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Volume 13 [INF-KAN]: 10 to Jebeil | |
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1010-- 2 sh12,,,,,, cos_nr - 22(ir:1, - +19.) fo sin2mx cos2'.-2.edx . Hence, as before, sm-mx cos rxclx - (2722 + 2) . ? . (2222, + 2r)J0 When na end 9/ are both fractional these definite integrals are reducible to Eulerian integrals, - functions of which a short discussion will be subsequently given. The following examples are given for the purpose of illustrating the preceding results. Ex. 1. f (… Acquired InsanityACQUIRED INSANITY, it is predicated in treating of Acquired Insanity that we have to deal with brains congenitally perfect, the exercise of whose functions has been normal until the incidence of disease. A full description of the tissues of the healthy brain will be found in the article ANATOMY (vol. i. pp. 869? 880), a careful perusal of which will very materially assist the reader in following t… Ancient JerusalemANCIENT JERUSALEM, up to the time of David the strong fortress of Jerusalem remained in the hands of the ancient Canaanite inhabitants who were known as Jebusites.2. The city was deemed impregnable, but its conquest was one of the first exploits of David, when he became king of all Israel, and had need of a capital that should serve as a base for his military operations and a centre of union for J… AniongANIONG the islands of the Indian archipelago Java is not the largest, being surpassed in this regard by Borneo, New Guinea, Sumatra, and Celebes ; but in every other respect it is the most important of them all. It has passed through the most remarkable vicissitudes, has been the scene of the most eventful occurrences, and possesses the noblest memorials of bygone splendour. It supports a larger p… Antoine De JussieuANTOINE DE JUSSIEU (1686-1758), born at Lyons in 1686, was the earliest in point of time of the line of distinguished botanists of his name. Antoine Laurent De JussieuANTOINE LAURENT DE JUSSIEU (1748-1836), nephew of the three preceding, was born at Lyons on 12th April 1748. Called to Paris by his uncle Bernard, and carefully trained by him for the pursuits of medicine and botany, he largely profited by the opportunities afforded him. Gifted with a tenacious memory, and the power of quickly grasping the salient points of subjects under observation, he steadily … Areas Of Plane CurvesAREAS OF PLANE CURVES, curve be referred to rectangular axes of coordinates, the area between the curve, the axis of X, and two ordinates corresponding to the abscissae a and b is represented by the definite integral Hence if y= cgx) be the equation of the curve, the area in question is denoted by X0(x)dx . From this result it follows that every definite integral may lie represented by an area. An… Bernard De JussieuBERNARD DE JUSSIEU (1699-1777), a younger brother of the above, was also born at Lyons, in 1699. He was educated for the medical profession, took his doctor's degree at Montpellier, and commenced practice in 1720, but his sensitive temperament hindered his prosecution of it, and on his brother's invitation he gladly joined him in Paris in 1722. He succeeded Vaillant as sub-demonstrator of plants i… Classification Of InsectsCLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS, it is necessary to reduce what may be termed the systematic portion of this article to the smallest possible limits. The various orders are noticed under separate articles, and similar articles are devoted to the consideration of many of the more prominent, interesting, and familiar insects. All we can do here is to allude briefly to classification as a whole, with indic… ColeopteraCOLEOPTERA. - This is probably the largest, and certainly the best studied, of all the orders. Four-winged insects, but the upper pair of wings are modified, hard and horny in texture, and are termed "elytra," lying longitudinally over the meso- and meta-thorax and abdomen, and when closed divided by a line or suture (occasionally the elytra are united, and in this case the second pair of wings is… Co Llembo LaCO LLEMBO LA and Tu YSANURA. - In the introductory notes to this article (p. 141) it is stated that "although it is not difficult to define an insect, speaking broadly, there are been sufficient (and perhaps prudent) to include these groups in an order Aptera. But accumulation of knowledge soon dispersed that incongruous order. Such of its elements as could with justice be considered insects have … Congenital InsanityCONGENITAL INSANITY, the morbid mental conditions which fall to be considered under this head arc idiocy (with its modification Imbecility) and Cretinism. Idiocy. - In treating of idiocy it must be carefully borne in mind that we are dealing with mental phenomena disassociated from active bodily disease, and that, in whatever degree it may exist, we have to deal with a brain condition fixed by the… Conversion Of Cast IronCONVERSION OF CAST IRON, Production of "Malleable Case Iron." - It has been known for upwards of a century and a half that when articles of cast iron of not too great thickness are imbedded in powdered iron oxide (a pure red haematite as free as possible from earthy matters, smithy scales, or some obtained from 100 of raw coal) was equivalent to 8 tons l cwt. per ton of pig (8.06 per unit of pig i… Conversion Of Iron Into SteelCONVERSION OF IRON INTO STEEL, Cementation Process. - It has been known for a long period, some two centuries at least, that when wrought iron is enveloped in powdered charcoal and heated to redness for a long time it gradually becomes carbonized and converted into steel, the deposition of carbon commencing at the outside and gradually penetrating inwards in precisely the same way as that in which… Dee Mmen ProbeDEE MMEN PROBE (1779-- 1847), French Orientalist, was born at Aix in Provence, June 3, 1779. He was one of the most distinguished pupils of the Orientalist Silvestre de Sacy, whose funeral Discours lie pronounced in 1838. Jaubert acted as inter, preter to Napoleon in Egypt in 1798-99, and ou his return to Paris held various posts under Government. In 1802 he accompanied Sebastiani on his Eastern m… Differential CalculusDIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS, in the application of algebra to the theory of curves and surfaces some of the quantities under consideration are conceived as having always the same magnitude, such as the radius of a given circle or of a given sphere, or the axes of a given ellipse or hyperbola ; others again are indefinite, and may have any number of particular values, such as the coordinates of any point… DipteraDIPTERA. - Only the anterior (mesothoracie) wings present, membranous, usually naked, with varying longitudinal nervures and but few transverse nervules. Posterior wings replaced by knobbed filaments termed "halteres." Mouth consisting of a rostrum formed chieflyby the extended labium, formino. a canal in which the other usual organs, modified into lancet-shaped pieces, are contained, the whole fo… Elliptic IntegralsELLIPTIC INTEGRALS, attention has hitherto been restricted to integrations of rational algebraic functions, of logarithmic or circular functions, or of such functions as could be transformed to depend on these ; or, if irrationalities were introduced, they were such as involved the variable tinder the radical in no higher than the second degree. Lint the founders of the infinitesimal calculus earl… Extraction Of IronEXTRACTION OF IRON, History of the Manufacture of Iron and Steel. - Neither the period when malleable iron was first prepared from its ores nor the precise mode of manipulation then adopted is known with certainty, although the remains of iron implements manufactured in prehistoric times are so numerous as to leave no room for doubt as to the extreme antiquity of the use of that metal instead of t… Fire InsuranceFIRE INSURANCE, is a matter of practical interest to a far larger number of persons than either of the other two great departments of insurance - life or marine. There are few persons to whom, in the absence of insurance, the destruction of their dwellings or of their household goods would not be a serious calamity, while to the merchant or manufacturer the burning of his premises or stock or mach… FirstFIRST Ertsmr. - Title. - Some exception has been taken to the title " epistle " as applied to this document, seeing that it bears the name neither of sender nor of recipient, and carries with it no definiteness of message to a special correspondent. But, though it may be admitted that with regard to its literary form it would more properly be described as a homily or discourse, the frequently recu… Greek InscriptionsGREEK INSCRIPTIONS, etymologically the term inscription (&typcoM) would include much more than is commonly meant by it. It would include words engraved on rings, or stamped on coins,' vases, lamps, wine-jar handles,2 Sic. But Boeckh was clearly right in excluding this varia supellex from his Corpus Inscriptionum Greecarton, or only admitting it by way of appendix. Giving the term inscription a som… HemipteraHEMIPTERA. - This order consists of insects of very varying structure. Primarily there are two great divisions, known as Heteroptent and Ilomoptera, by some considered distinct orders. The points in which they agree consist especially in an imperfect metamorphosis, and the structure rudiments of maxillary palpi. The tarsi have from one to three joints. In the Heteroptera (or true Bugs) the anterio… HymenopteraHYMENOPTERA. - In accordance with the system adopted by many modern writers, this order heads the scale as containing amongst its members those insects that appear to be endowed with the highest intellectual faculties. But at the same time it must be remembered that if the economy of the Termitidx in the Pseudo-Neuroptera had been as fully investigated as has that of bees, wasps, and ants, it is p… Il Traumatic InsanityIL TRAUMATIC INSANITY. - G enerally speaking, insanity is not developed for some months or even years after receipt of the injury, but in the interval the patient suffers from headache, more especially after mental effort, irascibility of temper, confusion of thought, and consequent inaptitude for business, weakened memory, and a constant feeling of fatigue. If this condition is not overcome, a pr… Indian InscriptionsINDIAN INSCRIPTIONS, the inscriptions of India are very numerous and of great variety. They are found upon rocks, pillars, and buildings, in caves, topes, and temples, and on plates of copper. These last are grants of land made by kings for religious purposes, and they are historically valuable because they contain, not only the name of the grantor, but a more or less complete list of his predeces… InfantINFANT, in law, is a person under full age, and there- fore subject to certain disabilities not affecting persons who have attained full age. The period of full age varies widely in different systems, as do also the disabilities attaching to non-age. In Roman law, the age of puberty, fixed at fourteen for males and twelve for females, was recognized as a dividing line. Under that age a child is un… InfanticideINFANTICIDE. The history of infanticide as an archaic institution has already been referred to in the article FOUNDLING HosmAes (vol. ix. p. 481). Children of both sexes were sacrificed as religious offerings. Indeed, in some cases, e.g., in expiations for sacrilege, the boy, as being the nobler child, was preferred. But what may be called the normal infanticide of early society was probably confi… Infinitesimal CalculusINFINITESIMAL CALCULUS, the mathematical and physical sciences owe their present great development to the introduction of the infinitesimal calculus. The power, for example, of that calculus as an instrument of analysis has vastly extended the science of geometry, so that the investigations of the ancient Greeks go but a short way into the field of knowledge which has been laid open by the modern … InfluenzaINFLUENZA (syn. Epidemic Catarrh) is a term applied to an infectious febrile disorder of short duration, characterized specially by catarrh of the respiratory passages and alimentary canal, and occurring mostly as an epidemic. The symptoms of this disease develop suddenly, with all the phenomena attending a severe cold or catarrh. At first there are chills or rigors, which are soon accompanied wit… InformationINFORMATION, in English law, is a formal accusation of a crime committed, preferred ex officio by the attorney-general or solicitor-general in the Queen's Bench without the intervention of a grand jury. It lies only for misdemeanour and not for treason, felonies, or misprision of treason (see INDICTMENT) ; and it is properly employed against such " enormous misdemeanours " as peculiarly tend to di… IngelheimINGELHEIM. Oberingelheim and Niederingelheim, two contiguous market-towns of Germany, in the Hessian province of Rhine Hesse, circle of Bingen, are situated on the Hessian Ludwig Railway and on the Salz near its confluence with the Rhine, 9 miles west-north-west of Mainz. Oberingelheim, formerly an imperial village, has an old Evangelical church with painted windows representing scenes in the life… Ingemann, Bernhard SeverinINGEMANN, BERNHARD SEVERIN (1789-1862), a Danish poet and novelist, was born at Torkildstrup, in the island of Falster, on the 28th of May 1789. He lost his father in early childhood, was educated at the grammar school at Slagelse, and entered the university