, vol. xviii. p. 462) or before a court of justice. The term as it applies to courts of justice is used both in civil and in criminal procedure, but is not applied universally to all cases of demanding attendance. Thus in the Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty Division the summons is usually, following… Sumner, Charles SUMNER, CHARLES (1811-1874), American statesman, was born at Boston, Mass., on 6th January 1811. He graduated at Harvard in 1830, and studied law with Judge Story. His natural powers of mind were great, his habits of study intense, and his success immediate and conspicuous. Everything seems to have been expected of him, and he disappointed nobody. In 1834 he had been however, studying with an inte… Sumptuary Laws SUMPTUARY LAWS are those intended to limit or regulate the private expenditure of the citizens of a community. They may be dictated by political, or economic, or moral considerations. They have existed both in ancient and in modern states. In Greece, it was amongst the Dorian races, whose temper was austere and rigid, that they most prevailed. All the inhabitants of Laconia were forbidden to atten… Sumy SUMY, a district town of Little Russia, in the government of Kharkoff, situated 125 miles to the north-west of the chief town of the government, was founded in 1652 by Little Russian Cossacks. It is poorly built, chiefly of wood, but is an important centre for the trade of Great Russia with Little Russia, - cattle and corn being sent to the north in exchange for various kinds of manufactured and g… Sun-bittern SUN-BITTERN, otherwise the CAUR ILE,5 the Eurypyya belies of ornithology, a bird that has long exercised systematists and one whose proper place can scarcely yet be said to have been cleterniined to everybody's satisfaction. ~~) r FIG. 1. - Sun-Bittern (Is+ngpyy-t Helios). few tears later D'Aubenton figured it in his well-known series (PI. Eni., 782), and then in 1781 came Buffon (IL A'., Oiseaux,… Sunda Islands SUNDA ISLANDS, the collective name of the whole series of islands in the East Indian Archipelago which extend from the peninsula of Malacca to New Guinea. Sunda Strait SUNDA STRAIT is the channel separating Sumatra from Java, and uniting the Indian Ocean with the Java Sea. Sunday, Or The Lord's Day SUNDAY, or THE LORD'S DAY (7'7 T0i3 iAtov 1`1,u,4)a, dies Solis ; ipapa, dies dominica, dies dominicus1). According to all the four evangelists, the resurrection of our Lord took place on the first day of the week after His crucifixion (i) Iaia [Ti;;v] 0-43Pcirow : Matt. xxviii. 1, Mark xvi. 2, Luke xxiv. 1, John xx. 1 ; wpcirq o-uPPcirov : Mark xvi. 9), and the Fourth Gospel describes a second ap… Sunderland SUNDERLAND, a inunicipal and parliamentary borough, market town, and large seaport of Durham, England, is situated at the mouth of the river Wear and on the Northborough includes, besides the township of Sunderland proper Plan of Sunderland. St Peter's church, Monkwearmouth, which still retains the tower with other portions of the ancient Saxon building attached to the monastery founded by Benedic… Sunderland, Charles Spencer SUNDERLAND, CHARLES SPENCER, THIRD EARL Os' broad fringe of the trunk. Directly in front of it rise (1675-1722), was the second son of the second earl, but dorsal and anal fins, high and broad, similar to each other on the death of his elder brother at Paris, on 5th Septem- in size and triangular in form. The head is completely ber 1688, he became the heir to the peerage. He was merged in the trun… Sunderland, Robert Spencer SUNDERLAND, ROBERT SPENCER, SECOND EARL OF (1640-1702), was the eldest son of Henry, the first earl, and Lady Dorothy Sidney, eldest daughter of Robert, second earl of Leicester. He was born in 1640 and succeeded his father (who was killed at Newbury) in the title on 20th September 1643. During the years 1671-73 he acted as ambassador at Madrid, Paris, and Cologne consecutively, and in 1678 went t… Sungei Ujong SUNGEI UJONG (500 square miles, including Lukut and Sungei lliah ; population 14,000, the greater part being Chinese) also shows steady progress. Sunnites And Shiites SUNNITES AND SHIITES. The religion of Mohammed Geois at present professed by 150 to 200 million souls, spread graphical over great parts of Asia (including the Indian Archi- lctiiosItIribn- pelago), Africa, and southern Europe,l - over Asia Minor, Armenia, Syria, Palestine, Arabia, Mesopotamia, the Caucasus, Persia, all upper Asia (including Siberia), the steppes of southern Russia, Afghanistan, B… Sunstroke SUNSTROKE (Heatstroke; Insolation; Coup de Soleil; Thermic Fever), a term applied to the effects produced increases the liability to suffer from this ailment. Sunstroke has been chiefly observed and investigated as occurring among soldiers in India, where formerly, both in active service and in the routine of ordinary duty, cases of this disease constituted a considerable item of sickness I See on… Surat SURAT, a district of British India, in the Guzerat division of Bombay presidency, lying between 20? 