Volume 2 [ANA-ATH]: A1iistides to Arbaces


9th Edition of Encyclopedia Britannica - free ninth edition online encyclopedia Britannica Volume 2 [ANA-ATH]: A1iistides to Arbaces A1iistides A1IISTIDES, 2Emus, surnamed Theodorus, a distinguished Greek rhetorician or sophist, was the son of Enda.- mon, a priest of Zeus, and was born at Adriani, in Mysia. The date of his birth is given by some as 129 A.D., by others, with more probability, as 117. He studied with great assiduity, and early manifested an uncommon aptitude for all that pertained to the art of rhetoric. He travelled extens… Administration ADMINISTRATION. - The administrative statistics of the province will be given separately for each of the ten districts mentioned in the foregoing table under their alphabetical headings. Here it will suffice to say, that Assam as a whole is under a Chief Commissioner who is directly responsible to the Governor-General in council. The Assam districts form what is called a non-regulation province - … Anaxagoras ANAXAGORAS, according to the most probable calculations, was born about the year 500 B. c. At his native town of Clazomenx, in Asia Minor, he had, it appears, some amount of property and prospects of political influence, both of which he surrendered, from a fear that they would interfere with his search after the knowledge of nature. In early manhood he went to Athens, which was rapidly becoming t… Anaxarchus ANAXARCHUS, a Grecian philosopher of the Eleatic school, was born in Abdera, and flourished about 340 B.C. He was the companion of Alexander in his expedition into Asia, and seems, from anecdotes that have been preserved, to have enjoyed his intimate friendship. He checked the vainglory of Alexander, when, elated with pride, he aspired to the honours of divinity, by pointing to his wounded finger,… Anaxilaus ANAXILAUS of Larissa, a physician and Pythagorean philosopher, was banished from Rome by Augustus, B.C. 28, on the charge of practising the magic art. Anaximander ANAXIMANDER, the second of the physical philosophers of Ionia, belonged, like his predecessor Thales, to the city of Miletus. His biography is a blank. The computations of Apollodorus have fixed the year of his birth at 611, and of his death a short while after 547 B.C. Tradition, probably correct in its general estimate, represents him as a successful student of astronomy and geography, and as on… Anaximenes ANAXIMENES of Miletus may have been a younger contemporary of Anaximander, whose pupil or friend the ordinary tradition represents him to have been. To him it seemed that the air, with all its variety of contents, its universal presence, and all the vagueness which it has for the popular fancy as the apparent source of life and growth, was what maintained the universe, even as breath, which is our… Anaximenes ANAXIMENES, a Greek historian and rhetorician, was born at Lampsacus, in Asia Minor, in the 4th century B.C. He accompanied Alexander, whom he is said to have instructed in rhetoric, on his expedition against Persia. He wrote a history of Philip and of Alexander, and likewise twelve books on the early history of Greece, but only a very few fragments of these exist. The treatise 'Prp-optai 7rpOs 'A… Anchises ANCHISES ('A-A/miss), in Greek, Legend, son of Capys and grandson of Assaracus, his mother being Themis, daughter of Ilus, the founder of Ilium or Troy, to the ruling family of which, at the time of the Trojan war, he was also, on the paternal side, related, since Assaracus had been a. brother of Ibis xx. 231-239). From the Assyrian character of the name Assaracus, from the intercourse between the… Anchovy ANCHOVY (Eagraulis, Cuv.), a family of small fishes akin to the shad and the sprat, all three being of the Clupeidee, or Herring tribe. There are six or seven species of anchovy found in the seas of Europe, of tropical America, and of India. Of these the most important and the largest is the common anchovy, Engraulis encrasicholus, so called from the bitter taste of its head, and the ancient belie… Anchylosis, Or Ankylosis ANCHYLOSIS, or ANKYLOSIS (from (17KAos, bent, crooked), stiffness of a joint, the result of injury or disease. Ancillon, Charles ANCILLON, CHARLES, son of David Ancillon, and one of a distinguished family of French Protestants, was born 28th July 1659, at Metz, and died, 5th July 1715, at Berlin. He studied law at Marburg, Geneva, and Paris, where he was called to the bar. At the request of the Huguenots of his native place, he pleaded its cause at the court of Louis XIV., urging that it should be excepted in the revocation… Ancillon, David ANCILLON, DAVID, an eminent French Protestant divine, father of the preceding, was born, 17th March 1617, at Metz, and died, 3d September 1692, at Berlin. Ancillon, Johann Peter Friederich ANCILLON, JOHANN PETER FRIEDERICH, a historian and Prussian statesman, one of the family of French Protestant refugees noticed above, was born at Berlin, 30th April 1766, and died there, 19th April 1837. Descended from a family of divines, he early selected the ecclesiastical profession, and studied theology first at Berlin and then at Geneva. Shortly after finishing his course he was appointed mi… Ancona ANCONA., a city of Italy, and capital of the province of the same -name, is pleasantly situated on the Adriatic, 132 miles N.E. of Rome, in a sort of amphitheatre between two hills - Monte Ciriaco and Monte Guasco or Caner?. The streets are narrow and irregular, but the city contains some fine buildings, among which may be mentioned the cathedral of St Ciriaco (which is said to occupy the site of … Ancona ANCONA, a province of the kingdom of Italy, bounded on the N. by the Adriatic Sea and the province of Pesaro-Urbino, on the W. by Pesaro-Urbino and Umbria, on the S. by