of Copenhagen in 180G. His studies were interrupted by the English invasion, and on the first night of the bombardment of the city Ingemanu s… IngolstadtINGOLSTADT, a fortified town in the government district of Upper Bavaria, is situated on the left bank of the Danube at its junction with the Schutter, 50 miles north of Munich by rail. As the chief town of the district it is the seat of the usual authorities. The town is well built. The principal buildings are the old castle of the dukes of Bavaria-Ingolstadt, now used as an arsenal ; the remains… Ingres, Jean Auguste DominiqueINGRES, JEAN AUGUSTE DOMINIQUE (1780-1867), whose name represents one of the most important among the conflicting tendencies of modern art, was born at Montauban August 29, 1780. His father, for whom he always entertained the most tender and respectful affection, has described himself as sculpteur en platre ; he was, however, equally ready to execute every other kind of decorative work, and now an… IngulphusINGULPHUS [INGULF], abbot of Crowland, for a long period believed to be the author of the llistoria Monasterii Croylandensis, was born of English parents. The account of him given at the conclusion of the Historia has been shown to be incorrect in several particulars, but according to the authority of Ordericus Vitalis, who visited Crowland three years after the death of Ingulf, he became secretar… InheritanceINHERITANCE. In English law, inheritance, heir, and other kindred words have a meaning very different from that of the Latin lueres, from which they are derived. In Roman law the heir or heirs represented the entire legal personality of the deceased - his universunz ins. In English law the heir is simply the person on whom the real property of the deceased devolves by operation of law if he dies i… InjunctionINJUNCTION, in English law, is a judicial process whereby a party is required to refrain from doing a particular thing according to the exigency of the writ (Daniel's Chancery Practice). Formerly it was a remedy peculiar to the Court of Chancery, and was one of the instruments by which the jurisdiction of that court was established in cases over which the courts of common law were entitled to exer… InlayingINLAYING is a method of ornamentation, by incrusting numerous. There are several special classes of inlaying, long established and well recognized, which may be here enumerated and defined, details regarding most of which will be found under their separate headings. In the ornamental treatment of metal surfaces X'iello decoration, applied to silver and gold, is an ancient and much practised specie… Innkeepers, Law Relating ToINNKEEPERS, LAW RELATING TO. InnocentINNOCENT X., Giovanni Battista Pamphili, pope from 1644 to 1655, was born at Rome in 1574, attained the dignity of cardinal in 1629, and through French influence was chosen to succeed Urban VIII. on September 15, 1644. Throughout his reign the influence exercised over him by Olympia Maklalchina, his deceased brother's wife, was very great, and such as to give rise to gross scandal, for which, howe… InnocentINNOCENT 1,, pope from 402 to 417, was, according to his biographer in the _Ube?. Pontl:ficalis, the son of a man called Innocent of Albano ; but, according to the more trustworthy Jerome, his father was Pope Anastasius 1., whom lie was called by the unanimous voice of the clergy and laity to succeed. It was during his papacy that the siege of Rome by _Marie (408) took place, when, according to a … InnocentINNOCENT V., pope from January 20 to June 22, 1276, was a native of Tarantasia in Burgundy, where he was born in 1225. Innocent IiiINNOCENT III., pope from 1198 to 1216, by far the most remarkable of the popes who have reigned under this name, and, if Gregory VIL is excepted, perhaps the greatest of all who have occupied the see of St Peter, was born at A nagni about 1160. His father, Count Trash/undo of Segni, was a member of the famous house of Conti, front which nine popes, including Gregory IX., Alexander 1V., and Innocen… Innocent IlINNOCENT IL, pope from 1130 to 1143, whose family name was Paparesci, his own baptismal name being Gregory, was probably one of the clergy in personal attendance on the antipope Clement III. (Guibert of Ravenna). By Paschal II. he was created cardinal-deacon. In this capacity he accompanied Pope Gelasius II. when driven into France ; and by Calixtus IL he was employed on various important missions… Innocent IvINNOCENT IV., Sinibaldo de Fieschi, pope from 1243 to 1254, belonged to one of the first families of Genoa, and, educated at Parma and Bologna, passed for one of the best canoeists of his time. He had for his immediate predecessor Celestine IV., who, however, was pope for eighteen days only, and therefore the events of Innocent's pontificate practically link themselves on to those of the reign of … Innocent ViINNOCENT VI., Stephen Aubert, pope at Avignon from 1352 to 1362, the successor of Clement VI., was a native of the diocese of Limoges, and, after having taught civil law at Toulouse, became bishop successively of Noyon and of Clermont. In 1342 he was raised to the dignity of cardinal. On the death of Clement VI., after the cardinals had each bound himself by a solemn agreement as to a particular l… Innocent ViiINNOCENT VII., Cosimo de Migliorati, pope from 1404 to 1406, was a native of Solmona in the Abruzzi, and early distinguished himself by his learning both in civil and in canon law. By Urban VI. he was called to the papal court, and entrusted with various responsible offices, being finally promoted to the archbishopric of Ravenna, and afterwards to the bishopric of Bologna. Boniface IX. made him ca… Innocent ViiiINNOCENT VIII., Giovanni Battista Cibo, pope from 1481 to 1492, was born at Genoa (1432), and was the son of a man of senatorial rank. His early years were spent at the Neapolitan court, and subsequently he went to Padua and Rome for his education. In the latter city the influence of his friends procured for him, from Paul II., the bishopric of Savona, and in 1473 he was made cardinal by Sixtus IV… Innocent XiINNOCENT XI., Benedetto Odescalchi, pope from 1676 to 1689, was born at Como in 1611, studied law at Rome and Naples, held successively the offices of protonotary, president of the apostolic chamber, commissary of the Marca di Roma, and governor of Macerata ; in 1647 Innocent X. made him cardinal, and he afterwards successively became legate to Ferrara and bishop of Novara. In all these capacities… Innocent XiiINNOCENT XII., Antonio Pignatelli, pope from 1691 to 1700, was the successor of Alexander VIII. He came of a distinguished Neapolitan family, and was born March 13, 1615. Educated at the Jesuit college in Rome, he in his twentieth year became an official of the court of Urban VIII. ; under successive popes he served as nuncio at Florence and Vienna and in Poland ; and by Innocent XI. he was made c… Innocent XiiiINNOCENT XIII., Michael Angelo Conti, pope from 1721 to 1724, was born in 1655, and became cardinal under Clement XI. in 1706. From 1697 to 1710 he acted as papal nuncio to the kingdom of Portugal, where he is believed to have formed those unfavourable impressions of the Jesuits which afterwards influenced his conduct towards them. In 1721 his high reputation for ability, learning, purity, and a k… Innsbruck, Or InnspruckINNSBRUCK, or INNSPRUCK (18,000), the chief town of Tyrol, Austria, is situated on the right bank of the Inn, not far from its junction with the Sill, in a beautiful valley surrounded by lofty mountains, which seem to overhang the town. It is connected with its suburbs on the left bank of the stream by three bridges. The old wooden bridge, which was the scene of a fierce struggle between the Tyrol… Inns Of CourtINNS OF COURT. The Inns of Court and Chancery are voluntary non-corporate legal societies seated in London, having their origin about the end of the 13th and the commencement of the 14th century. Dugdale (Origines Aridiciales) states that the learned in our laws were anciently persons in holy orders, the justices of the king's court being bishops, abbots, and the like. But in 1207 the clergy were … InoculationINOCULATION. Inquisition, TheINQUISITION, THE, is the name usually given to that organization which was established in Spain in the 15th century for the detection and suppression of heresy. The " Holy Office," as it was styled, was, however, only the development of a system which, in the hands of the preaching orders, had existed from the beginning of the 13th century ; and this in turn did but enforce anew the old view that … Insanities Associated With Morbid Conditions Of The General SystemINSANITIES ASSOCIATED WITH MORBID CONDITIONS OF THE GENERAL SYSTEM. - PItthisical insanity is stated to be characterized by a short period of mania, melancholia, or delusion, which soon passes into a mixture of subacute mania and dementia. The symptom, according to Clouston, is a tendency to he suspicious. (Consult Clouston, "Tuberculosis and Insanity," Journ. of Mental Science, April 1863.) Rheum… Insanities Occurring At Evolutional Periods Of LifeINSANITIES OCCURRING AT EVOLUTIONAL PERIODS OF LIFE. - Insanity of pubescence and adolescence is manifested by various trains of symptoms. Acute mania is on the whole the most common : it is characterized by motor restlessness ; the patient walks, talks, smokes, drinks, must ever be on the move. Where self-abuse comes in as a factor, the sufferer is melancholic and suspicious, self-accusing. Dipso… InsanityINSANITY is a generic term applied to certain morbid mental conditions produced by defect or disease of the brain. The synonyms in more or less frequent use are mental disease, alienation, derangement or aberration, mad; ness, unsoundness of mind. There are many diseases of th6 general system productive of disturbance of the mental faculties which, either on account of their transient nature, from… Insanity LawINSANITY LAW, the effect of insanity upon responsibility and civil capacity has been recognized at an early period in every system of law. In the Roman jurisprudence its consequences were very fully developed, and the provisions and terminology of that system have largely affected the subsequent legal treatment of the subject. Its leading principles were simple and well marked. The insane person h… Insanity TreatmentINSANITY TREATMENT, in speaking of the treatment of the insanities, it will simplify matters to eliminate, in the first place, those forms of the disease which are not amenable to remedial agents in the present state of medical knowledge. Medicine, whether hygienic or therapeutic, cannot touch general paralysis, the insanity produced by adventitious products, or senile insanity, except in the redu… Insectivorous PlantsINSECTIVOROUS PLANTS. Insectivorous or, as they are sometimes more correctly termed, carnivorous plants are, like the parasites, the climbers, or the succulents, a physiological assemblage belonging to a number of distinct natural orders. They agree in the extraordinary habit of adding to the supplies of nitrogenous material afforded them in common with other plants by the soil and atmosphere, by … InsectsINSECTS, form the largest class of that division of the animal kingdom formerly called Article; lata, but for which the more expressive term Arthropoda (joint-footed) is now more generally employed. This term includes, besides Insecta, the classes Crustacea, Arachmida, and Jfyriopoda. The chief diagnostic characters of an Insect, as combinedly distinguishing it from a Crustacean, an Arachnid, or a… InspirationINSPIRATION is the Latin- equivalent of earl-veva-Tim, and is used to express the fact that holy men of old spice as they were moved by the Spirit of God. The idea is not exclusively Christian or Jewish ; pagans have had their inspired speakers and writers and their ideas of inspiration, and these earlier pagan notions have had their effect on some of the forms which the Christian doctrine has ass… InsterburgINSTERBURG (16,303), the chief town of a circle in government district of Gumbinnen, East Prussia, is situated at the point where the Angerap and luster join to form the Pregel, about 55 miles east of Konigsberg. It is the seat of an appeal and other courts, and of a reformatory for the district, and has a chamber of commerce, a hospital, a gymnasium, a real-school of the first class, and several … InstinctINSTINCT is a term which does not admit of rigid definition, because, as ordinarily used, the meaning of the term is not rigidly fixed. But for the purposes of scientific exposition from a biological point of view the nearest approach we can make to such a definition is perhaps the following : - Instinct is a generic term comprising all those faculties of mind which lead to the conscious performan… Institute Of FranceINSTITUTE OF FRANCE, an association constituted under the name of the Institut il'ational by the French Republican Convention, in October 1795, to occupya similar position to that of the old academies suppressed by an Act of the Convention, 8th April 1793 (see AcAnEmv). The affix to the word " Institut " has undergone a variety of changes corresponding to changes in the form of the government of F… InsuranceINSURANCE is the system or machinery by which it is sought to guard against the pecuniary consequences of certain accidents to which men are liable, such as the loss of property by fire or shipwreck, or the loss of future earnings through disablement or premature death. Insurance