15' and 21? 28' N. lat. and 72? 38' and 73? 30' E. long. It has an area of 1662 square miles, and is bounded on the N. by Broach district and the native state of Baroda ; on the E. by the states of Rajpipla, the Gaikwar Bansda, and Dharampur ; on the S. by Thana district and the Portuguese territory… Surat SURAT, capital and administrative headquarters of the above district, is situated in 21? 9' 30" N. lat. and 72? 54' 15" E. long., on the southern bank of the Tapti, distant from the sea 14 miles by water and 10 by land. Its origin appears to be comparatively modern, tradition assigning the foundation of the town to the beginning of the 16th century. As early as 1514 it was described by the Portugu… Surbiton SURBITON, a suburb of Kingston in Surrey, England, is finely situated on the river Thames, 12 miles south-west of London by the London and South-Western Railway. Surety SURETY, in law, is the party liable under a contract of GUARANTEE (q.v.). Surface, Congruence, Complex SURFACE, CONGRUENCE, COMPLEX. In the article CURVE the subject was treated from an historical point of view for the purpose of showing how the leading ideas of the theory were successively arrived at. These leading ideas apply to surfaces, but the ideas peculiar to surfaces are scarcely of the like fundamental nature, being rather developments of the former set in their application to a more advan… Surgery SURGERY in all countries is as old as human needs. A certain skill in the stanching of blood, the extraction of arrows, the binding up of wounds, the supporting of broken limbs by splints, and the like, together with an instinctive reliance on the healing power of the tissues, has been common to men everywhere. In both branches of the Aryan stock surgical practice (as well as medical) reached a hi… Surrender SURRENDER is a mode of alienation of real estate. Surveying SURVEYING is the art of determining the relative positions of prominent points and other objects on the surface of the ground and making a graphical delineation of the included area. The general principles on which it is conducted are in all instances the same: certain measures are made on the ground and corresponding measures are protracted on paper, on a scale which is fixed at whatever fraction… Susa SUSA, the Biblical SHUSHAN, capital of Susiana or Elam and from the time of Darius I. the chief residence of the Achaemenian kings, was a very ancient city, which had been the centre of the old monarchy of Elam and undergone many vicissitudes before it fell into the hands of the Persians (see EL Am). The site of the town, which has been fixed by the explorations of Loftus and Churchill, lies in th… Susa SUSA, a city of Italy, in the province of Turin, 33) miles west of Turin by the railway which passes by the Mont Cenis tunnel into France, is situated on the Dora Riparia (tributary of the Po) at 1625 feet above the sea, and is so protected from the northern winds by the Rocciamelone that it enjoys a milder winter climate than Turin itself. The city walls, 20 to 30 feet broad at the base, were abo… Susa SUSA (Salsa), a city of Tunis, on the coast of the gulf of Flamama, 33 miles south of 13amama. It occupies the side of a hill sloping seawards; and is still, as far as the town proper is concerned, surrounded with heavy white-washed Oriental-looking walls. The tictsr al- Rikit, a square building flanked by seven bastions, was probably either a Roman or Byzantine fortress, and a Byzantine chapel is… Susanna SUSANNA ("Lily"), the heroine of one of the apocryphal additions to the Greek text of the book of Daniel, the others being the Song of the Three Children and the story of Bel and the Dragon. In the English version the story of the virtuous Susanna - the false accusation brought against her by the elders and her deliverance by the judgment of Daniel - is put as a separate book. Jerome, in his Prefa… Sutherland SUTHERLAND, a northern maritime county of Scotland, is bounded E. by Caithness, S.E. by