Macerata, and on the E. by the Adriatic. It forms part of the old district of the Marches, which passed from the dominion of the Pope to that of Victor Emmanuel in 1860. The Marches comprise the March of Ancona on the north and the… Ancus ANCUS M.kucius, the fourth king of the Romans, succeeded Tullus Hostilius about 638 B.C., and reigned until 614. Andalusia, Or Andalucia ANDALUSIA, or ANDALUCIA, an extensive region in the south of Spain, bounded on the N. by New Castile and Estremadura, on the W. by Portugal, on the S. by the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, and on the E. by the Mediterranean and Murcia. Although no longer officially recognised, yet, like the other ancient divisions of Spain, it is probably better known and oftener referred to, at least in popular … Andaman Islands ANDAMAN ISLANDS. These islands lie in the Bay of Bengal, 590 geographical miles from the Hoogly mouth of the Ganges, 160 miles from Cape Negrais in British Burma, the nearest point of the mainland, and about 310 from the north extremity of Sumatra. Between the Andamans and Cape Negrais intervene two small groups, Preparis and Cocos; between the Andamans and Sumatra intervene the Nicobar Islands, a… Andelys ANDELYS (LEs), a town in the department of Eure, France, formed by the union of _Le Grand and Le Petit Andely, which arc situated, the latter on the eastern bank of the Seine, and the former nearly half a mile from the river, at a distance of about 20 miles north-east of Evreux. Andenne ANDENNE, a town of Belgium, in the province of Namur, situated on-the right bank of the Meuse, 10 miles east of Namur. Andernach ANDERNACH, a small town of Rhenish Prussia, situated on the left bank of the Rhine, 10 miles north-west of Coblenz. Anderson, Adam ANDERSON, ADAM, a Scottish economist, was born in 1692, and died in London on the 10th January 1765. Anderson, Alexander ANDERSON, ALEXANDER, an eminent mathematician, was born at Aberdeen about 1582. Anderson, James ANDERSON, JAMES, a learned and industrious antiquary of Edinburgh, was born there August 5, 1662, and educated to the legal profession, in which he became a writer to the Signet. His reputation as a historian stood so high, that just before the Union the Scottish parliament commissioned him to prepare for publication what remained of the public records of the kingdom, and in their last session vot… Anderson, James, Ll ANDERSON, JAMES, LL.D., was born at the village of Hermiston, in the county of Edinburgh, in the year 1739. At an early age he lost his parents, who were in humble life, but this did not interrupt his education, and being desirous to obtain an acquaintance with chemistry as a means of professional success, he attended the lectures of Dr Cullen. Enlarging the sphere of his employments, Anderson for… Anderson, John ANDERSON, JOHN, natural philosopher, was born at Roseneath in Dtunbartonshire in 1726. In 1756 he became professor of Oriental languages in the University of Glasgow, where he had finished his education; but in 1760 he was appointed to the chair of natural philosophy, a subject more suited to his tastes and acquirements. In this department he laboured assiduously to apply scientific knowledge to t… Anderson, Robert ANDERSON, ROBERT, an author and critic of considerable note in his own day, was born at Carnwath, Lanarkshire, on the 7th January 1750. He was at first destined for the church, and was sent to the University of Edinburgh in 1767. After a few sessions, however, he quitted the divinity classes in order to study medicine. lie was for a short time employed as surgeon to the dispensary at Bamborough Ca… Anderson, Sir Edmund ANDERSON, SIR EDMUND, a younger son of an ancient Scottish family settled in Lincolnshire, was born at Broughton or Flixborough about 1540, and died in 1605. Andes ANDES. The Andes form a mountain chain second only to the Himalayas in the vastness of its proportions, and possessing many remarkable peculiarities. The origin of the name appears to be unknown, although numerous meanings have been authoritatively assigned to it. It has been variously supposed to be derived from the Peruvian words Anta, or tapir ; Anti, meaning metal or copper; and Antis, the nam… Andocides ANDOCIDES, a Greek orator and diplomatist, was born at Athens in 467, and died about 391 s.c. After holding a command for a time in the Athenian fleet, he was engaged in various embassies to foreign states. In 415 he was implicated with Alcibiades in the charge of mutilating the busts of Hermes, suspicion being specially roused against him from a large bust near his house having been almost the on… Andorre, Or Andorra ANDORRE, or ANDORRA, a small semi-independent state on the south side of the Pyrenees, between the Spanish province of Lerida and the French department of Ariege. It is surrounded by mountains, and consists of one main valley, which is watered by the Balira, a tributary of the Segre, which itself flows into the Ebro, and of several smaller valleys, the most important of which are those of the Ordi… Andover ANDOVER, a post township of Essex county, Massachusetts, U.S., pleasantly situated on the southern-bank of the Merrimack river, 21 miles north of Boston. Its first settlers came from Andover in England in 1643, and the post of major and adjutant-general of the forces. While purchased a part of the Indian domain known as Cochi- Andre was in this situation, the American general, Arnold, chewick from… Andover ANDOVER, an ancient market-town in the north-west of Hampshire, situated near the left bank of the river Anton, 63 miles from London, and 12 from Winchester. It is well built, and contains a large parish church - erected about forty years ago on the site of the old one, which I.1 existed in the time of William o' ? the Conqueror - several disseating places of worship, various elementary schools, ?