does not attempt to prevent these accidents, nor even to protect men against all the consequences of them. It deals onl… InterdictINTERDICT, in Scotch law, is an order of court pronounced on cause shown for stopping any proceedings complained of as illegal or wrongful. InterdictINTERDICT (interdictum se. ogiciorum divinorum), in its full technical sense as an ecclesiastical term, means a sentence by a competent ecclesiastical authority (popes, councils, bishops with chapters) forbidding all administration of the sacraments, celebration of public worship, and use of the burial service. An interdict may be either local, personal, or mixed, according as it applies to a loca… InterdictionINTERDICTION, in Scotch law, is a process of restraint applied to prodigals and others who, " from weakness, facility, or profusion, are liable to imposition." It is either voluntary or judicial. Voluntary interdiction is effected by the act of the prodigal himself, who executes a bond oblig ing himself to do no deed which may affect his estate without the assent of certain persons called the "int… InterestINTEREST. At English common law an agreement to pay interest is not implied unless in the case of negotiable instruments, when it is supported by mercantile usage. As a general rule therefore debts certain, payable at a specified time, do not carry interest from that time unless there has been an express agreement that they should do so. But when it has been the constant practice of a trade or bus… Interlaken, Or InterlaciienINTERLAKEN, or INTERLACIIEN, a Swiss village in the canton and 26 miles south-east of the town of Bern, is situated on the left bank of the Aare in the low-lying district named the TIOdeli, between the lakes of Thun and Bricnz. The nanio is strictly applied to the few buildings which occupy the site of the religious houses founded in 1130 and abolished in 1528, but is generally used as including a… InternationalINTERNATIONAL. The International Working :Men's Association, commonly called the "International,". was formed at London in 1864. It was a society of working men of all nations, somewhat like a cosmopolitan trades union, but bearing a still closer resemblance to an international social science association for discussing and furthering the rights of labour. At first moderate in its tone, it soon beg… International LawINTERNATIONAL LAW is the name now generally given to the rules of conduct accepted as binding inter se by the nations - or at all events the civilized nations - of the world. International law as a whole is capable of being very differently interpreted according to the point of view from which it is regarded, and its rules vary infinitely in point of certainty and acceptance. According to the idea… InterpleadeiiINTERPLEADEII, in English law, is the form of action used when a person is sued at law for the recovery of money or goods wherein he has no interest, and which are also claimed of him by some third party. Originally the only relief available to the possessor against such adverse claims was by means of a bill of interpleader in equity. The Interpleader Act, I & 2 Will. IV. c. 58, enabled the defend… IntestacyINTESTACY. In dealing with the property of a person who dies without making a will, the law of England distinguishes sharply between his real and his personal estate. The devolution of the former is regulated by the rules of INHERITANCE (q.v.). The destination of the latter is marked out by the Statute of Distributions. The proper conditions of a testamentary disposition of property will be found … InverarayINVERARAY, a royal, parliamentary, and municipal burgh of Scotland, the county town of Argyllshire, is situated at the lower end of a small bay, where the river Aray falls into the north-western waters of Loch Fyne, 40 miles north-west of Glasgow. The town is small, consisting of one street running east and west, and a row of houses facing the bay. The county buildings and courthouse are handsome … InvernessINVERNESS, a maritime county of Scotland, is situated as to its mainland portion between 56? 38' and 57? 36' N. lat. and 3? 27' and 5? 54' W. long., and is bounded on the N. by Ross, N.E. by Nairn and Elgin, E. by Banff and Aberdeen, S.E. by Perthshire, S. by Argyll, and W. by the Atlantic. It measures 85 miles from north-west to south-east and 55 miles from north-east to south-west. The total are… InvestitureINVESTITURE, in feudal phraseology, means the act of giving corporal possession of a manor or office, - an act which was usually conjoined with some significant ceremonial, such as the delivery of a branch, a banner, or some other appropriate symbol of the thing conveyed. Investiture with stall' and ring was during and after the I 1 th century the name given to the ceremony by which ecclesiastical… IodineIODINE, thus named on account of the violet colour of its vapour (loccSijs, violet-coloured), one of the so-called halogen elements, has already been partially described (see CHEMISTRY, vol. V. pp, 490-498). Iodides occur in minute quantity in most mineral waters and in sea water. The ashes of many marine alga,' are rich in them ; and formerly iodine was chiefly extracted from kelp or varec, the a… IonaIONA, or IcorstKir,L, a small island of the Hebrides, on the west coast of Scotland, in the county of Argyll, is situated about 8 miles south of Staffa and 11 miles west of the south-western promontory of Mull, from which it is separated by the shallow Sound of Iona. Its length is about 31 and its breadthll miles. The total area is about 2000 imperial acres, of which about GOO are under cultivatio… IoniaIONIA, in ancient geography, was the name given to a portion of the west coast of Asia Minor, adjoining the ./Egean Sea, and bounded by Lydia towards the east. Like the adjoining districts of YEolis on the north and Doris on the south, it was not a country or region marked out by any natural boundaries, but merely consisted of a strip of land near the coast, of comparatively small breadth, which, … Ionian IslandsIONIAN ISLANDS, the ordinary collective name of Corfu (K1pKvpa), Cephalonia (KcAraXXfivia), Zante (ZdKurOos), Santa Mauro, (Afexcfs), Ithaca, Cerigo (Varipa), and Paxo, with their minor dependencies. As the islands are seven in number they are often called the Heptanesus due to the settling of Ionian colonists on the coasts and islands. The islands have no real geographical unity be? yond that inv… IowaIOWA, one of the north-western States of the American Union. Its boundary lines are - on the S. and N. the parallels 40? 36' and 43? 30' of N. lat., on the E. the Mississippi river, and on the W. the Missouri and Big Sioux rivers. The south-eastern corner projects slightly below the parallel of 40? 36', the boundary following the Des Moines river down to its mouth. The neighbouring States are - Mi… Iowa CityIOWA CITY, the capital of Johnson County, Iowa, and Pacific Railroad, 130 miles east of Des Moines. Ipecacuan IiaIPECACUAN IIA. The root used in medicine under this name is obtained from Cephaelis Ipecacuanha, A. Rich., a small shrubby plant of the natural order Cinchonacex. It is a native of Brazil, growing in clumps or patches in moist shady forests from 8? to 22? S. let., and is believed to extend to the Bolivian province of Chiquitos, and the valley of Cauca in New Granada. The drug of commerce is procur… IpekIPEK (112,000) (Slavonic, Peicha ; Albanian, Peja ; Latin, Pescium), a town of Upper Albania, in the Turkish eyelet of Uskub, situated in the upper valley of the Drin between the mountains Peklen and Koprionik. A small stream, bearing like several others in the Balkan peninsula the name of Bistritza (the bright or clear), flows through the town. On one of the neighbouring heights is situated the m… IphicratesIPHICRATES, an Athenian general who flourished in the earlier half of the 4th century B.C., owes his fame as much to the improvements which he made in the accoutrements of the peltasts or light-armed troops as to his numerous victories gained by their aid. Increasing the length of their javelins and swords, substituting linen corselets for their heavy coats-of-mail, and introducing the use of ligh… IphigeneiaIPHIGENEIA is the heroine of several famous Greek legends. She is generally said to be the daughter of Agamemnon, and is also called Iphianassa, though the two are distinguished by Sophocles and by the writer of the Cyprict. Agamemnon had offended Artemis, who therefore prevented the Greek fleet from sailing for Troy, and could be appeased only by the sacrifice of his daughter. According to some a… IpswichIPSWICH (50,000), Old Eng. Gippeswic, the county town of Suffolk, 68 miles north-east of London by rail, stands on a gentle ascent above the left bank of the Gipping, which widens here into the Orwell estuary. Its lower and older portion, irregularly built, retains some curious specimens of ancient domestic architecture, as Sparrowe's House (1567), with quaint emblematic mouldings of Charles II.'s… IpswichIPSWICH (7734), the second most important town of Queensland, Australia, is built on the south side of the river Bremer at the head of navigation, about 24 miles in buildings. IquiqueIQUIQUE, a seaport town of Peru, in the department of Tarapaca, in 20? 12' S. lat. In the twenty-five years from 1850 to 1875 it rose from a mere fishing village to be a place of from 18,000 to 20,000 inhabitants. This rapid growth was solely the result of the trade in the nitrate of soda which is found in exhaustless abundance in the neighbouring country, and of which during the five years 1874 t… Irak Adjem1IRAK ADJEM1 (i.e., Persian Irak), also called JEBAL (Arabic, mountains) and KOHISTAN (Hindustani, mountain-land), is the most important of the eleven provinces of Persia, comprising the larger part of the western half of the country, or upwards of 138,280 square miles. To the north lie Azerbijan, Milan, and Mazanderan, to the east Khorasan, to the south Farsistan and Khuzistan, and to the west Ard… Irak Arabi, Or Irak El ArabiIRAK ARABI, or IRAK EL ARABI, to which the name Irak is more properly applied, is the district between the Tigris and Euphrates, and from the Euphrates west to the desert, its northern limit being from Anah on the Euphrates to Tekrit on the Tigris. Irawadi, Or IrrawaddyIRAWADI, or IRRAWADDY, the principal river in the province of British Bnrmah, traversing the Pcgu division from north to south. The Irawadi is formed by the junction of two streams whose source is as yet unknown, in about 26? N. let. The chief tributaries are the Mogoung, from the westward, which throws its water into the main stream (here 600 yards wide), in 24? 50' N. lat., and the Shwe li and K… IrbitIRBIT, a town of European Russia in the government of Perm, 70 miles north-east of Ekaterinburg, at the confluence of the Irbit with the Nitza, a sub-tributary of the Obi. IrelandIRELAND - income tax from the income of officials. According to these returns the net produce of the revenue was in 1870 ?7,287,127, in 1871 (not including that of the post-office) ?7,291,393, 15s. 4d., in 1875 ?7,970,050, 13s. 7d., and in 1879 ?6,616,455. The revenue of England in 1879 amounted to ?54,456,718, and of Scotland to ?7,719,500. No separate post-office returns have been published sinc… Ireland, SamuelIRELAND, SAMUEL, the dupe of his son, the subject of the following article, in the publication of the supposed Shakespearian papers, was born in London, where he was originally a mechanic in Spitalfields. He afterwards became a dealer in old books and prints and similar articles ; and, turning his knowledge of drawing and engraving to account, he published several books of travel, with illustratio… Ireland, Samuel William HenryIRELAND, SAMUEL WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835), generally known as William Henry Ireland, who at the age of seventeen produced the notorious Shakespeare forgeries, was the son of the subject of last notice, and was born in London in 1777. After spending four years at school in France, he was apprenticed in 1794 to a conveyancer in London. The enthusiasm of his father for everything connected with Shake… IrenawsIRENAWS, bishop of Lyons in the end of the 2d century, was one of the most distinguished of the theologians of the ante-Nicene church. Very little is known of his early history, and the accounts given in various biographies are for the most part conjectural. He himself has informed us that in his youth he was acquainted with Polycarp, the disciple of John (Eusebius, Hist. Feel., v. 20), and from t… IreneIRENE (752-803) was the wife of Leo IV., emperor of the East. A poor but beautiful Athenian orphan, she speedily added the confidence to the love of her feeble husband, and at his death in 780 was left by him sole guardian of the empire, and of their young son Constantine VI. Seizing the supreme power in the name of the latter, Irene's first endeavours were to revive the orthodox image-worship, wh… Ireton, HenryIRETON, HENRY (1610-1651), Parliamentary general, was the eldest son of German Ireton of Attenton in Nottinghamshire, and was born in 1610. After graduating B.A. at Oxford, he entered the Middle Temple, London, as a student of law ; but on the outbreak of the civil war he joined the Parliamentary army, in which his technical mastery of the military art gave him rapid promotion and helped him to ob… IridiumIRIDIUM, one of the metals of the platinum group (see vol. v. p. 53G), has recently acquired increased importance from its employment in alloy with platinum in the construction of the international standards of length and weight. Its separation from the associated metals is a matter of very considerable difficulty, and involves a long series of operations. _ These have been fully described by Devi… IrisIRIS, the rainbow, was personified as one of the secondary deities of Olympus, and occurs very frequently both in art and in literature. IrisIRIS. The iris flower belongs to the natural family Iridacew, of the class monocotyledons, and to the petaloid division with inferior ovary and only three stamens. (the outer series), being thus distinguished from the Amaryllis family, which has six stamens. They are handsome showy-flowered plants, the Greek name iris having been applied on account of the hues of the flowers. Two of the species ar… Irish Moss, Or Carr1geenIRISH MOSS, or CARR1GEEN (Irish carraigeen, " moss of the rock "), is a sea-weed (Chondrus crispus) which grows abundantly along the rocky parts of the Atlantic coast of Europe and North America. It is collected for commercial purposes on the west and north-west of Ireland, and in very large quantities on the coast of Plymouth county, Massachusetts, United States. In its fresh condition the plant … IrkutskIRKUTSK, a government of Asiatic Russia, extending over an area of 272,140 square- miles of eastern Siberia, and bounded by the Yenissei and Yakutsk governments, the Trans-Baikal region, and the Chinese frontier. It is divided into the districts of Kirensk, Nizhne-Udinsk, Irkutsk, Verkholensk, and Balagansk. The surface of the government is mountainous, especially in the south-west. While the grea… IrkutskIRKUTSK, the chief town of the government of the same name, is under various aspects the most important place in all Siberia, being not only the greatest centre of population and principal commercial depot to the north of Tashkcnd, but the residence of the governor-general, a fortified military post, an archbishopric, and the seat of several learned societies. It is situated in 52? 