Moray Firth, S. and S.W. by Ross and a part of Cromarty, and N. and W. by the Atlantic and the North Sea. The area is 1,297,846 acres, or nearly 2028 square miles. The northern and western shores are broken and irregular, in some cases deeply indented, and in the north-west, at Cape Wrath, near Durness, at Whit… Suttee SUTTEE, the name given by English writers to the rite of burning a widow on the funeral pyre of her husband as practised among certain Hindu castes, and especially among the Rajputs. The word sati (as it should rather be written) properly denotes the wife who so sacrifices herself, not the rite itself, and means "a good woman," "a faithful wife." The sacrifice was not actually forced on a wife, bu… Sutton Coldfield SUTTON COLDFIELD, an ancient market town and municipal borough of Warwickshire, England, is situated on the London and North-Western Railway, 8 miles south of Lichfield and 7 north-east of Birmingham. The town has been greatly increased of late years by the erection of villas for persons having their business offices in Birmingham, Walsall, and other towns. The church of the Holy Trinity - Early E… Sutton-in-ashfield SUTTON-IN-ASHFIELD, a town of Nottinghamshire, England, is situated on an eminence on the Nottingham and Worksop and the Erewash Valley Railways, 3 miles west-south-west of Mansfield. Suwalki SUWALKI, capital of the above government, is situated the capital of the Augustowo government, but never had Suwatki. Suwalki SUWALKI, a government of Russian Poland, occupies the north-east corner of the kingdom, extending to the north between East Prussia and the Russian governments of Kovno, Vilna, and Grodno. Its area is 4846 square miles. It covers the east of the low swelling, studded with lakes, which skirts the south coast of the Baltic (see POLAND), its highest parts reaching 800 to 1000 feet above the sea. Its … Suwaroff SUWAROFF, Or SUVOROFF, ALEXANDER VASILIEVICH (1729-1800), Russian general, was born at Moscow on 24th November 1729, the descendant of a Swede named Suvor who emigrated to Russia in 1622. Suwaroff entered the army at an early age and first distinguished himself at the battle of Kunersdorf in 1759, where he acted as aide-de-camp to General Fermor. Throughout the Seven Years' War he was conspicuous … Sveaborg SVEABORG, an important fortress of Finland, built by Count Ehrensvkrd in 1749 on seven small islands off the harbour of HELSINGFORS (q.v.). Swabia SWABIA, StrABIA, or SUEVIA (Germ. Schwaben), is ready acceptance in Swabia. Wiirtemberg, Ulm, and some of the other estates even joined in the Schmalkald League ; but for this they afterwards had to pay large fines to the emperor, while the towns lost their democratic constitution, and with it most of their political importance. The outstanding feature of Swabian history for some time afterwards m… Swahili SWAHILI (Fa-Swahili, i.e., " Coast People," from the Arabic sah,i1, coast), a term now commonly applied to the inhabitants of Zanzibar and of the opposite mainland between the parallels of 2? and 9? S., who are subjects of the sultan of Zanzibar, and whose mother-tongue is the Ki-Swahili language. According to present local usage no person would be called a Swahili unless he verified these two con… Swallow SWALLOW (A.-S. Swalewe, Icel. Scala, Dutch Zwalvw, Germ. Schwalbe), the bird which of all others is recognized as the harbinger of summer in the northern hemisphere ; for, though some slight differences, varying according to the meridian, are constantly presented by the birds which have their home in Europe, in northern Asia, and in North America respectively, it is difficult to allow to them a sp… Swammerdam, John SWAMMERDAM, JOHN (1637-1680), may be ranked almost with Leeuwenhoek as one of the most eminent Dutch naturalists of the 17th century. Born at Amsterdam in 1637, the son of an apothecary and naturalist, he was destined for the church ; but he insisted on passing over to the profession of medicine, meanwhile passionately devoting himself to the study of insects. Having necessarily to interest himsel… Swan SWAN (A.