… Andr2, John ANDR2, JOHN, an accomplished soldier, who has gained for his learning and his moral character. Little is posia place in history by his unfortunate end, was born in tively known of his history, though many curious stories are Landon, in 1751, of Genevese parents. Accident brought told regarding him - e.g., that, by way of self-mortification, him in 1769 to Lichfield, where, in the literary circle o… Andrada ANDRADA E SYLVA, BoNrrAcio Jozr a distill- drawing and in music, and showed considerable poetic guished Brazilian statesman and naturalist, was born at talent in his humorous Cow-chase, a kind of parody on Villa de Santos, near Rio Janeiro, 1765; and died at Nicthe- Chevy-chase, which appeared in three successive parts at roy, 1838. In 1800 he was appointed professor of geology New York, the last … Andreani, Andrea ANDREANI, ANDREA, a celebrated engraver on wood, in chiaroscuro, was born at Mantua about 1540, and died at Rome in 1623. Andreasberg ANDREASBERG, a town of Prussia, in the former kingdom of Hanover, situated in the Hartz mountains, at an elevation of nearly 2000 feet above the level of the sea, and at a distance of about 10 miles S.E. from Clausthal. Andreossi, Antoine-francois, Comte ANDREOSSI, ANTOINE-FRANcOIS, COMTE D', a very distinguished French officer, was born at Castelnaudary in Languedoc, 6th March 1761, and died at Montauban, September 1828. He was of Italian extraction, and his grandfather, Francois Andreossi, had taken part with Riquet in the construction of the Languedoc canal in 1669. At the age of twenty he became a lieutenant of artillery, and he early joined t… Andres, Juan ANDRES, JUAN (1740-1817), an erudite Jesuit, born in Valencia, and some time professor of literature in the university of Gandia. Andrewes, Lancelot ANDREWES, LANCELOT, D.D., Bishop of Winchester, one of the most illustrious of the prelates of England, wan born in 1555 in Thames Street, Allhallows, Barking, London. His father Thomas was of the ancient family of the Suffolk Andrewes; in his later years he became master of Trinity House. Lancelot was sent while a mere child to the Coopers' Free School, Ratcliff, in the parish of Stepney. From th… Andrews, James Pettit ANDREWS, JAMES PETTIT, an English historian and miscellaneous writer, was the younger son of Joseph Andrews, of Shaw-house, near Newbury, Berks, where he was born in 1737. He was educated privately, and early discovered a taste for literature and the fine arts. Andrew's was the author of several miscellaneous works, but his most extensive undertaking was his History of Great Britain, connected wit… Andrew, St ANDREW, ST, the apostle, born at Bethsaida in Galilee, brother to Simon Peter. He had been a disciple of John the Baptist, and followed Jesus upon the testimony given of Him by the Baptist (John i. 35, 40, &c.) Andrew introduced his brother Simon, and they passed a day with Jesus, after which they went , to the marriage in Cana ii.), and then returned to their ordinary occupation. Some months afte… Andria ANDRIA, a town of Italy, in the province of Terra di Bari, situated in a plain 31 miles west of Bari. Andrieu, Bertrand ANDRIEU, BERTRAND, a celebrated engraver of medals, born, 24th November 1761, at Bordeaux. Andriscus ANDRISCUS, a man of mean extraction, who, pretending to be the natural son of Perseus, last king of Macedonia, assumed the name of Philip, for which reason he was called Pseudo-Philippus, the False Philip. Androclus ANDROCLUS, a Roman slave who used to lead about the streets a lion that had forborne to injure him when turned loose upon him in the circus. Andromache ANDROMACHE, in Greek legend, was the wife of Hector (Iliad, vi. 395), and daughter of Eetion, prince of Thebe in Mysia. Her father and seven brothers had fallen by the hands of Achilles, when their town was taken by him. Her mother, ransomed at a high price, was slain by Diana (Iliad, vi. 428). To Hector Andromache bore a son, Scamandrius or Astyanax, whose death by the Greeks she was forced to lo… Andromeda ANDROMEDA, in Greek legend, the daughter of Cepheus and Cassiopea, or Cassiepea, king and queen of the /Ethiopians. Cassiepea having boasted herself equal in beauty to the Nereids, drew down the vengeance of Neptune, the sea god, who sent an inundation on the land, and a sea monster which destroyed man and beast. The oracle of Ammon announced that no relief would be found until the king exposed hi… Andronicus ANDRONICUS I. (ComNENus), Emperor of Constantinople, son of Isaac, and grandson of Alexis I. Comnenus, was born about the beginning of the 12th century. He was endowed by nature with the most remarkable gifts both of mind and body. He was handsome and eloquent, but licentious; and at the same time active, hardy, courageous, and an excellent soldier. His early years were spent in alternate pleasure… Andronicus Ii ANDRONICUS II. (PALzlioLoGus), Emperor, was born 1260. Andronicus Iii ANDRONICUS III., grandson of the preceding, was born about 1296. Andronicus Of Cyrrhus ANDRONICUS OF CYRRHUS, a Greek astronomer, about B.C. 100, built at Athens an octagon tower, with figures carved on each side, representing the eight principal winds. And Ronicus Of Rhodes AND RONICUS OF RHODES, the eleventh scholarch of the Peripatetics, lived about B.C. 70. Andros, Or Andro ANDROS, or ANDRO, the ancient Andros, an island of the Grecian Archipelago, the most northerly of the Cyclades, lying 6 miles S.W. of Eubcea, and about 2 N. of Tenos. It is nearly 25 miles long, and its greatest breadth is 10 miles. Its surface is for the most part mountainous, with many fruitful and well-watered valleys, which produce vines, grain, olives, pomegranates, lemons, figs, and oranges,… Andujar ANDUJAR, a town of Spain, in the province of Jaen, Andalusia, situated near the Guadalquivir, 20 miles N.W. of Jaen. Anecdote ANECDOTE, a word derived from a privative and &Si.