17' N. lat. an… IrneriusIRNERIUS, a distinguished jurist, sometimes referred to as " lucerne juris," who taught the " free arts " at Bologna, his native city, during the earlier decades of the 12th century. Other forms of the name are Yrnerius, Hirnerius, Hyrnerius, Warnerius, Wernerius, Guarnerius, Gernerius, some of which have been held to be suggestive of a German origin. Of his personal history nothing is known, exce… IronIRON, the short space that can be allotted to the wide subjects of Imo) and STEEL, it is impossible to do more than briefly describe the main facts in connexion with the general properties and relationships of iron and steel, ? and their modes of manufacture. These points will be considered under the following general heads. I. General characters of iron ; its relationships to other elements. Prop… Iron MaskIRON MASK. The Man in the Iron Mask is the name by which a French state prisoner, whose identity has given rise to much curious inquiry, is universally known. The facts established by contemporaneous evidence respecting this mysterious personage, who died in 1703, were, until a modern writer largely added to them, neither numerous nor of very great importance.' Enough indeed is related to show tha… Iron, Therapeutic Uses OfIRON, THERAPEUTIC USES OF. The use of iron in the cure of disease dates from a very early period. Pliny speaks of its medicinal effects, and there is reason for believing that it was administered several centuries before his time. But Syclenham was the first to point out its most important therapeutic property, its blood-restoring power. " To the worn out and languid blood," he says, "it gives a s… IrontonIRONTON, the chief city of Lawrence county, Ohio, is situated on the river Ohio, 142 miles south-east of Cincinnati. Iron-woodIRON-WOOD is the name applied to several kinds of coloured, and sinks in water. The true iron-wood of the East Indies and Malay archipelago, of which anchors are often made, seems to be the Aletrosideros vera of the bois de fer blanc of Africa and Mauritius. West Indian iron-wood is the produce of Colubrina reel ineta and C. ferrugine, Ad. Br. (Rhamizaeew), and of ./Egiphile martinicensis, Linn. (… IrrigationIRRIGATION is the systematic application of water to land in order to promote present or prospective vegetation. Water, thus used for the general purpose of growing or increasing the crops on which animals and man have to subsist, is employed in special ways and at special times according to the particular end in view, the individual plant to be grown, and the very divergent conditions of soil and… IrvineIRVINE, a royal and parliamentary burgh, market town, and seaport of Ayrshire, Scotland, is situated on the north bank of the estuary of the Irvine river, and on the Glasgow and South-Western Railway, 29 miles south-south-west of Glasgow and 10 north of Ayr. It is connected with the suburb of Fullarton on the south side of the river by a fine stone bridge of four arches, originally built in 1746 a… Irving, EdwardIRVING, EDWARD (1792-1834), a minister of the Scotch church, was born at Annan, Dumfriesshire, 4th August 1792. By his father's side, who followed the occupation of a tanner, be was descended from a family long known in the district, and the purity of whose Scotch lineage had been tinged by alliance with French Protestant refugees; but it was from his mother's race, the Low thers, farmers or small… Irving, WashingtonIRVING, WASHINGTON (1783-1859), the first American were interrupted by an illness necessitating a voyage to with his brother William and J. K. Paulding, gave ample proof of his talents as a humorist. These were still more conspicuously displayed in his next attempt, Knickerbocker's History of Few York (1809). The satire of Set/mar/mull had been principally local, and the original design of Knicker… IsaacISAAC Mr or pcir., "he laughs"; Iracitc,10-cocos), the only child of Abraham and Sarah, was born when his parents were respectively a hundred and ninety years of age (Gen. xvii. 17). Explanations of the name seem to be intended by the sacred writer in more than one reference to the incredulous or joyous laughter of his parents when a son was promised to them (Gen. xxi. 6, xviii. 12, xvii. 17). Lik… IsaacISAAC I., COMNENUS, Roman emperor of the East from 1057 to 1059, was the son of a gallant officer under Basil II., named Manuel Comnenus, who on his deathbed commended his two sons Isaac and John to the emperor's care. Basil caused them to be carefully educated at the monastery of the Stadium, and afterwards advanced them to high official positions. During the disturbed reigns of Basil's seven imm… Isaac IiISAAC II., ANGELUS, Roman emperor of the East from 1185 to 1195, and again in 1203-4, who came to the throne in the manner described under ANDRONICUS I. (vol. ii. p. 23), succeeded also to the unfinished Sicilian war. The favourable close of that was counterbalanced by the failure of an attempt to recover Cyprus, where Isaac Comnenus had established an independent throne. Of the numerous revolts e… IsabellaISABELLA. (1451-1504), surnamed la Catolica, "the Catholic," queen of Castile from 1474, was the second child and only daughter of John II. of Castile by his second wife Isabella, granddaughter of John I. of Portugal (thus being through both parents a descendant of the famous John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster), and was born at Madrigal on April 22, 1451. On the death of her father, who was succeede… Isabey, Jean BaptisteISABEY, JEAN BAPTISTE (1767-1855), was born at Nancy on the 11th April 1767. At nineteen, after some lessons from Dumont, miniature painter to Marie Antoinette, he became a pupil of David. Employed at Versailles on portraits of the dukes of Angouleme and Berry, he was given a commission by the queen, which opens the long list of those which he received, up to the date of his death in 1855, from th… IsaiahISAIAH. I. Isaiah is the name of the greatest, and both in life and in death the most influential of the Old Testament prophets. We do not forget Jeremiah, but Jeremiah's literary and religious influence is secondary compared with that of Isaiah. Unfortunately we are reduced to inference and conjecture with regard both to his life and to the extent of his literary activity. In the heading (i. 1) o… IsauriaISAURIA, in ancient geography, was a district in the interior of Asia Minor, bounded by Mount Taurus and Cilicia on the S., by Lycaonia on the E., by Phrygia on the N., and by Pisidia on the W. Like the neighbouring Lycaonia, it consisted in great part of a cold and barren upland plain, while the southern portions wet e rugged and mountainous. No mention is found of the Isaurians during the early … IschiaISCHIA, the ancient Pitleecusa, iEnaria, or Inarinie, and the medimval Isola, a volcanic island of Italy, is situated at the north entrance to the Bay of Naples, about 15 miles south-west of the Cape of Miseno. The circumference, omitting the irregular indentations of the coast-line, is about 19 miles, and the superficial area about 26 square miles. Monte Epomeo or San Nicola, the ancient Epoineus… IschlISCHL, a favourite watering-place in the district of Gmunden, Upper Austria, is beautifully situated on the peninsula formed by the junction of the rivers Ischl and Traun, and is surrounded by high mountains, presenting scenery of the finest description. It has mineral springs and numerous brine and brine-vapour baths. The brine used at lschl has in 16 oz. 233 grains of chloride of sodium (common … IseghemISEGHEM, a town of Belgium in the arrondissement of Roulers and the province of West Flanders, is situated on the small river Mandel, about 10 miles north-east of Courtrai. IsereISERE, a department of south-eastern France, formed from the southern part of the old province of Dauphine., is bounded on the N. by the department of Ain, E. by Savoie and Hautes-Alpos, S. by Hautes-Alpes and DrOrne, and W. by Drome, Loire, and RhUne. It lies betWeen 44? 43' and 45? 43' 19" N. lat., and between 4? 43' 32" and 7? 6' 9" E. long., being about 100 miles long from northwest to south-e… IserlohnISERLOHN, chief town of a circle in the government district of Arnsberg and province of Westphalia, Prussia, is situated on the Baar, in a bare and hilly region, 17 miles west of Arnsherg. Among the principal buildings are the town-church, the synagogue, the hospital, the orphanage, the poorhouse, and the new town-house. There is a real school of the first class, and a commercial school for the pr… IserniaISERNIA, a town of Italy, capital of a district in the province of Campobasso, is pleasantly situated among the Apennines, 51 miles north-east of Naples. The town, which is closely built and dirty, consists chiefly of one long narrow street running along the crest of a hill from south-west to north-east, near the middle of which are an ancient arch and a fine old marble fountain. Of the numerous R… IshmaelISHMAEL (5NgV!, "God hears " ; 'Io-p,a7jA.), the son of Abraham by his Egyptian concubine Hagar, was born when his father was eighty-six years old, received circumcision along with Isaac when thirteen years of age, and some three or four years later (apparently in his sixteenth year) was, on account of the jealousy of Sarah, who had seen him "playing" (Hebrew), turned out of doors along with his m… IshpemingISHPEMING, a city and township in Marquette county, Michigan, U.S., is situated in the heart of the Lake Superior iron-fields, about 15 miles west of Lake Superior, and 400 miles north of Chicago, with which it is connected by rail. Isidorus Hispalensis, Or Isidore Of SevilleISIDORUS HISPALENSIS, or ISIDORE OF SEVILLE, one of the most influential writers of the early portion of the Middle Ages, flourished during the latter part of the 6th and the early part of the 7th century. The exact date of his birth is unknown ; he died 636 A.D. Of the particulars of his life, specially of the earlier portion, little is known with certainty. He was the son of a wealthy and distin… IskelirISKELIR, or Esictiarr, a town in the province of Kastamind, Asiatic Turkey, is situated near the left bank of the Kizil lrmak, at an elevation of 2542 feet above sea-level. Isla, Jose Francisco DeISLA, JOSE FRANCISCO DE (1703-1781), Spanish satirist, was born at Segovia in 1703, and became a member of the Society of Jesus, in which he distinguished himself both as a teacher and as a preacher ; on the expulsion of his order from Spain in 1767 he betook himself to Bologna, where after some years of impaired health he died in 1783. His first literary experiment was the Juventud Triunfante (" … IslamabadISLAMABAD, a town in Kashmir state, Punjab, lies in 33? 43' N. lat., 75? 17' E. long., on the north bank of the Jhelum (Jhilam), there about 80 yards wide, and crossed by a wooden bridge. IslayISLAY, an island on the west coast of Scotland, the most southern of the Hebrides group, is situated in the county of Argyll, between 55? 30' and 55? 