-S. Swan, and &von, Icel. Svanr, Dutch Zwaan, Germ. Schwan), a large swimming-bird, well known from being kept in a half-domesticated condition throughout many parts of Europe, whence it has been carried to other countries. In England it was far more abundant formerly than at present, the young, or Cygnets,1 being highly esteemed for the table, and it was under especial enactments for its … Swansea SWANSEA, a municipal and parliamentary borough and large seaport of Glamorganshire, South Wales, is finely situated in an angle between lofty hills, on the river Tawe, near its mouth in the beautiful Swansea Bay, a recess of the Bristol Channel, and on the Great Western, London and North-Western, Midland, and Rhondda and Swansea Bay railway lines, 45 miles west-north-west of Cardiff. Being for th… Swartz, Olof SWARTZ, OLOF (1760-1818), a celebrated Swedish botanist, was born in 1760. Swatow SWATOW (also, less frequently, SWARTOW and SHANTow), a port of China, in the province of Kwang-tung, opened to foreign trade in 1869. It is situated at the mouth of the main branch of the river Han, which 30 miles inland flows past the great city of Chow-chu or Tai-chu (Tie-chu), and the surrounding country is more populous and full of towns and villages than any other part of the province. Englis… Sweating-sickness SWEATING-SICKNESS. A remarkable form of disease, not known in England before, attracted attention at the very beginning of the reign of Henry VII. It was known indeed a few days after the landing of Henry at Milford Haven on August 7, 1485, as there is clear evidence of its being spoken of before the battle of Bosworth on August 22. Soon after the arrival of Henry in London on August 28 it broke o… Swedenborg, Or Svedberg SWEDENBORG, or SVEDBERG, EMANUEL (1688-1772), was born at Stockholm January 29,1688. His father, Dr Jesper Svedberg, subsequently professor of theology at Upsala and bishop of Skara, was a pious, learned, and a brave man, who did not escape the charge of heterodoxy, and believed himself to be in constant intercourse with angels. Emanuel shared as a child his father's piety, and his parents thought… Swift SWIFT, a bird so called from the extreme speed of its flight, which apparently exceeds that of any other British species, the Hirundo opus of Linnaeus and Cypselus opus early in August, though occasionally to be seen for even two months later. The Swift commonly chooses its nesting-place in holes under the eaves of buildings, but a crevice in the face of a quarry, or even a hollow tree, will serve… Swimming And Diving SWIMMING AND DIVING. In the case of man the power of swimming is acquired, not natural. As compared with the lower animals, to most of which it comes perfectly easily, he is at a disadvantage in its acquisition, owing not to his greater relative weight so much as to the position of his centre of gravity, along with the fact that in the case of quadrupeds the motions which serve to support and prop… Swindon SWINDON. The towns of Old and New Swindon, in Wiltshire, England, are situated on several railway lines, about 77 miles west of London and 30 east-north-east of Bath. The old town is built on an eminence commanding fine views of the surrounding country. It received a charter for a fair from Charles I., and has weekly markets for corn and cattle. The church was erected in 1851, from the designs of … Swinemunde SWINEMUNDE, a Baltic port and bathing-place on the island of Usedom in Pomerania, Prussia, is situated at the month of the Swine, 35 miles to the north-west of Stettin. Its broad unpaved streets and one-story houses built in the Dutch style give it an almost rustic appearance, although its industries, beyond some fishing, are entirely connected with its shipping. The entrance to the harbour, one o… Swinton SWINTON, a town in the West Riding of Yorkshire, is situated at the junction of the Dearne and Dove navigation with the river Don navigation, and of the South Yorkshire and Midland railway lines, 9 miles north-east of Sheffield and 8 south-west of Doncaster. In the church of St Margaret (rebuilt in 1817) two beautiful Norman arches of the old church are preserved. There are collieries, quarries, a… Swinton SWINTON, a large village of Lancashire, is situated on several railway lines, 5 miles north-west of Manchester and 6 south-east of Bolton. Swithun SWITHUN, Sr, bishop of Winchester from 852 to 862. The name of St Swithun, patron saint of Winchester the third as "Swithunus episcopus." Hence if the second charter be genuine the first must be spurious, and is so marked in Kemble. More than a hundred years later, when Dunstan and Ethelwold of Winchester were inaugurating their church reform and supplanting the secular canons of the degenerate En… Sword SWORD. Origins and Early Forms.?The sword is a hand-weapon of metal, distinct from all missile weapons on the one hand, and on the other hand from staff-weapons, -the pike, bill, halberd, and the