- 8w,ut, to give out or publish, means originally something not published. It has two distinct significations. First, the primary one is something not published, in which sense it has been used to denote either secret histories, - Procopius, e.g., gives this as one of the titles of his secret history of Justinian's court, - or portions of ancient w… Anel, Dominique ANEL, DOMINIQUE, an eminent French surgeon, born at Toulouse in 1679. Anemometer ANEMOMETER, or wind-measurer (from Ct vci.Los, wind, and tarpov, a measure), a contrivance for indicating the rate and direction of the wind. Ever since the birth of true experimental science, it has been recognised as a matter of great importance and interest to man that he should know something of the laws according to which the atmospheric currents and changes are produced. Among meteorological… Anet ANET, a town of France, in the department of Eureet-Loir, situated between the rivers Eure and Vegre, 9 miles N.E. of Dreux. Aneurism ANEURISM (from execilpco-pa, a dilatation), a cavity, which contains blood, either fluid or coagulated, and which communicates with an artery; the walls of the cavity are formed either of the dilated artery or of the tissues around the vessel. Angara, Upper And Lower ANGARA, UPPER and LOWER, two rivers of Asiatic Russia, in the government of Irkutsk. The former rises in the mountains to the east of Lake Baikal, and falls into the head of the lake after a course of nearly 300 miles. The latter, which is sometimes called the Upper Tungonska, flows out of Lake Baikal, near its southern extremity, and passing the town of Irkutsk, falls into the Yenisei, after a co… Angaria ANGARIA (eryapEta), a sort of government postal system adopted by the Romans under the empire, borrowed from the ancient Persians, among whom, according to Xenophon, it was established by Cyrus. Angel ANGEL is a transcription of the Greek 'dyydtos, a messenger, but in signification corresponds to the special thee- logical sense Which the latter word assumed among the Hellenistic Jews (and hence in the New Testament and in Christian writings), by being adopted as the translation of the Hebrew ilfal'akIt. Thus both name and notion of angel go back to the Old Testament. The Old Testament belief in… Angelus Silesius ANGELUS SILESIUS, a German philosophical poet, was born in 1624 at Breslau or Glatz, and died at Breslau in 1677. His family name was Johann Scheffier, but he is generally known under the assumed name which marks the country of his birth. Brought up a Protestant, and at first physician to the duke of Wfirtemberg, he embraced, in 1653, the Roman Catholic religion, and took orders as a priest.. His … Angermann ANGERMANN, a river of Sweden, which rises about lat. 65? N. and long. 15' E., among the mountains that separate Sweden from Norway, and flows in a southeasterly direction through Westerbotten and Westnorrland, entering the Gulf of Bothnia near liernosand, after a course of about 250 miles, during which it passes through several lakes. Angers ANGERS, an ancient city of France, capital of the department of Maine-et-Loire, and formerly of the old province of Anjou, situated on the Maine, about 4 miles from its junction with the Loire, and 161 miles S.W. of Paris. The streets of the upper and older quarter of the city, which occupies the slope of a rising ground on the left bank of the river, are narrow and often very steep, and the house… Angerstein, John Jiiliit ANGERSTEIN, JOHN JIILIIT?, an opulent London merchant, and a distinguished patron of the fine arts, was born at St Petersburg in 1735, and settled in London about 1749. Angilbert ANGILBERT, Sr, the most distinguished poet of his age, was the secretary and friend of Charlemagne. Angina Pectoris ANGINA PECTORIS, a term applied to a violent paroxysm of painful sensations in the chest, arising for the most part in connection with some form of heart disease. An attack of angina pectoris usually comes on with a sudden seizure of pain, felt at first over the region of the heart, but radiating through the chest in various directions, and frequently extending down the left arm. A feeling of cons… Angle ANGLE, a term employed in different senses, the most common and simplest use of it - to which all the rest may be referred, and by which they may be explained - being to indicate the inclination of two straight lines to each other. A Suppose 0 F in the figure to turn about 0 from the position 0 B towards 0 C, like the opening out of the legs of a pair of compasses, the angle formed by 0 B and 0 F… Angles ANGLES. According to the usual account, which rests on the authority of Bede, the Angles were one of three tribes who passed over from the Continent? in the 5th and 6th centuries, and taking possession of different parts of England, formed the main and dominant element in its subsequent population. The Saxons, he tells us, and he is followed by the authors of the Saxon chronicles, were situated in… Anglesea, Arthur Annesley ANGLESEA, ARTHUR ANNESLEY, EARL OF, lord privy seal in the reign of King Charles II., the son of Sir Francis Annesley, Lord Mount-Norris, and Viscount Valentia, in Ireland, was born at Dublin 10th July 1614. He was for some time at the university of Oxford, and afterwards studied law at Lincoln's Inn. In the beginning of the civil war lie sat in the parliament held at Oxford ; but afterwards becam… Anglesea Or Anglesey ANGLESEA or ANGLESEY (i.e., the Angle's Island), the Mona of Tacitus, an insular county of North Wales, separated from the mainland of England by the Menai Strait, over which Mr Telford's magnificent suspension bridge was thrown in 1826, followed by the renowned tubular railway iron bridge in 1850. The island contains 193,511 acres. The surface is for the most part flat, and the soil but moderatel… Angola ANGOLA, a name that is employed to designate at least three different, although partly coincident, portions of the west coast of Africa. It is often applied to the whole coast-line, from Cape Lopez de Gonsalvo, in lat. 0? 