58' N. lat. and Ronastel (1050 feet). IsmailISMAIL, a town of Roumania, at the head of a district of the same name, on the left bank of the Kilia branch of the Danube, 30 miles to the east of Galatz, with a and tallow. The population of the town, inclusive of burden of 81,445 tons entered, and 790 with 81,711 tons. cleared. Originally a Turkish fortified post, Ismail had by the end of the 18th century grown into a place of about 30,000 inha… IsmailiaISMAILIA, a town of Egypt, nearly in the centre of the isthmus of Suez, on the western shore of Lake Timsah (which is traversed by the canal), and connected with the railway which joins Zagazeg, and consequently Alexandria and Cairo, with Suez. It was laid out in 1863, and for a time had a population of about 3000, mainly engaged in the construction of the canal. The broad macadamized streets and … Ismailia, Or GondokoroISMAILIA, or GONDOKORO, a famous mission-station and market-place in the territory of the Bari negroes on the right bank of the White Nile, about 330 miles, according to Baker, above the confluence with the Bahr Giraffe, and about 200 miles below the northern end of Lake Albert Nyanza, in 4? 54' 5" N. lat. and 31? 46' 9" E. long. The name Ismailia is more strictly applicable only to the military p… Ismid, Isk1mid, Or IsnikmidISMID, ISK1MID, or ISNIKMID (i.e., 'Eta NucoptOaav), a town of the Turkish vilayet of Khudavendikiar in Asia Minor, in the sandjak of Scutari, situated at the head of the bay of Ismid (the ancient Sinus Astacenus), an inlet of the Sea of Marmora. IsocratesISOCRATES, one of the ten Attic orators, and one of the most remarkable men in the literary history of Greece, was born in 436 B.C., seven years before Plato. His father Theodorus was an Athenian citizen of the deme of Erchia, - the same in which, about 431 B.C., Xenophon was born, - and was sufficiently wealthy to have served the state as choregus. The fact that he possessed slaves skilled in the… IsraelISRAEL, according to the Book of Genesis, Israel was the brother of Edom, and the cousinof Moab and Ammon. These four petty peoples, which may be classed together as the Hebrew group, must at one time have formed some sort of a unity and have passed through a common history which resulted in their settlement in south-eastern Palestine. The Israelites, or rather that section of the Hebrew group whi… IssacharISSACHAR " there is a hire, or reward "; ?Io-craxdp), Jacob's ninth son, his fifth by Leah. Slightly differing explanations of the reference in the name are given in Gen. xxx. 16 and xxx. 18. The territory of the tribe (Josh. xix, 17-23) included the whole of the great plain of Esdraelon, and the hills to the east of it, the boundary in that direction extending from Tabor to the Jordan, apparently… IssoireISSOIRE, chief town of an arrondissement in the department of Puy-de-Di3me, France, situated on the Couze, near its junction with the Allier, 20 miles S.E. of Clermont. It contains a tribunal of the first instance, a tribunal of commerce, and the usual offices appropriate to the capital of a district. The streets ju the older part of the town are narrow, crooked, and dirty, but in the newer part t… IssoudunISSOUDUN, chief town of an arrondissement in the department of Ind?e, France, is situated on the Theols, 17 miles N.E. of Chateauroux, and 145 miles S. of Paris. It is the seat of the usual Government and public offices ; and there are also chambers of agriculture and of arts and manufactures, a communal college, a public library, a departmental prison, a hospital, an orphanage, and several religi… Isthmian GamesISTHMIAN GAMES, one of the four great Panhellenic festivals, were held on the Isthmus of Corinth. An ancient ceremony of the worship of Melicertes or Melkarth, introduced by the Phoenician traders who frequented the isthmus from the earliest time, was afterwards modified by the Old Ionic worship of Poseidon ; and at the festival the heroes Neleus and Sisyphus received honour along with the two dei… Istib Or IsiitibISTIB or ISIITIB, a town of European Turkey, in the eyalet of Nish (Macedonia), a few miles south-east of Uskub, situated at a height of 590 feet on a small stream of its own name, which joins the Bregalnitza, a tributary of the Vardar. IstriaISTRIA (anciently also Maria, in German Istrien, and formerly Histerreich), a margraviate of Austria, forming the southern part of the Kiistenland crownland, is contained in the peninsula which, bounded on the north by the districts of Trieste, Gdrz, and Carniola, stretches southwards into the Adriatic Sea, between the Gulf of Trieste (Slants Terg6stinus), and the Gulf of Quarnaro (Sinus Flanaticu… ItalyITALY, or more correctly Italia ,is the name that has been applied both iii ancient and modern times to the great peninsula that projects from the mass of central Europe far to the south into the Mediterranean Sea, where the great island of Sicily may be considered as in fact a mere continuation or appendage of the continental promontory. Confining ourselves, however, to Italy itself, its natural … ItalyITALY, also over dioceses administered by suffragan bishops. Their position is indicated in the following table (XXXI1.):- Meh'opolit,nts. Suffragans. ;Acerenzcr-Matcia Nnglona-Tursi, Potenza, Tticarieo, Venom. Bari Conversano, Ituvo-Ititonto. Benevento S kgzita de.' God, Alise, Ariano, Ascoli-Cerignola Avellino, Bologna Faenza, Imola. Brindisi ()stunt Cagliari Gultelli-Naotra, Ig1f81ns, Og-liastr… Italy Age Of CommunesITALY AGE OF COMMUNES, the final gainers, however, by the war of investitures were the Italians. In the first place, from this time : forward, owing to the election of popes by the Roman curia, the Holy See remained in the hands of Italians ; and this, though it was by no means an unmixed good, was a great glory to the nation. In the next place, the antagonism of the popes to the emperors, which b… Italy Age Of DespotsITALY AGE OF DESPOTS, thus the Italians, during the heat of the civil wars, were ostensibly divided between partisans of the empire and partisans of the church. After the death of Frederick II. their affairs were managed by Manfred and by Charles of Anjou, the supreme captains of the parties, under whose orders acted the captains of the people in each city. The contest being carried on by warfare,… Italy Age Of InvasionsITALY AGE OF INVASIONS, the year 1492 opened a new age for Italy. In this year Lorenzo died, and was succeeded by his son, the vain and weak Piero ; France passed beneath the personal control of the inexperienced Charles VIII. ; the fall of Granada freed Spain from her embarrassments ; Columbus discovered America, destroying the commercial supremacy of Venice ; last, but not least, Roderigo Borgia… Italy Climate And Natural ProductionsITALY CLIMATE AND NATURAL PRODUCTIONS, the geographical position of Italy, extending from about 460 to 38? N. lat., naturally renders it one of the hottest countries in Europe. But the effect of its southern latitude is to a great extent tempered by its peninsular character, bounded as it is on both sides by seas of considerable extent, as well as by the great range of the Alps with its snows and … Italy Ethnography And GeographyITALY ETHNOGRAPHY AND GEOGRAPHY, the ethnography of ancient Italy is a very complicated and difficult subject, and notwithstanding the researches of modern scholars is still involved in much obscurity. The great beauty and fertility of the country, as well as the charm of its climate, undoubtedly attracted from the earliest ages successive swarms of invaders from the north, who sometimes drove out… Italy HistoryITALY HISTORY, the difficulty of Italian history lies in this that until our own time the Italians have had no political unity, no independence, no organized existence as a nation. Split up into numerous and mutually hostile communities, they never, through the fourteen centuries which have elapsed since the end of the old Western empire, shook off the yoke of foreigners completely ; they never un… Italy LanguageITALY LANGUAGE, the Italian language is the language of culture in the whole of the present kingdom of Italy, in some parts of Switzerland (the canton of Ticino and part of the Grisons), in some parts of the Austrian territory (the districts of Trent and Giirz, Istria along with Trieste, and the Dalmatian coast), and in the islands of Corsica and Malta. In the Ionian Islands, likewise, in the mari… Italy LiteratureITALY LITERATURE, 1. Origins. - There is one characteristic fact that distinguishes the Italy of the Middle Ages with regard to its intellectual conditions, and that is the tenacity with which the Latin tradition clung to life. At the end of the 5th century the northern conquerors invaded Italy. The Roman world crumbled to pieces. A new kingdom arose at Ravenna under Theodoric, and there learning … IthacaITHACA, the chief town of Tompkins county, New York, U.S., is prettily situated in a township of the sauce name on the Cayuga Inlet, 1/ miles from the southern end of Lake Cayuga, and 142 miles west by south of Albany. It is at the junction of several railways, has gas and water works, and carries ou some commerce, of which the shipping of coal from the Pennsylvanian anthracite district forms an i… IthacaITHACA ('IOciscri), vulgarly Thiaki (Oicifro2), is next to Pasco the smallest of the seven Ionian Islands, with an area of about 44 square miles. It forms an eparchy of the nomos of Cephalonia in the kingdom of Greece, and its population, which was 9873 in 1870, is given by the census of 1879 at 12,222, of whom 6305 were males. The island consists of two mountain masses, connected by a narrow isth… ItinerariumITINERARIUM. This Latin word, equivalent to road-book, is more particularly employed to designate the descriptions still extant of the ancient Roman roads anl routes of traffic, with the stations and distances, It is usual to distinguish two classes, Itineraria Adnotata or Scripta and Itineraria Picta, - the former having the character of a book, and the latter being a graphic indication of the ro… Itius PoittusITIUS POItTUS, a place of no importance in itself, has a kind of factitious interest as the point whence Julius Caesar sailed from Gaul to Britain. Although Caesar does not mention the Portus in speaking of his first expedition (55 n.c.), his language in describing it as the naval rendezvous before his second invasion (54 n.c.) leaves little doubt that he had sailed from it before. To determine, t… Iturbide, Or YtitrbideITURBIDE, or YTITRBIDE, AUGUSTIN DE (1783-1824), emperor of Mexico from May 1822 to March 1823, was born September 27, 1783, at Valladolid, now Morelia, in Mexico, where his father, an Old Spaniard from Pampeluna, had settled with his creole wife. After enjoying a better education than was then usual in Mexico, Iturbide entered the military service, and in 1810 held the post of lieutenant in the p… ItzehoeITZEHOE, one of the busiest commercial towns of northern Germany, is situated on the Stor, a navigable tributary of the Elbe, in the circle of Steinburg of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, 32 miles northwest of Hamburg and 15 miles north of Gliickstadt. As chief town of the circle, it is the seat of the usual local courts and of a head custom-house. The church of St Lawrence, dating fr… IvanIVAN (or JOANN, i.e., JOHN) I., grand-duke of Moscow from 1328 to 1340, was surnamed Kalita in allusion to the " purse " which he always carried at his girdle. IvanIVAN V., czar from 1682 to 1696, was the son of Alexis by his first wife Maria Miloslayskaia. Ivan IiiIVAN III., surnamed the Great, grand-duke from 1462 to 1505, forms one of the most important figures in the annals of Russia, for to him is due the consolidation of the autocracy. His long reign of forty-three years was very beneficial to his country. He was a skilful diplomatist, and often brought about by intrigue what others could only effect by force of arms. Thus he reduced to submission the … Ivan IvIVAN IV., surnamed the Terrible (Gianni), the first czar of Russia, was a mere child at the time of the death of his father Vasili in 1533. His reign may be divided into three periods : - (1) his minority, under the regency of his stepmother Helen Glinska ; (2) from his attaining his majority till the death of his amiable wife Anastasia Romanova, during which time he was a bold and vigorous ruler,… Ivanovo, Or Ivanovo-voznesenskIVANOVO, or IVANOVO-VOZNESENSK, the "Manchester of Russia," a town in the government of Vladimir, 20 miles north-west of Shua, near the river Uvod, and on the road from Shua to Nerakhta. It consists, as the full name implies, of what were originally two villages - Ivanovo, which existed at least as early as the 16th century, and Voznesensk, of much more recent date - united into a town in 1861. Of… Ivan ViIVAN VI., czar in 1740-41, was son of Anthony Ulrich of Brunswick by his marriage with Anne, granddaughter of Ivan V. The reign of this unfortunate young man lasted but a year, under the regencies of his mother and Biren. Owing to the success of the revolution under Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Greet, lie was confined as a prisoner ? in Schhisselburg, and Anthony- and Anne with their other' ch… IvoryIVORY is essentially equivalent to dentine, that hard substance, not wholly unlike bone, of which most teeth principally consist. By usage, however, its application has become almost restricted to the dentine of those teeth which are large enough to be available for industrial purposes, viz., the tusks of the elephant, the hippopotamus, the walrus, tire narwhal, and the sperm whales. Ivory consist… Ivory CoastIVORY COAST, that part of the West African seaboard which lies between the Grain Coast (now almost all belonging to Liberia) and the Gold Coast, or between Cape Palmas on the west and the Assini river on the east. Ivory, JamesIVORY, JAMES (1765-1842), a Scottish mathematician, was born in Dundee in 1765. In 1779 he entered the university of St Andrews, where after