like,-in which the metal head or blade occupies only a fraction of the effective length. The handle of a sword provides a grip for the hand that wields it, or sometimes for two hands ; it may add protecti… Sword-fish SWORD-FISH. Sword-fishes are a small family of I tate to attack whales and other large cetaceans, and, by spiny-rayed fishes (Xiphiidx), the principal characteristic repeatedly stabbing them, generally retire from the combat of which consists in the prolongation of the upper jaw victorious. That they combine in these attacks with the into a long pointed sword-like weapon. The " sword " I thresher-… Sybaris SYBARIS, a city of Magna Grmcia, on the Gulf of Tarentum, between the rivers Crathis (Crati) and Sybaris (Coscile), which now meet 3 miles from the sea, but anciently had independent mouths, was the oldest Greek colony in this region. It was an Achman colony founded by Isus of Helice (720 B.c.), but had among its settlers many Trcezenians, who were ultimately expelled. Placed in a very fertile, th… Sydenham SYDENHAM, a suburb of London, in the county of Kent, is finely situated chiefly on elevated ground about 7 miles south of Charing Cross, London. There is railway communication by the London, Brighton, and South Coast, the Mid Kent branch of the South-Eastern, and the London, Chatham, and Dover lines. Formerly Sydenham was a small hamkt of Lewisham, which rose into favour from its sylvan beauty, it… Sydenham, Thomas SYDENHAM, THOMAS (1624-1689), "the English Hippocrates," was born at Winford Eagle in Dorset in 1624, where his father was a gentleman of property and good pedigree. At the age of eighteen he was entered at Magdalen Hall, Oxford ; after two years his college studies appear to have been interrupted, and he served for a time as an officer in the army of the Parliament. He completed his Oxford course… Sydney SYDNEY, the capital of New South Wales, and the oldest city in Australia, is situated on the east coast of that island-continent in 33? 51' 41" S. lat. and 151? 12' 23"?25 (10h. 4m. 49.55s.) E. long. It lies on the southern shore of the magnificent harbour of Port Jackson, which in 1770 was named, though not discovered, by Captain Cook. He anchored and landed in Botany Bay, about miles to the sout… Sylburg, Friedrich SYLBURG, FRIEDRICH (1536-1596), an eminent Greek scholar, and one of the greatest figures in the annals of German philology, was the son of a farmer, and was born at Wetter near Marburg in 1536. Wetter had then an excellent school, taught by J. Foenilius and Justus Vulteius, and Sylburg also got help in his studies from the preacher J. Pincier, whose daughter he subsequently married. His studies w… Sylhet SYLHET, a British district of India, in the province of Assam, lying between 25? 12' and 23? 59' N. lat. and 91? and 92? 38' E. long., with an area of 5381 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Khasi and Jaintia Hills district, on the E. by Cachar, on the S. by the state of Hill Tipperah and the district of Tipperah, and on the W. by the district of Maimansinh. Sylhet consists of the lower … Sylt SYLT (probably from the Old Frisian Silendi, i.e., "seawidth, except in the middle, where it sends out a peninsula 7 miles across. Syme, James SYME, JAMES (1799-1870), surgeon, was born at Edinburgh on 7th November 1799. His father was a writer to the signet and a landowner in Fife and Kinross, who lost most of his fortune in attempting to develop the mineral resources of his property. James was sent to the High School at the age of nine, and remained there until he was fifteen, when he entered the university. For two years he frequented… Symeon SYMEON, surnamed METAPHRASTES, Byzantine hagiographer, according to Leo Allatius (De Symeonunt Scriptis, Paris, 1664), lived during the first half of the 10th century under Leo the Philosopher and his successor at Constantinople, where he successively held the positions of secretary, grand logothete, and master of the palace. This view, subsequently adopted by Cave, Fabricius, and others, was afte… Symeon Of Durham SYMEON OF DURHAM was the author of two works of great importance in English history, especially in that of northern England, viz., the Ilistoria Dunelmensis Ecclesite and the Ilistoria Regum. Very little is known of his life. There is no record of the date of his birth or death. He was at Jarrow about 1080, before the monastic community moved thence to Durham (1083). He probably did not become a p… Symmachus SYMMACHUS, pope from 498 to 514, had Anastasius