44' S., to St Felipe de Benguela, in 12? 24' S.; the Portuguese consider that the entire country lying between the Zaire or Congo and lat. 18? S., and stretching for a considerab… Angora, Or Enguri ANGORA, or ENGURI, the ancient Ancyra, a city of Turkey in Asia, capital of the vilayet of the same name, situated upon a steep hill, near a small stream, which flows into the Angara, a tributary of the Sakaria or Sanguine, about 220 miles E.S.E. of Constantinople. The modern town is not well built, its streets being narrow and many of its houses of mud; but there are a great many fine remains of … Angorno, Or Ngornu ANGORNO, or NGORNU, a town of Bornu, in Central Africa, near the south-west shore of Lake Chad, from which it is separated by a level plain that is often under water. Angostura ANGOSTURA, also called CIUDAD BOLIV.A_R, and SAN TOMAS DE LA NUEVA GUAYANA, a town of Venezuela, capital of the province of Guayana, situated on the right bank of the Orinoco, about 240 miles from its mouths, and only 191 feet above the level of the sea. It is the scat of a bishop, and contains a cathedral, a college, and an hospital, while a fort stands on the opposite side of the river, at this … Angouleme ANGOULEME, a city of France, capital of the depart. ment of Charente, and formerly of the province of Angell. mois, situated on the left bank of the Charente, upon an elevated plateau, 221 feet above the river, at the foot of which, in the suburb of Houmeau, there is a station of the Paris and Bordeaux railway, 66 miles north-east of the latter town. The situation of Angouleme is very delightful, … Angouleme, Charles De Valois ANGOULEME, CHARLES DE VALOIS, DUKE OF, the natural son of Charles IX. of France and Marie Touchet, was born 28th April 1573, at the castle of Fayet in Dauphine. His father, dying in the following year, commended him to the care and favour of his brother and successor, Henri III., who faithfully fulfilled the charge. His mother married Francois de Balzac, marquis d'Entragues, and one of her daughte… Angra ANGRA, a city on the south coast of Terceira, one of the Azores, the capital of the island and of one of the three civil districts into which the Azores are divided, as well as the residence of the military governor of the whole group, and of the Roman Catholic bishops. Anguier, Franvis ANGUIER, FRANVIS (horn 1604, died 1669), and MICHAEL (born 1612, died 1686), two brothers, natives of Normandy, were distinguished sculptors in the time of Louis XIV. Anguilla, Or Snake Island ANGUILLA, or SNAKE ISLAND, a small British West Indian island, one of the Lesser Antilles, situated 8 miles north of the island of St Martin, in lat. 18? 12' N., and long. 63? 8' W. Angussola, Or Angosciola ANGUSSOLA, or ANGOSCIOLA, SOPHONISBA, one of the best portrait painters of the latter half of the 16th century, was born at Cremona in 1533, and died at Genoa in 1620. Anhalt ANHALT, a duchy of Germany, lying between lat 51? 33' and 52? 7' N., and long. 11? and 12' 36' R, and com- prisino.? an area of about 896 square miles. Except for a short distance on the west, and for a longer distance on the north-east, where it is bounded respectively by Brunswick and the Prussian province of Brandenburg, Anhalt is entirely surrounded by Prussian Saxony, which also intersects it… Aniline, Or Phenylamine ANILINE, or PHENYLAMINE (C6H-N), is one of the very numerous products of the distillation of coal tar. The substance has been known to chemists since the year 1826, when M. Unverdorben, by the destructive distillation of indigo, produced a liquid of an oily consistence, which he termed crystalline. In the year 1835, Runge, a. German chemist, isolated from the oil of coal tar a substance which, hav… Animals ANIMALS. - The zoology of Assam presents some interesting features. Wild elephants abound and commit many depredations, entering villages in large herds, and consuming everything suitable to their tastes. Many are caught by means of female elephants previously tamed, and trained to decoy males into the snares prepared for subjecting them to captivity. A considerable number are tamed and exported f… Animals, Classification Of ANIMALS, CLASSIFICATION OF. 'rite object of classi- fishes tended in the same direction, and further showed fication is to bring together those things which are like, that, in some cases, the older forms preserve, as permanent and to separate those which are unlike. Each science has features, structural characters. which are embryonic and its own classification of the objects with which it deals, … Anime ANIME, a resinous exudation from the courbaril tree, which grows in the West Indies and in South America: When imported in. the natural state it is infested with vast numbers of insects, and hence the name. Animisni ANIMISNI, a term formerly employed in Biology to denote the theory of which Stahl is the chief expositor ; the theory of the soul (anima) as the vital principle, cause of the normal phenomena of life, or of the abnormal phenomena of disease. It is now current in the wider anthropological sense given to it by Dr E. B. Tylor (Primitive Culture, chapters xi.?xvii.), as including the general doctrine … Animuccia, Giovanni ANIMUCCIA, GIOVANNI, musical composer, was born at Florence in the last years of the 15th century. At the request of St Filippo