four years study he graduated M.A., distinguishing himself especially as an ardent and successful student of mathematics. He then entered on a regular course of theological training ; but, after two sessions at St Andrews and one at Edinburgh, he abandoned al… Ivory, VegetableIVORY, VEGETABLE. The plant yielding the vegetable ivory of commerce is known to botanists as ? Phytelephas macrocarpa, Ruiz and Pavon. It is a native of South America, occurring chiefly on the banks of the river Magdalena, Colombia, always found in damp localities, not only, however, on the lower coast region as in Darien, but also at a considerable elevation above the sea, It is mostly found in … IvreaIVREA, the ancient Eporedia, a town of northern Italy, capital of a district of the same name, is situated at the foot Baltea, and at the termination of a branch railway line from Chivasso, 29 miles north-north-east of Turin. It is irregularly built, and has an antique and picturesque appearance. The site of the old fortifications is now occupied by promenades. The town possesses an old citadel wi… Ivry-sur-seineIVRY-SUR-SEINE, a town and commune of France, in the arrondissement of Sceaux and the department of Seine, is situated near the left bank of the river Seine, 4 miles south-east of Paris. It has an interesting old church, but of the castle of the 17th century the fine gar dens are the chief memorial. In the Petit Chtiteau died chemicals. There are numerous handsome villas and fine gardens in the ne… IxionIXION, a hero of Thessalian legend, was king of Gyrton. As a punishment for the murder of his father-in-law, Deioneus, madness came upon him, until Zeus purified him of his crime and received him as a guest in Olympus. dEschylus uses him as the type of a guilt-laden mortal' purified and pardoned by divine grace, and the mythical representative of all later penitents (Ear., 441). Ixfon abused his p… Jabalpur, Or JiibbulporeJABALPUR, or JIIBBULPORE,1 a British district in the commissionership of the Central Provinces, India, between 21? 12' and 23? 56' N. lat., and between 76? 40' and 81? 35' E. long., is bounded on the N. by Panna and Maihar, on the E. by Rewah, on the S. by the districts of Mandla, Seoul, and Narsinhpur, and on the W. by Damoh district. Jabalpur consists of a long narrow plain running northeast and… Jabalpur, Or JubbulporeJABALPUR, or JUBBULPORE, the headquarters of the above district, is situated in 23? 11' N. lat., 79? 59' E. long., miles south-east from Sagar. JabiruJABIRU, according to Marcgravel the Brazilian name of a bird, subsequently called by Linmeus -1-fgeteria An apparently accidental transposal of two of the figures given by this author (Just. Nat. Brasilke, pp. 200, 201) misled several of his successors from Piso to Brisson, until noticed by De Buffou (Hist. Nat. Oiseamex, vii. pp. 280-286). bird. Very nearly allied to Mycteria, and also commonly c… JaborandiJABORANDI, a name popularly applied in a generic manner in Brazil and South America to a number of different plants, all of which possess more or less marked sialogogue and sudorific properties. In the year 1875 a drug was introduced under the above name to the notice of medical men in France by Dr Coutinho of Pernambuco, its botanical source being then unknown. When examined by Professor Baillon,… JacaJACA, a frontier city of Spain, in the province of Huesca, formerly capital of a partido in the kingdom of Aragon, is situated on the left bank of the Aragon, at an elevation of 2333 feet above the sea-level. It is the seat of a bishop, and the most important of the public buildings is the massive cathedral, the construction of which was begun under King Ramiro in 1040. The industries of the city … JacamarJACAMAR, a word formed by Brisson from Jacameri, the Brazilian name of a bird, as given by Marcgrave, and since adopted in most European tongues for the species to which it was first applied and others allied to it, forming the Family Galbulidmi of ornithologists, the precise position of which is uncertain, since the best authorities differ greatly thereupon. All will agree that the Jacamars belon… JacanaJACANA,4 the Brazilian name, according to Marcgrave, of certain birds, since found to have some allies in other parts of the world, which are also very generally called by the same appellation, They have been most frequently classed with the Water-hens or Bails (Rallidx), hut are now recognized by many systematists as forming a separate Family, Parricloe,5 whose leaning seems to be rather towards … JacinthJACINTH, a name given to the reddish-brown variety of zircon, known also as Hyacinth. The hyacintlius of ancient writers appears to have been our sapphire, or blue corundum, while the jacinth or hyacinth of modern mineralogists may have been the ancient lyncurium. The true jacinth is a silicate of zirconium, crystallizing in the dimetric or tetragonal system, and exhibiting strong double refractio… JackalJACKAL (Canis aureus), a carnivorous mammal belonging to the dog family. (Canidx), and believed by many naturalists to be one of the species from which certain of the semi-domesticated dogs of Asia and North Africa have been derived. It is dog-like in external appearance, and there is, according to Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, no constant difference between its structure and that of the small canine ra… JackdawJACKDAW, or simply DAW (Old Low German, Daha ; Dutch, Kaauw), the prefix being doubtless imitative of the bird's cry, as indeed is probably the substantive name' - one of the smallest species of the genus Corms (CRow, vol. vi. p. 617), and a very well known inhabitant of Europe, the C. monaltda of ornithologists. In some of its habits it much resembles its congener the ROOK (q.v.), with which it c… JacksonJACKSON, chief city of Madison county, Tennessee, U.S., is situated on the Forked Deer river, about 70 miles north-east of Memphis. JacksonJACKSON, capital of the State of Mississippi, U.S., and chief city of Hinds county, is pleasantly situated on the right bank of the Pearl river, about 180 miles north of New Orleans, with which it is connected by rail. JacksonJACKSON, chief city of Jackson county, Michigan, U.S., is situated on the Grand river, about 75 miles west of Detroit. Jackson, AndrewJACKSON, ANDREW (1767-1845), seventh president of the United States, was born March 15, 1767, at the Waxhaw or Warsaw settlement (whose position in relation to the later boundaries of North and South Carolina is unknown), whither his parents had immigrated from Carrickfergus in Ireland in 1765. Jackson had no regular education. He had some slight share in the war of independence, and was taken pri… Jackson, Titomas JonathanJACKSON, TITOMAS JONATHAN (1824-1863), "Stonewall Jackson," a distinguished Confederate general in the American civil war, was born in Harrison county, Virginia, 21st January 1824, and came of that Scotch-Irish stock to whose hardy virtues the middle States of America are largely indebted for the pure and resolute virtues of their people. His early education was only such as could be furnished by … JacksonvilleJACKSONVILLE, the chief city in Duval county, Florida, U.S., and the largest in the State, is situated on the west bank of the St John's river, 25 miles from the sea. JacksonvilleJACKSONVILLE, the chief city of Morgan county, Illinois, U.S., on Mauvaiseterre Creek, a tributary of the Illinois river, is situated at the intersection of several railways, about 200 miles S.S.W. of Chicago. Jackson, WilliamJACKSON, WILLIAM (1730-1803), an English musician of repute, was born at Exeter, in May 1730. His father, a grocer, bestowed a liberal education upon him, but, on account of the lad's strong predilection for music, was induced to place him under the care of John Silvester, the organist of Exeter Cathedral, with whom he remained about two years. In 1748 he went to London, and studied under John Tra… JacobJACOB (ni,V.! or 2171,!, derived according to Gen. xxv. 26, xxvii. 36, from :p.v, and meaning "one who seizes the heel" or "supplants "), the younger son of Isaac and Rebekah, and the father of the twelve patriarchs. According to the Elohistic (Levitical) narrative in Genesis, he was born in the land of Canaan when his father was sixty years of age. After Esau, his twin brother, at the age of fort… JacobabadJACOBABAD, a municipality and the chief town of the frontier district of Upper Sind, India, is situated in 28? 17' N. lat. and 68? 28' 45" E. long. JacobiJACOBI, Timm GUSTAV JACOB (1804-1851), one of the great mathematicians of the present century, was born at Potsdam, of Jewish parentage, December 10, 1804. lle studied at Berlin university, where he obtained the degree of doctor of philosophy in 1825, his thesis being an analytical discussion of the theory of fractions. In 1827 he became "extraordinary" and in 1829 "ordinary" professor of mathemat… Jacobi, Friedrich HeinrichJACOBI, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH (1743-1819), a distinguished writer on philosophy, was born at Dilsseldorf on the 25th January 1743. The second son of a wealthy merchant, who owned an extensive sugar factory near Diisseldorf, he was educated for a commercial career, partly in his native place, partly at Frankfort-on-the-Main. At the age of sixteen he was sent to complete his training at Geneva, where h… Jacobite ChurchJACOBITE CHURCH, an ecclesiastical organization thinly spread over Syria, Mesopotamia, and Babylonia, having for its distinctive doctrinal principle the Monophysite thesis with regard to the person of Christ ; it consequently accepts the decrees of the second ("Robber ") synod cf Ephesus, and rejects those of the council of Chalcedon. It has some minor peculiarities in points of detail, - for exam… Jacobs, Christian Friedrich WilhelmJACOBS, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1764-1847), a German scholar and author, was born at Gotha, October 6, 1764. After studying philology and theology at Jena and Gottingen, he in 1785 became teacher in the gymnasium of his native town, and in 1802 was appointed to an office in the public library. In 1807 he became classical teacher in the lyceum of Munich, but he again returned to Gotha in 1810 … Jacotot, JosephJACOTOT, JOSEPH (1770-1840), a French educationist, and author of the method of " Emancipation intellectuelle," was born at Dijon, March 4, 1770. He was educated at the university of Dijon, where in his nineteenth year he was chosen professor of Latin, after which he studied law, . became advocate, and at the same time devoted a large amount of his attention to mathematics. In 1788 he organized a … Jacquard, Joseph MarieJACQUARD, JOSEPH MARIE (1752-1834), inventor of the Jacquard silk-weaving loom, was born of humble parents at Lyons, July 7,1752. The earlier part of his life is involved in considerable obscurity, though it is said that his mechanical talent was manifest from an early age. Jacquard married in 1777, and at the death of his father fell heir to two looms and a small sum of money. These, however, lik… JadeJADE, a name popularly applied to several distinct ornamental stones, but restricted scientifically to a definite mineral species known as nephrite. The term nephrite, from veybp4s, the kidney, refers to the reputed value of the mineral in renal diseases, whence it was formerly known as Lapis nephriticus. Probably the word jade is a corruption of the Spanish Itijada, since this mineral is one of t… JaenJAEN, a province of Spain, in the north-east of Anthluch, is bounded on the N. by Ciudad Real, on the E. by Albacete and Granada, on the S. by Granada, and on the W. by Cordoba, and has an area of 5184 square miles. It may be described in general terms as consisting of the upper basin of the Guadalquivir, by which it is traversed from east to west. The main affluents of that river within the provi… JaenJAEN, the capital of the above province, is picturesquely situated 37 miles north of Granada and 120 miles east of Seville, on the Jaen (an affluent of the Guadalquivir), at the base and on the slopes of an acclivity surmounted by an ancient Moorish citadel with which the walls of the city are connected. Its elevation above the sea-level is about 1800 feet. The streets, rising above one another on… Jaffna, Or JaffnapatamJAFFNA, or JAFFNAPATAM, a town of Ceylon, situated in a peninsula of the same name at the northern extremity of the island. It is a place of' 34,684 inhabitants, according to the census of 1871 ; and, besides the usual administrative buildings of a district-town, it has a college (established in 1872) and a public library. The fort was described by Tennent as "the most perfect little military work… JaguarJAGUAR (Felis onca). This powerful and ferocious animal is the largest of the species of Felicia found upon the American continent. It ranges from Texas through Central and South America into Patagonia. In the countries which bound its northern limit it is not frequently met with, but in South America it is still quite common, and Azara states that when the Spaniards first settled the district bet… JahanabadJAHANABAD, a town in , Gaya, district, Bengal, situated on the Patna road, 25? 13' 10" N. let., 85? 