II. for his predecessor and was himself followed by Hormisdas. He was a native of Sardinia, apparently a convert from paganism, and was in deacon's orders at the time of his election. The choice was not unanimous, another candidate, Laurentius, having the support of a strong Byzantine party ; and both competitors were consecrated by their friends, th… Symmachus, Quintus Aurelius SYMMACHUS, QUINTUS AURELIUS, consul in 391, and one of the most brilliant representatives in public life and in literature of the old pagan party at Rome, was educated in Gaul, and, having discharged the functions of praetor and qustor, rose to higher offices, and in 373 was proconsul of Africa. His public dignities, which included that of pontiff, his great wealth and high character, added to his… Synagogue SYNAGOGUE (a-uvaroy4), literally "assemblage," is the term employed to denote either a congregation of Jews, i.e., a local circle accustomed to meet together for worship and religious instruction, or the building in which the congregation met. In the first sense the word is a translation of TIM], keneseth, in the second of r1tnn 1141, bgth, hakkeneseth. The germ of the synagogue, that is, of relig… Synedrium SYNEDRIUM (o-vvaplov), a Greek word which means "assembly" and is especially used of judicial or representative assemblies, is the name by which (or by its Hebrew transcription, i'1lr1)0, sanhedrin, sanhedrinz) that Jewish body is known which in its origin was the municipal council of Jerusalem, but acquired extended functions and no small authority and influence over the Jews at large (see vol. x… Synesius SYNESIUS, bishop of Ptolemais in the Libyan Pentapolis from 410 to c. 414, was born of wealthy parents, who claimed descent from Spartan kings, at Cyrene about 375. While still a youth (393) he went with his brother Euoptius to Alexandria, where he became an enthusiastic Neoplatonist and disciple of HYPATIA (q.v.). Returning to his native place some time before 397, he was in that year chosen to h… Syracuse SYRACUSE (?vpdxoo-at, .Y.,vinjicoro-at; Lat. TopaSyracusx ; It. Siracusa), the chief Greek city of ancient graphy. Sicily and one of the earliest Greek settlements in the island (see SICILY, p. 15 above). The foundation legend takes several shapes (Time., vi. 3 ; Strabo, vi. 4, p. 269) ; but there is no reason to doubt that Syracuse was founded by Archias of Corinth as part of a joint enterprise t… Syracuse SYRACUSE, a city of the United States, the county seat of Onondaga county, New York, 148 miles west of Albany, midway between that city and Buffalo. Syracuse is situated near the southern end of Onondaga Lake (5 miles long by 1 broad), whose waters flow northwards through Seneca and Oswego rivers into Lake Ontario at Oswego. The Erie Canal, flowing east and west, joins the Oswego Canal within the … Syra, Or Syros SYRA, or SYROS, a Greek island in the middle of the Cyclades, which in the 19th century has become the commercial centre of the Archipelago, and is also the residence of the nomarch of the Cyclades and the seat of the central law courts. In ancient times this island was remarkably fertile, as is to be gathered not only from the Homeric description (Od. xv. 403), which might be of doubtful applicat… Syr-daria SYR-DARIA (Gr. and Lat. Jcwcartes ; Arab. Shash, or Siltun), a river flowing into the Sea of Aral, and having a length of 1500 miles and a drainage area of about 320,000 square miles. Incertitude as to its source prevailed until the recent occupation of Turkestan by the Russians. It has now been traced to the Naryn, which has its sources in the heart of the Tian-Shan complex, some 30 miles south o… Syr-daria, Or Syr-dariinsk SYR-DARIA, or SYR-DARIINSK, a province of Russian Turkestan, in Asia, comprising wide tracts of land on both on the S. by the district of Zerafshan, Bokhara, and the (more than one million inhabitants), and its cities (Tashkend, Khojend, Jizak, &c.) make it the most important province of Russian Turkestan ; and from its position between the mountain region of Central Asia and the great lake of the… Syria SYRIA. Etymologically, "Syria" is merely an abbre- mountains of PALESTINE (q.v.), the southern third of Syria, viation of "Assyria," a name which covered the subjectcan be described as a southward continuation of the lands of the Assyrian empire, the subject-peoples being also mountain masses already referred to, and cis-Jordanic as called "Syrians." Afterwards, in the Graeco-Roman period, well as… Syzrak SYZRAK, a district town of Russia, in the government of Simbirsk, lies 90 miles to the south of Simbirsk, a few miles from the Volga. It originated in a fort, erected in 1683, to protect the district from Tatars and Circassians. Most of its inhabitants (24,500 in 1882) are engaged in gardening and tillage. In the large villages of the surrounding district, one of the richest in Simbirsk, various p… Szabadka SZABADKA (German, Maria- Theresiopel), a royal free town of Hungary, in the county of Bacs, on Lake Palics, in 46? 