Neri he composed a number of Laudi, or hymns of praise, to be sung after sermon, which are noteworthy as furnishing the rudimentary form out of which the Oratorio was developed. In 1555 he was appointed " maestro di capello " at St Peter's, an office which he held until h… Anio, Or Amen ANIO, or AMEN, the modern Teverone, a river of Italy which rises in the Apennines, and, flowing first N.W. and then S.W., joins the Tiber a little above Rome. Anise ANISE, Pimpinella Anisum, is an umbelliferous plant found in Egypt and the Levant, and cultivated on the Continent of Europe. It is used medicinally as an agreeable aromatic. The officinal part of the plant is the fruit, ? which consists of two united carpels, called a cremocarp. It is known by the name of aniseed, and has a strong aromatic taste and a powerful odour. By distillation the fruit yie… Anjar ANJAR, a fortified town of Hindustan, and the capital of a district of the same name in the native state of Cutch, lies in 23? 6' N. lat., 70? 3' E. long. Anjengo ANJENGO, once a British factory and fortress, now a small sea-port town of India, in Travancore, nearly encircled by a deep and broad river, at the mouth of which it is situated. Anjer ANJER, a sea-port town of the Dutch East Indian island of Java, situated on the Strait of Sunda, 18 miles W. of Batavia. Anjou ANJOU, one of the thirty-six ancient provinces of France, approximately equivalent to the modern department of Maine and Loire. It was bounded on the N. by Maine, which separated it from Normandy; E. by Touraine ; S. by Poitou ; and W. by Brittany. It was, as Mr . Freeman has remarked, altogether lacking in geographical individuality, and owed its somewhat prominent position in history to the char… Anjou ANJOU, RENi], DUKE OF, was the second son of Duke Louis IL, and succeeded his brother Duke Louis III. He was born at Angers in 1408, and brought up by his uncle, Louis of Bar, who, in 1419, contracted a marriage between him and Isabella, heiress of Lorraine, and, in 1430, left him in possession of his duchy. On the death of Charles of Lorraine in 1431, Rene was acknowledged as his successor, but h… Ankarstrom, Johan Jakob ANKARSTROM, JOHAN JAKOB, the assassin of Gustavus III., king of Sweden, was descended from an honourable family, and was born in 1759. After having been for some time at court as a page, he entered the army, but left after a few years with the honorary rank of captain. He is said to have been concerned in some treasonable projects, and to have been pardoned by the king, but the story has not suffi… Anklam, Or Anclam ANKLAM, or ANCLAM, a town of Prussia, in the province of Pomerania, situated on the Peene, 6 miles from its mouth in the Kleine Haff, and 47 N.W. of Stettin, with which it is connected by railway. The fortifications of Anklam were dismantled in 1762, and have not since been restored, although the old walls are still standing; formerly, however, it was a town of considerable military importance, wh… Ankobar, Or Ankober ANKOBAR, or ANKOBER, the capital of the kingdom of Shoa in Abyssinia, situated in lat. 9? 31' N. and long. 39? 35' E., on a mountain about 8200 feet above the level of the sea. Anna, Ana ANNA, ANA, or ANAli, a town of Turkey in Asia, situated on the right bank of the Euphrates, about 160 miles N.W. of Baghdad. Anna, Baldasarre ANNA, BALDASARRE a painter of some repute, who flourished during part of the 16th and 17th centuries. Annaberg ANNABERG, a town of Saxony, situated in the Erzgebirge, about 1830 feet above the level of the sea, and at a distance of 18 miles south from Chemnitz, with which it is connected by railway. Anna Carlovna ANNA CARLOVNA, who for a few months held the position of regent in Russia, during the minority of her son Ivan, was the daughter of Catherine, sister of the Empress Anna Ivanovna, and was born in 1718. In 1739 she married the duke of Brunswick WolfenbSttel, and their son Ivan was, in 1740, adopted by the empress and proclaimed heir to the throne. A few days after this proclamation the empress died… Anna Comnena ANNA COMNENA, daughter of the Emperor Alexius Comnenus I., was born 1st December 1083. She was her father's favourite, and was carefully trained in the study of poetry, science, and Greek philosophy. With a mind superior to the effeminacy and voluptuousness of the court in which she was educated, she cultivated literature and sought the acquaintance of the more eminent philosophers of the period. … Anna Ivanovna ANNA IVANOVNA, Empress of Russia, daughter of Ivan, brother of Peter the Great, was born in 1693, and married in 1710 to the duke of Courland, who died the following year. After the death of Peter II., in 1730, the imperial council offered the vacant throne to Anna on the following conditions : - She was to govern according to the decisions of the supreme council, and she was not allowed, without … Annals ANNALS (Annales, from annus, a year), a concise historical record in which events are arranged chronologically, year by year. The chief source of information in regard to the annals of ancient Rome is a passage in Cicero (De Oratore, ii. 12, 52), which has been the subject of much discussion. He states that from the earliest period down to the pontificate of Publius Mucius Scvola (circa 131 n.c.),… Annamaboe, Or Anamaboe ANNAMABOE, or ANAMABOE, a British fort and town on the Gold Coast of Africa, about 10 miles E.N.E. of Cape Coast Castle. Annan ANNAN, a river rising near the source of the Tweed, in the range of hills that lies on the confines of the counties of Dumfries, Lanark, Peebles, and Selkirk. Annan ANNAN, a royal and parliamentary burgh of Scotland, in the county of Dumfries, situated on the river Annan, nearly two miles from the Solway Firth, and about fifteen from Dumfries. It is a