2' 10" E. long. Jahn, JohannJAHN, JoHANN (1750-1816), a distinguished Orientalist and Biblical critic of the Roman Catholic Church, was born at Tasswitz, Moravia, on June 18, 1750. After completing his school education at Znaim he studied philosophy at Olmiitz, and in 1772 began his theological studies at the Prmmonstratensian convent of Bruck in the neighbourhood of Znaim. Having been ordained to the priesthood in 1775, he … Jahn, OttoJAHN, OTTO (1813-1869), eminent alike as an archeologist, philologist, and art critic, was born June 16, 1813, at Kiel, where he began under Nitzsch the philological and archreological education which he continued at Leipsic under Hermann and at Berlin under Lachmann and Gerhard. After the completion of his university studies he travelled for three years (1836-39) in France and Italy ; having " ha… JainsJAINS, the most numerous and influential soct of heretics, or noncomformists to the Brahmanical system of Hinduism, in India, are found in every province of Upper Hindustan, in the cities along the Ganges, and in Calcutta. But they are more numerous to the west - in Mewar, Guzerat, and in the upper, part of the Malabar coast - and are also scattered throughout the whole of the southern peninsula. … Jaintia HillsJAINTIA HILLS. For administrative purposes the Jaintia Hills are regarded as a subdivision of the Khasi and Jaintia Hills district, in the province of Assam. They cover an area of about 2000 square miles, and are bounded N. by the district of Nowgong, E. by Cachar, S. by Sylhet, and W. by the Khasi Hills. The Jaintia Hills are divided into twenty-five fiscal divisions, of which three are inhabited… JaisalmirJAISALMIR, a native state in Rajputana, under the political superintendence of that agency and the Government of India, lying between 26? 5' and 28? 24' N. lat. and between 69? 30' and 72? 50' E. long., with an area of 16,447 square miles, is bounded on the N. by Bahawalpur, on the E. by Bikaner and Jodhpur, on the S. by Jodhpur and Sind, and on the W. by Khairpur state and Sind. Jaisalmir is almo… Jajpur, Or JajporeJAJPUR, or JAJPORE, a municipal town in Cuttack district, Bengal, is situated on the right bank of the Baitarani river, in 20? 50' 45" N. lat., 86? 22' 56" E. long. It contains the usual subdivisional and public buildings, a charitable dispensary, a Government-aided school, &c. It was the capital of the province of Orissa under the Kesari dynasty until the 11th century, when it was superseded by C… Jakob, Ludwig Heinricii VonJAKOB, LUDWIG HEINRICII VON (1759-1827), a German writer on political economy, was born at Wettin, 26th February 1759. After receiving preparatory instruction at Merseburg and at the gymnasium of Halle, he in 1777 entered the university of the latter city, at first devoting his attention specially to philological studies. In 1780 he was appointed teacher at the gymnasium, and, now occupy- inff his… JalaJALA.uN, a decayed town in the above district, and the former capital of a native state, is situated in 26? 8' 32" N. lat., 79? 22' 24" E. long. JalandharJALANDHAR, a municipal town and cantonment in the above district, is situated in 31? 19' 50" N. lat. kingdom of Kato* which dates back to the period before Alexander's invasion. Hwen Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim of the 7th century, describes the town as 2 miles in circuit, the metropolis of a considerable state. Ibrahim Shah of Ghazni reduced the town to the Mahometan yoke, and it appears a… Jalandhar, Or JullundurJALANDHAR, or JULLUNDUR, a British district in the lieutenant-governorship of the Punjab, India, lies between 30? 56' 30" and 31? 37' N. lat., and between 75? 6' 30" and 77? 49' 15" E. long., forming the southernmost district in the divisions of the same name. It is bounded on the N.E. by the district of Hushiarpur, on the N.W. by the native state of Kapurthdla and the river Bids, and on the S. by… JalapJALAP, a cathartic drug consisting of the tuberous toots of Exogonlum Purga, Benth., a convolvulaceous plant growing on the eastern declivities of the Mexican Andes at au elevation of 5000 to 8000 feet above the level of the sea, more especially about the neighbourhood of Chiconquiaco, and near San Salvador on the eastern slope of the Cofre de Perote. In these localities, where the temperature va… Jalapa, Or XalapaJALAPA, or XALAPA, the Aztec Xalapan, a town of Mexico, in the state of Vera Cruz, and about 70 miles inland from the city and port of that name, with which it communicates by a railway opened since 1870. JalaunJALAUN, a British district in the lieutenant-governorship of the North-Western Provinces of India, lies between forms the northern district of the Jhdnsi division. It is plain of Bundelkhand, north of the hill country, and is a dead level of cultivated land, almost destitute of trees, boundary rivers form the only interesting feature in Jahtun. watering. Jaldun has little picturesqueness or beauty… JalnaJALNA, or JAm.xn, a town in Hyderabad state, southern India, 19? 50' 30" N. lat., and 75? 56' E. long., 240 miles north-west of Sikandarabad (Secunderabad), 38 east of Aurangabad, and 210 miles north-east of Bombay. It has a British cantonment, situated on a gentle declivity, at an elevation of 1652 feet above the sea, in an arid tract of country ; the lines were built in 1827. Two miles southwest… JamaicaJAMAICA, an island lying between the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, and about 80 miles to the southward of the eastern extremity of the island of Cuba, within 17? 40' and 18' 30' N. lat., and 76? 10' to 78? 30' W. long. It is the largest island of the British West Indies, being 135 (or, as sometimes stated, 144) miles in length and 211 to 49 miles in breadth. Its area is about 4200 square m… JamesJAMES, or, in full, JAMES FREDERICK EDWARD STUART (1688-1766), prince of Wales, called by his adherents James III. of England, but better known as the Pretender, was the son of James II. and Mary of Modena, and was born in St James's Palace, London, June 10th 1688. The general opinion prevailing at the time of his birth that he was a supposititious child seemed to be confirmed by a variety of circ… JamesJAMES I. (1566-1625), king of England. This sovereign, James VI. of Scotland, in whom the crowns of Scotland and England were united, was the son of Mary Queen of Scots and of Henry, Lord Darnley, and was born in the castle of Edinburgh 19th June 1566. His mother while in captivity having been forced to abdicate the sovereignty, James was crowned king at Stirling July 29, 1567. The regency was ves… JamesJAMES 1. (1394-1437), king of Scotland, third son of Robert III. and of Annabella Drummond of Stobhall, was born at Dunfermline in 1394. A second son, John, did not survive infancy. David, duke of Rothesay, the eldest son, had died under suspicious circumstances while committed to the care of the king's brother the duke of Albany, to whom had also been delegated the virtual government of the kingd… JamesJAMES V. (1512-1542), king of Scotland, son of James IV., was born at Linlithgow 10th April 1512, and crowned king at Scone in October 1513. At first the regency was vested in his mother, but after her marriage with the earl of Angus in 1514 the office was transferred by the estates to the duke of Albany. The English forebore to follow up their victory at Flodden, but the close connexion of Albany… JamesJAMES ('Idao/3es). This name, the Hebrew Yakob or Jacob, belongs to several persons mentioned in the New Testament, of whom the first that appears in the Gospels is L James the WA of Zebedee. He was among the first who were called to be Christ's immediate followers and afterwards chosen to be his apostles, and is one - the others being Peter, Andrew, and John (the brother of James) - of the always… James, George PayneJAMES, GEORGE PAYNE Ruxsror,r) (1801-1860), English novelist, was born in George Street, Hanover Square, London, in 1801, and was educated at Greenwich and afterwards in France. He began to write early, and had, according to his own account, composed the stories afterwards published as A ,S"tiiny of Pearls before he was seventeen. Contributing plentifully to newspapers and magazines, he came under… James IiJAMES II. (1633-1701), king of England, and as king of Scotland James VII., second surviving son of Charles I. and Henrietta Maria, was born at the palace of St James's, October 15., 1633, and was created duke of York in January 1643. During the civil war he was taken prisoner by Fairfax at Oxford in 1646, but in 1648 be made his escape to Holland. After the second failure of the Stuart cause he s… James IiJAMES II. (1430-1460), twin son of James I., was born in 1430, and, Alexander his elder brother having died in infancy, was shortly after the assassination of his father crowned king at Holyrood. During his minority the house of Douglas used every endeavour to extend their influence, - William, who succeeded to the earldom in 1443, ultimately making no pretension to conceal his claims to independe… James IiiJAMES III. (1452-1488), king of Scotland, son of James II., was born 1st June 1452, and shortly after the death of his father was crowned king at Kelso. The custody of the young prince was entrusted to Bishop Kennedy of St Andrews, but in 1466 he was seized at Linlithgow by Lord Boyd, who in this way succeeded in obtaining the governorship of the royal fortresses, and also won the apparent friends… James IvJAMES IV. (1472-1513), king of Scotland, son of James III., was born March 17,1472, and on the death of his father in 1488 was crowned king at Scone, probably on June 26th. As he not only adopted an entirely opposite policy with the nobles from his father, but also showed great affability towards the lower classes of his subjects, among whom he delighted to wander incognito, few kings of Scotland … James, John AngellJAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859), preacher and author, was born at Pdandford, Dorsetshire, June 0, 1785. After obtaining at school a knowledge of reading, writing, ciphering, and a little Latin, he was at the age of thirteen bound to a seven years' apprenticeship with a linendraper at Poole, with the view of assisting his father in his business at Blandforcl; but about the close of his term of appre… Jameson, AnnaJAMESON, ANNA (1791-18G0), was born in Dublin in 1794. Her father, Mr Brownell Murphy, who was a miniature and enamel painter of some celebrity, took part in his early days in the political commotions which then agitated Ireland. His rethoval to England in 1798 confined his attention fortunately to his more peaceful calling, in which he attained considerable skill, hut his daughter's mind seems to… Jameson, Or JamesoneJAMESON, or JAMESONE, GEORGE (c. 1587-1644), a Scotch portrait painter, was born, probably in 1587, at Aberdeen, where his father was architect and a member of the guild. After studying painting under Rubens at Antwerp, with Vandyck as a fellow pupil, he returned in 1620 to Aberdeen, where he was married in 1624 and remained at least until 1630, after which he took up his residence in Edinburgh. T… Jameson, RobertJAMESON, ROBERT (1774-1854), regius professor of natural history in the university of Edinburgh, was born at Leith July 11, 1771. After an education at Leith grammar school and Edinburgh university, he became assistant to a surgeon in his native town ; but, having studied natural history under Dr Walker in 1792 and 1793, he felt that his true province lay in that science, for which indeed he had h… James, The General Epistle OfJAMES, THE GENERAL EPISTLE OF. Of the author of this epistle enough has been said in the previous article (3) ; it only remains to add in connexion with the introductory words thereof that probably the same reason actuated both St James and St Jude to leave out any mention that they were "brethren of the Lord." We need not enter into the question of what relationship is intended by those words, th… JamestownJAMESTOWN, a village in Chautauqua county, New York, is situated on the Chautauqua Outlet at the southern end of Chautauqua Lake, about 55 miles south-south-west of Buffalo. Jamieson, JohnJAMIESON, JOHN (1759-1838), author of the Scottish Dictionary, was born in Glasgow, where his father was a Dissenting clergyman, March 3, 1759. He was educated at Glasgow university, and subsequently attended classes in Edinburgh. After six years' theological study, Jamieson was licensed to preach in 1779. From 1780 till 1797 he was pastor of the Secession (Antiburgher) congregation of Forfar ; an… JamniaJAMNIA ('Iap,via or 'Ici,uveia), the Greek form of the Hebrew name Jabneel (Josh, xv. 11) or Jabneh (2 Cbron. xxvi. 6), the modern Arabic Yebna, a city of Palestine, on the border between Dan and Judah, situated 13 miles south of Jaffa, and 4 miles east of the sea-shore. The modern village _stands on an isolated sandy hillock, surrounded by gardens, with olives to the north, and sand-dunes to the … JamrudJAMRUD, a ruined fort in Peshawar district, Punjab, India, situated in 34? N. lat. and 71? 24' E. long., at the mouth of the Khyber Pass, 1670 feet above sea-level. Jams And JelliesJAMS AND JELLIES are conserves of the pulp and juice of succulent and juicy fruits prepared by boiling with sugar. They differ from each other only in the fact that jam is a thick pulpy opaque preparation, sometimes of the entire fruit - rind, pulp, and kernel - and sometimes of fruits only partly broken, as in the case of black currant jam, while jellies are pure transparent gelatinous preparatio… JamuJAMU, or Jtatmoo, a town in Kashmir state, Punjab, India, headquarters of Jamu province, in 32? 43' 52" N. lat. and 74? 