8' N. lat. and 19? 42' E. long. Szarvas SZARVAS, a town of Hungary, on the K.:U-6s, in the county of Bekes, is a place noted for the wealth of its peasantry and the excellence of its breed of horses. Szatmar-nemeti SZATMAR-NEMETI, a royal free town of Hungary, in the county of Szatmar, is situated on the river Szamos and the Hungarian North-Eastern Railway, in 47? 49' N. lat. and 22? 51' E. long. Szegedin SZEGEDIN, a royal free city of Hungary, second only to Budapest, is situated on both banks of the Theiss at the influx of the Maros, in 46? 16' N. lat. and 20? 10' E. long., in the county of Csongrad. It is a great centre of the commerce and agriculture of the Alfold, has a Roman Catholic gymnasium, a state real school, and a library with about 80,000 volumes. There are a Franciscan, a Piarist, an… Szentes SZENTES, a market town of Hungary, in the county of Csongrad, on the left bank of the Theiss, 30 miles north of Szegedin. Sziget SZIGET rmaros-Szig et), chief town of the county of Marmaros in the north-east of Hungary, is the centre of a salt-mining district, with mining and forestry head departments. Tads TADS. Rahman (Abderame), the one survivor of the Omayyad 'Abd al- dynasty, who succeeded after a long series of romantic Batiman. adventures in escaping from the general massacre of his family (see vol. xvi. p. 578). His arrival in the Peninsula was welcomed by those Arab chieftains who had ends of their own to gain or who saw how impossible it was for Spain to be ruled from a distant centre like … The Dindings THE DINDINGS belonged originally to the state of Perak. Timoleon TIMOLEON (q.v.). To him Syracuse owed her deliverance Timofrom the younger Dionysius and from the rule of despots, Icon. and to him both Syracuse and the Sicilian Greeks owed a decisive triumph over Carthage and the safe possession of Sicily west of the river Halycus, the largest portion of the island. From 343 to 337 he was supreme at Syracuse, with the hearty goodwill of the citizens. The younge… United UNITED Srsres : Ashtabula Anthropolog. Soc. New York, Amer. Ethnolog. Soc., Trans. (1845-53) and Bull. (1860-61); Anthropolog. list., Journ. (1871, &c.). Washington, Anthropolog. Soc. FRANCE: Paris, Soc. d'A nthropologie (1859 ; recognized 1864), Bull. and Mem. (1860, &c.); Soc. d'Ethnogr., Annuaire (1862, &c.) and Revue (1869, &c.); Soc. des Traditions Populaires (1886), Revue. GERMANY and AUSTRI… United Kingdom UNITED KINGDOM. - First in an tiquityand dignity among English societies comes the ROYAL SOCIETY (q.v.) of London, which dates from 1660. In 1683 William blolynenx, the author of The Case of Ireland Stated, exerted himself to form a society in Dublin after the pattern of that of London. In consequence of his efforts and labours the Dublin Philosophical Society was established in January 1684, with… United States UNITED STATES : New York, Amer. Geogr. (and Statist.) Soc., Bull. (1852, hc.), Journ. (1859, he.), and Proc. (1862, hc.); Palestine Exploration Soc. (1370). FRANCE: Bordeaux, Soc. de Geogr. Commerciale (1874), Bull. Lyons, Soc. de Geogr. (1873), Pal/. Marseilles, Soc. de Geogr. (1376), Bull. Paris, Soc. de Geogr. (1821, reorganized in 1827), Dull. (1822, he.). GERMANY and AUSTRIA-HUNGARY : D. Geog… United States UNITED STATES: Albany, State Apr. Soc., The Cultivator and Journal. Atlanta, State Agr. Soc. Boston, Inst. of Technology. Hoboken, Stevens Inst. of Technol. Madison, State Agr. Soc., Trans. (1852, &c.). Sacramento, Soc. of Agr. and Hartle. San Francisco, Agr. and Hort. Soc. Troy, Rensselaer Polytechnic Inst. Worcester, Free Inst. of Industry. FRANCE: Algiers, Soc. d'Agr. (1S40), Bull. Ainiens, Soc… United States UNITED STATES: Louisville, Ky., Ohio Falls Geolog. Soc. SSA Francisco, California State Geolog. Soc. (1876). FRANCE: Lille, Soc. Geol. du. Nord (1870), Annales (1874, he.). Havre, Soc. Geol. de Normandie, Bull. (1873, he.). Paris, Soc. Geol. de France (1830, recognized 1832), awards the Prix Viquesnel (?40) every three years, Bull. (1830, he.) and