well-built town, containing a town hall, a .parish church, several dissenting chapels, and an excellent academy. The river Annan which has been embanked, is navigable for vessels of 300 tons up to within half a … Annapolis ANNAPOLIS, a town of Nova Scotia, capital of Annapolis county, and up to 1750 of the whole peninsula, situated on an arm of the Bay of Fundy, at the mouth of a river also called Annapolis, 95 miles west of Halifax. Annapolis ANNAPOLIS, a seaport town Of the United States, the capital of Maryland, situated on the Severn, about 2 miles from its mouth in Chesapeake Bay, and about 25 in a direct line from Washington, with which it is connected by railway. Anne ANNE, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, was born on the 6th of February 1664. She was the second daughter of James Duke of York, afterwards James 1I. She was only seven years old when her mother, Anne Hyde, died, having previously professed adherence to the Church of Rome, a step which was immediately imitated by her husband. The duke, however, had to allow his daughters, the princesses Mary and… Annealing ANNEALING is the process of removing the brittleness peculiar to glass vessels and metal castings immediately after manufacture. Newly-blown glass is so fragile as to be altogether unfit for use; and the common occurrence of the breaking of a lamp-glass on lighting the lamp, or of a tumbler on pouring in hot water, shows the want of proper annealing. The process consists generally in heating the v… Anni, Or Ani ANNI, or ANI, the ancient Abnicum, a ruined city of Turkey in Asia, .in Armenia, situated about 25 miles E.S.E. of Kars, in a rocky ravine, past which the Arpa - Chai, a tributary of the Aras or Araxes, flows. Anno Bom, Or Annabona ANNO BOM, or ANNABONA, a small island off the west coast of Africa, situated in lat. 1? 24' S. and long. 5? 35' E., 190 miles west of Cape Lopez. Its length is about four miles, its breadth two; and, rising in some parts to a .height of nearly 3000 feet above the sea, it presents a succession of beautiful valleys and steep mountains, that are covered with rich woods and luxuriant vegetation. The i… Annunciation ANNUNCIATION, the announcement made by the angel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary of the incarnation of Christ (Luke i. 26-38). A festival commemorative of the annunciation is kept by the church on the 25th of March. The first authentic allusions to it are in a canon of the Council of Toledo (656:A.D.), and another of the Council of Trullo (692), forbidding the celebration of all festivals in Lent, exce… Anointing ANOINTING, the practice of pouring an aromatic oil upon the head or over the whole body, has been in use from the earliest times among Oriental nations, from whom it passed, chiefly in its ceremonial application, to the nations of the west. It served three distinct purposes, being regarded as a means of health and comfort, as a token of honour, or as a symbol of consecration. Reasoning from analog… Anoukis, Or Anaka ANOUKIS, or ANAKA, the name of an Egyptian goddess, one of the contemplar or companion goddesses of Khnum or Chnoumis. Her name meant " the Clasper" or "Embracer." She belonged to the "triad of Elephantine," formed of Khnum or Chnoumis, Sati or Satis - the Egyptian Hera or Juno, "the sunbeam " - and herself. As Sati personified the upper world or hemisphere, and wore the white crown upon her head,… Anquetil ANQUETIL, Louis PIERRE, a French historian, was born at Paris, 21st Jan. 1723. He was for some time director of the academy at Rheims, and published in 1757 three volumes of a history of that city. In 1759 he was appointed prior of the abbey de la Roe, in Anjou, and soon after director of the college of Senlis. In 1766 he obtained the curacy or priory of Chateau-Renard, near Montargis, which he ex… Anquetil Du Perron ANQUETIL DU PERRON, ABRAHAM 1(YACINTHE, an eminent Oriental scholar, brother of the subject of the preceding article, was born at Paris 7th Dec. 1731. He was a distinguished student at the university of that city, and at first intended to enter the church ; but his taste for Hebrew, Arabic, Persian, and other languages of the East, developed into a passion, and he discontinued his theological cour… Ansbach, Or Anspacii ANSBACH, or ANSPACII, originally ONOLZBACII, a town of Bavaria, capital of the circle of Middle Franconia, and formerly of the margraviate of Ansbach, situated on the Rezat, 25 miles S.W. of Nuremberg, and 90 N. of Munich. Anselm ANSELM, of LAON, a famous theologian, was born of very humble parents at Laon before the middle of the 11th century. Anselm ANSELM, Archbishop of Canterbury, was born in 1033, at or near Aosta, in Piedmont. His family was accounted noble, and was possessed of considerable property. Gun' dulph, his father, was by birth a Lombard, and seems to have been a man of harsh and violent temper ; his mother, Ermenberga, was a prudent and virtuous woman, from whose careful religious training the young Anselm derived much benefit.