54' 14" E. long. on the Tavi, a tributary of the Chenab, among the mountains of the outer Himalayan range. The town and palace stand upon the right bank-of the river ; the fort overhangs the left shore at an elevation of 150 feet above the stream. The lofty whitened walls of the … JanesvilleJANESVILLE, chief town of Rock county, Wisconsin, U.S., was founded in 1836, and. received its city charter in 1853. Jangipur, Or JailinuirpurJANGIPUR, or JAILiNUIRPUR, the chief town of the subdivision of the same name, in Murshiclabad district, Bengal, situated on the left bank of the Bheigirathi, in 24? 28' N. lat. and 88? 6' 45" E. long. Janina, Jannina, JoanninaJANINA, JANNINA, JOANNINA, or, as the name is frequently written according to its actual Albanian pronunciation, YANINA, a town of European Turkey in southern Albania, or - to retain the ancient designation - Epirus. The position of Janina is strikingly picturesque. At the foot of the grey limestone mass of Mount Mitzekeli (1500 ft.), which forms part of the fine range of hills running north from … Janin, Jules GabrielJANIN, JULES GABRIEL (1804-1874), a remarkable instance of a certain kind of critic, was born at St Etienne, the great manufacturing town of the department of the Loire, on December 24, 1804-, and died at his house near Paris in June 1874. His father was a lawyer, and lie was well educated, first at St Etienne, and then at the famous Coll6ge Louis-le-Grand at Paris. He betook himself to journalism… JansenJANSEN [JANSENIUS], CORNELIUS (1585 ? 1638), bishop of Ypres, and the author of the celebrated Angustinus, was born, of humble Catholic parentage, at Acquoy or Ackooi, a small village near. Leerdam, and 7 miles to the north-east of Gorcum, Holland, on 28th October 1585. After completing his preliminary studies at Leerdam and Utrecht, he in 1602 proceeded to Louvain, where he studied for a short ti… JansenismJANSENISM. The Angustinus, sea doctrines S. Augustini de hamanw nature sanitate, irgritluline, et mediciaa, ad-versus Pelagianos et Massilienses of Jansen, published in 1640, is a work in three folio volumes. The first of these is devoted to an historical exposition of the Pelagian and Massillon (semi-Pelagian) heresies ; the second sets forth the Augustinian doctrine as to the state of innocence … Janssen, Or JansenJANSSEN, or JANSEN (sometimes JouNsoN), CORNELlus (1590-1665), painter, was born at Amsterdam about 1590. Janssens, Or JansensJANSSENS, or JANSENS, VAN NUYSSEN, ABRAHAM (1567-1632), painter, was born at Antwerp in 1567. He studied under Jan Snellinek, was a " master " in 1602, and in 1607 was dean of the master-painters. Till the appearance of Rubens he was considered perhaps the best historical painter of his time. The styles of the two artists are not unlike. In correctness of drawing Janssens excelled his great contem… Jan Uarius, StJAN UARIUS, ST, or SAN GENXARO, the patron saint of Naples, according to the Roman Breviary, was bishop of Benevento, and flourished towards the close of the 3d century after Christ. On the outbreak of the persecution by Diocletian and Maximian, he was taken to Nola and brought before Timotheus the governor of Campania_ on account of his profession of the Christian religion. After he had withstood… JanuaryJANUARY, the first month in our present calendar, consists of thirty-one days. It was, however, not the first month of the year in the British Isles till the reformation of the calendar was made in 1752, when the legislature, by an Act passed in the preceding year, altered the mode of reckoning time from the Julian to the Gregorian style. At this period it was directed that the legal year which ha… JanusJANUS, a Roman god, after whom the month of January was named. His temple was open in war and closed during peace, and the ceremony of closing it for the third time in Roman history was performed by Augustus, 29 B.C., when he had established his authority over the whole empire. This temple, which was in reality only an arch or gateway, facing east and west, stood near the forum. When most of the R… JapanJAPAN, the empire of Japan consists of a long chain of islands separated from the eastern coast of Asia by the Seas of Japan and Okhotsk, and extending from 24? to 50? 40' N. lat., and from 124? to 156? 38' E. long. It commences with the Kurile Islands and descends in a southwesterly direction to the Loochoo group, to which the Japanese Government reasserted their claim in 1875. The southern porti… JapanningJAPANNING is the art of coating surfaces of metal, wood, &c., with a variety of varnishes, which are dried and hardened on, by means of a high temperature, in stoves or hot chambers, which drying processes constitute the main distinguishing features of the art. The trade owes its name to the fact that it is an imitation of the famous lacquering of Japan, although the latter is prepared with entire… JaphethJAPHETH (n.'), son of Noah. The most natural rendering of Gen. x. 21 is that which makes Shem the cider brother of Japheth, though the opposite view of the passage in the A. V. follows the Hebrew accents. Interpreters are not agreed whether the sacred text regards Japheth as the second or third son of Noah. In Gen. ix. 24 " youngest " is an easier rendering than "younger," but the name of Ham is a… JarnacJARNAC, chief town of a canton in the arrondissement of Cognac, in the department of Charente, France, is situated on the right bank of the river Charente, about S miles cast of Cognac, and 18 miles west of Angouleme. JaromierzJAROMIERZ, a town in the department of Kiiniginhof, Bohemia, situated at the junction of the Aupa and Elbe. Jarrah WoodJARRAH WOOD is the product of a large tree (Eucalyptus nzarginata) found in western Australia, where it is said to be very abundant. The trees grow straight in the stem to a great size, and yield squared timber up to 40 feet in length and 24 inches in diameter. The wood is very hard, heavy (sp. gr. 1010), and close-grained, with a mahogany-red colour, and sometimes sufficient " figure " to render … Jarrow-on-tyneJARROW-ON-TYNE, a town and municipal burgh of Durham, is situated on the south bank of the Tyne, 3 miles south-west by west of South Shields, and 7 miles south-east of Newcastle, with which it is connected by rail. The parish church of St Paul, rebuilt in 1783 and again in 1866, still retains some fragments of the original Saxon edifice founded about 685. Close by are the scattered ruins of the mo… Jashar, Book OfJASHAR, BOOK OF. See HEBREW LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE, vol. xi. p. 598. JASHPUlt, a tributary state of Chutia Nagpur, Bengal, between 22? 17' 5" and 23? 15' 30" N. lat., and between 83? 32' 50" and 84? 26' 15" E. long., with an area of 1947 square miles, is bounded on the N. and W. by the tributary state of Sargiija, on the S. by Gangpur and Uclaipur, and on the E. by Lohardagd district. The state o… Jasmine, Or JessamineJASMINE, or JESSAMINE, botanicallyJasminton, a genus of shrubs or climbers constituting the principal part of the natural order Jasnzinacew, and comprising about sixty species, of which forty or more occur in the gardens of Britain. The plants of the genus are mostly natives of the warmer regions of the Old World, but there are one or two South American species. The leaves are pinnate or ternate, … Jasmin, JacquesJASMIN, JACQUES (1798-1864), a noted Gascon poet, was born at Agen, March 6, 1798. His childhood was spent in the midst of privations and alI the straits of poverty, and he boasted in afterlife that he had succeeded in breaking up the traditional chair in which the Jasmins had hitherto been carried to the workhouse in sickness and old age. His father, who was .a tailor, had a certain facility for … JasonJASON, grandson of the god Poseidon or of the king Cretheus, is by this descent as by his name ('I6.crww,"Iao-os, lacrZwv, &c., can hardly be separated from 'Ms,'Iacr-r4 'Icioves &c., see Curt., Gr. Gesch., i., note 34) connected with the seafaring Ionians and their Poseidon religion, He was the leader of the Argonautic expedition, for the details of which see ARGONAUTS. After he returned from it … JasperJASPER, an opaque close-grained variety of quartz, variously tinted, but usually either red or brown, - the colour being due in the former case to the presence of peroxide of iron, and in the latter to the same oxide in a hydrated condition. Frequently the colour is not uniform, and if the tints be disposed in stripes or bands the mineral is termed riband jasper. A brown jasper occurring in nodule… Jassy, Jasii, Or JaschiJASSY, JASII, or JASCHI, formerly the capital of the principality of Moldavia, and now the chief town of a district in Roumania, is situated in the valley of the Bacldui (a tributary of the Pruth), in 47? 10' N. lat. and 27? 30' E. long., about 200 miles to the north of Bucharest. The surrounding country consists of hill and dale, and the town with its widely scattered houses intermingled with tre… JaszJASZ - BERI:iNY, a corporate town of Hungary, and formerly capital of the Jaszsag (Jazygia) district (since 1876 incorporated with the Cis?Tisian county of JilszNagy-Kun-Szolnok), is pleasantly situated on both banks of the Zagyva, crossed there by a stone bridge, and on the. Hatvan-Szoluok line of railway, 39 miles east of Budapest, 475 29' N. lat., 19? 57' E. long. It is the seat of a royal cour… Jativa, Or San Felipe De JativaJATIVA, or SAN FELIPE DE JATIVA, according to the old orthography XATIVA, a city of Spain in the province of Valencia, is picturesquely situated on the margin of a beautiful and fertile huerta or plain, at the foot of an overhanging eminence., on the right bank of the Albaida, a tributary of the Jilcar. The principal public building is the collegiate church, begun in 1114 ; it has a fine dome. The… JatsJATS, an Indian people estimated to form two-fifths of the entire population of the Punjab and half that of the Riljput states. They are also widely spread through Sind, Baluchistan, and the North-Western Provinces. Their traditions indicate an immigration from Ghazni or Kandahar, but writers of authority have identified them with the ancient Getm,1 and there is strong reason to believe them a deg… JauerJAUER, chief town of a circle in the government district of Liegnitz, in the province of Silesia, Prussia, is situated on the Wfithende Neisse. St Martin's church, recently renovated, dates from 1267-90, and the evangelical church from 1655. The castle has been a penitentiary since 1746 ; and in the town there is a Protestant gymnasium and a hospital. Jauer manufactures leather, buckskin, carpets,… JauharyJAUHARY. JaundiceJAUNDICE (Fr. Jaunisse, from jaune, yellow), or ICTERUS (from its resemblance to the colour of the golden oriole, of which Pliny relates that if a jaundiced person looks upon it he recovers but the bird dies), a term in medicine applied to a yellow coloration of the skin and other parts of the body, depending in most instances on some derangement affecting the liver. This yellow colour be regarded… JaunpurJAUNPUR, a British district in the lieutenant-governorship of the North-Western Provinces, India, lying between 25? 23' 15" and 20? 12' N. lat., and between 82? 10' and 83? 7' 45" E. long. It forms the north-eastern district of the Allababad division, and is bounded on the N. and N.W. by the Oudh districts of Faizabad, Partabgarh, and Sultanpur, on the E. and N.E. by Ghazipur and Azamgarh, on the … JawarowJAWAROW, the chief town of a district in the Austrian crown-laud of Galicia, with extensive suburbs. JaxartesJAXARTES. See SIR DARIA. JAY (French, Ugai), a well-known and very beautiful European bird, the Corms glandarius of Limixus, the Garraus glandarius of modern ornithologists. To this species are more or less closely allied numerous birds inhabiting the Palmarctic and Indian Regions, as well as the greater part of America, but not occurring in the Antilles, in the southern portion of the Neotropical… Jay, JohnJAY, JOHN (1745-1829), American statesman, was the descendant of a refugee Huguenot family, and was born at New York, December 12, 1745. After three years spent in the house of the pastor of the French church at New Rochelle, followed by four under a private tutor at home, he entered King's (now Columbia) College in 1760. On graduating there, May 15, 1764, he entered the office of Mr Kissam, an em… Jay, WilliamJAY, WILLIAM (1769-1853), dissenting preacher and religions author, was born at Tisbury in Wiltshire on May 6, 1769, The son of a stone mason, he had adopted his father's calling, when his appearance attracted the attention of the Rev. Cornelius Winter, the dissenting minister. Mr Winter at that time presided over a religious seminary at Marlborough, in which, with his advice and assistance, the y… Jean D'angely, SaintJEAN D'ANGELY, SAINT, chief town of au arrondissement in the department of Charente-Inferienre, France, is situated in a fertile vine-bearing district on the right bank of the river Boutonne, 16 miles south-east of La Rochelle. The most interesting buildings are the ruined abbey, destroyed. in 156S, two large towers used as a prison and forming the remains of a 17th century church, an embattled cl… Jebeil, Jubeil, Or DjebailJEBEIL, JUBEIL, or DJEBAIL, an ancient town of Syria, i-4 pleasantly situated on a slight eminence near the sea, about 20 miles north of Beyrout. It is surrounded by a wall, a mile and a half in circumference, with square towers at the angles, which along with the old castle at the south-cast corner are attributed to the crusaders. In the gardens and vineyards that surround the town lie n?merous b…
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