Mem. (1533, hc.); Soc. Franc. dm; DI ineralogie (r… United States UNITED STATES : Easton, Pa., Inst. of Mining Engineers. New York, Amer. Soc. of Civ. Eng., Trans. ; Amer. Inst. of Alin. Eng.; Amer. Inst. of Architects. FRANCE: Lyons, Soc. Acid. d'Arch, (1830), Annales (1867, Sic.). Paris, Soc. des Ingenieurs Civils, Mem. (1848, Sic.); Soc. Cent. des Architectes, Bull (1851, &e.) and Annales (1875, Sic.); it has held a congress since 1875. Saint-Etienne, Soc. de… United States UNITED STATES: New York, American Chemical Soc. '.1876), Proc. (1876) and Journ. (1879, hc.). FRANCE: Paris, Soc. Chimique, Bull. 1858, hc.). GER.MANV : Berlin, Deutsche Chentische Gee. (1867), Ber. (1868, he.). Frankfort, Chore. Gm. Jena, Chem. Laborat. Wiirzburg, Chensisehe Gcs. (1872). BOHEMIA: Prague, Spolek Chemiku Ceskich or ,Soc. of Bohemian Chemists, Zprary or Trans. (1872, /Sc.). Russia: … United States UNITED STATES: Cambridge, Nuttall Ornitholog. United States UNITED STATES: Boston, Amer. Assoc. for Promotion of Soc. Sc.; Amer. Statist. Assoc., Collections (1847, Sic.). New York, Soc. for Petit. Education, Pnbl. FRANCE: Grenoble, Soc. de Statist. (1838), Bull. (1840, &a.). Marseilles, Soc. de Statist. (1827), Repertoire (1887, Sze.). Paris, Soc. Int. des Etudes Pratiques crEcon. (1856, recognized 1869); La Refotme Soc. ; Soc. Fran. de Statist. Univ. (18… United States UNITED STATES: Amer. Pub. Health Assoc., Reports (1873, Sic.); Amer. Dental Assoc., Trans. (1860, Sic.); and Amer. Inst. of Hontecop., Trans. (1878, Am). The State medical associations include those of Alabama, Trans. (1869, Sic.); Georgia, Trans. (1873, Sic.); Maine, Trans. (1853, Sic.); Missouri, Trans. (1851, Ac.); and South Carolina, Trans. The State medical societies include those of Arkansas… United States UNITED STATES: Baltimore, Hist. Soc. Boston, Mass. Hist. Soc., Collections (1792, &c.) and Proc. (1859, Sm.); New Engl. Mist.-Gen. Soc. (1346), Proc. ; Amen Oriental Soc. (1843), Journ. (1849, &c.). Brunswick, Hist. Soc. Chicago, Hist. Soc. Concord, Hist. Soc., Coll. (1824, &c.). Hartford, Amer. Philolog. Soc.; Hist. Soc., Coll. (1860, &e.). Madison, Hist. Soc., Coll. (1855, &c.). Minneapolis, His… United States UNITED STATES: Chicago, Amer. Electrical Soc., Jourie. (1875). New York, National Telegr. Union, Telegrapher (1864-70). FRANCE: Cambrai, Soc. Slag-?mitigate, Archives (1845). Paris, Soc. Franc. de Phys. (recognized as of public utility on 15th January 1881), Bull. GERMANY: Berlin, Physikalische Ges. (1843), Fortschritte der Physik (1847, he.); Elektrotechniseh. Ver. (1S77), Ztschr. (1SSO, he.). Br… Vol -VOL. _XXII. Vq171 Vq171....15" 11.111. 14 74 7f A Oar :LI."?./J v. ....�– \ _ .,..? '!.(\ : 4. .. :?. . e .-',1 fr. sr ',1.1 ,SCI., 4.4.1, I eji fr .e 'nag. pi . ....11" ' ? -'''''. bupanik I 1 43.1eI la b ..S'' ITI ;.".1.1 l'''.1 ,......,9 ...75f -.1. 6? .. !!,_ ? ,,,, 4. ,,,rw,.,,,ryy.? N ti, .oil,* f ,, v., es. ,- ) , .i,s G ,?.. 4' 1, PS... ....e, au.? ' .n"Nr Ar?11,1 iyhi :: 11.;;Ia '7."0.14 ,A, . itlikr, ? … Western Branch WESTERN BRANCH. - (1) Polish : Masovian or Mazurian, Great Polish, Silesian, and Kashoubish. (2) Bohemian : Chekish, Moravian, and Slovakish. (3) Lusatian Wendish or Sorbish : Upper Lusatian and Lower Lusatian. (4) Polabish (extinct). South-Eastern Branch. Russian Dialects. - These as yet have rarely been scientifically Russian. treated ; but that can hardly be a ground of complaint against the Ru… Xvii XVII. LITERATURE, HISTORY, AND ARCHEOLOGY. The Congres International des Orientalistes first met at Paris in 1873 ; it issues Comptes Rendus (1874, &c.). The Congres Bibliographique International held its first meeting in 1878, and the Congres des Americanistes its first meeting in 1875. The Royal Society of Literature (1823, incorporated in 1829, with Transactions (4to, 1829-39; 8vo, 1843, &c.), … Xxii XXII. - Si determine in his absence, or may issue a warrant and adjourn the hearing until his apprehension. If the complainant does not appear, the justices may dismiss the complaint or adjourn the hearing. The punishment inflicted may be hue or imprisonment, or both. Imprisonment as a rule cannot exceed six months. The regular mode of proceeding where a conviction adjudges a pecuniary penalty, or… Volume 23 [TAB - UPS]: 1876-77* to Thuringia [next] [back] Volume 21 [ROT - SIA]: All's Well That Ends Well to Schassbur Copyright © 2013 Net Industries and its Licensors – All Rights Reserved – Terms of Use Share this page: Tweet More To Explore	Contact & About Privacy Policy