… Anson, George, Lord ANSON, GEORGE, LORD, the famous circumnavigator, was born at Shuekborough Manor, Staffordshire, on the 22d of April 1697. He entered the navy at the age of fifteen. By the time he was twenty-one he had been promoted to the command of the " Weasel " sloop, and by 1724 to the command of the man-of-war " Scarborough." Between this year and 1735 he was engaged in active service, chiefly on the Carolin… Anstey, Christopher ANSTEY, CHRISTOPHER, poet, was son of the Rev. Christopher Anstey, rector of Brinkley, Cambridgeshire,. where he was born in 1724-5. He was educated at Eton and King's college, Cambridge. He was originally designed for the church, but his degrees being withheld from him, he retired into privacy "upon a competent fortune." He was rusticated from the university. A speech made by him in one of the pu… Anstruther-easter ANSTRUTHER-EASTER, a royal and parliamentary viewed as equally incorrect. In many cases it is probable burgh of Scotland, in the county of Fife, situated on the that observers have been deceived into the supposition that Firth of Forth, 0 miles S. of St Andrews. It is on the certain species of ants really carried grains of corn in their whole an ill-built place, containing tanning, shipbuilding, m… Antalcidas ANTALCIDAS, a Spartan politician, who rendered conspicuous service to his native state at one of the turning-points in Greek history. He comes first into notice as ambassador from Sparta to Tiribazus, the Persian satrap of Ionia' to sue for peace (393-2 n.c.) Upon hearing of this the Athenians, becoming anxious lest they should lose their growing ascendency, also sent an embassy, at the head of wh… Antalo ANTALO, a town of Tigr6, in Abyssinia, capital of the district of Enderta, situated in lat. 13? 17' N., and long. 39? 28' E., on a plateau about 8000 feet above the level of the sea, out of which a steep hill rises on the north of the town, while beneath it a wide plain stretches southward. Antara ANTARA, or, as he is usually called, ANTAR, an early Arabian warrior and poet, famous as the author of one of the poems hung up in the Kaaba at Mecca, and as the hero of a romance which bears somewhat Le same relation to Arabic literature which the Arthurian legend bears to our own. He was the son of Shedad-el-Absi, warrior in the army of Zoheir, by Zabuba, a negro slave who had been captured in s… Antarctic Ocean ANTARCTIC OCEAN, a name that should, strictly speaking, be applied only to the ice-bound sea to the south of the antarctic circle; in practice, however, it is usually vaguely extended so as to include more or less of the cold regions round the south pole, without reference to the circle. Antelope ANTELOPE. The term antelope is applied to denote a genus of Mammalia, included in the Ungulate or IToofed order of that large class. Of the ungulate or hoofed mammals, the Ruminants, or those that " chew the cud," form a chief subdivision ; and the antelopes, sheep, oxen, and goats, are included and classified together in this division as the family Cavicornia, or " hollow-horned " ruminants. The … Anthemius ANTHEMIUS, a Greek mathematician and architect of great genius, who produced, under the patronage of Justinian (532 A.D.), the original and daring plans for the church of St Sophia, in Constantinople, which strikingly displayed at once his knowledge and his ignorance. He was one of five brothers - the sons of Stephanus, a Physician of Tralles - who were all more or less eminent in their respective… Anthesteria ANTHESTERIA, an Athenian festival held annually in the month of Anthesterion, corresponding nearly to our February, at which time the wine stored at the previous vintage was considered fit for use. The object of the festival was to celebrate the arrival of that season, and the beginning of spring. It lasted three days, from the 1 1 th to the 13th of the month. On the first day, called Pithoigia, o… Anthology ANTHOLOGY. The term anthology, literally denoting a collection of flowers, is figUratively applied to any selection of literary beauties, and` especially to that great body of fugitive poetry, comprehending about 4500 pieces, by upwards of 300 writers, which is commonly known as the GREEK ANTHOLOGY. Literary History of the Greek Anthology. - The art of occasional poetry had been -cultivated in Gre… Anthon, Charles ANTHON, CHARLES, an American philologist and pro- the comparative quantities of the other elements which fessor of classics, was born in New York city in 1797, and enter into the composition of the bodies named :- died there 29th July 1867. After graduating with honours Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. at Columbia College in 1815, he commenced the study of 1. Wood (mean of 26 analyses) 100 12.18 83.07 la… Anthony, Saint ANTHONY, SAINT, the founder of monasticism, was thracitic. Professor Warrington Smyth remarks, on the born at the village of Coma in Egypt 251 A.D. Inherit- disposition of the deposits in South Wales : - " Even within ing a large fortune, he thought it his duty to distribute it the distance of a few hundred yards the Llanelly beds are among his neighbours and the poor, and to live a rigidly seen t… Anthropomorphism ANTHROPOMORPHISM is a term used in theological writings to denote the figure by which words expressing human organs and activities are applied to the divine Being ; in short, it is the conception and representation of God as possessed of corporeal and human properties. Originally and literally the word implied only the ascribing to God a physical form resembling the human body, and consequently in… Antibes ANTIBES, a seaport town of France, on the Mediterranean, in the arrondissement of Grasse, which formerly belonged to the department of Var, but which was transferred to the new department of Alpes Maritimes in 1860. Antichrist ANTICHRIST. 'Avrtvfo-ros, or 6 avr.rxpurros. The word occurs only in the first and second epistles of John. It signifies an opponent or adversary of Christ. The idea expressed by it had its origin in Judaism. According to prophetic anticipations, the Messianic time was to be immediately preceded by a great conflict, in which Jehovah would fight out of Zion for His own people, and defeat the concen… Anticlimax ANTICLIMAX (dim. and KX7.ti.ae), in rhetoric, is an Again, in assigning Antigone the tragic end of being buried abrupt declension on the part of a speaker or writer from alive, Sophocles differs from Euripides, in whose play that the dignity of idea which he has attained, as in the follow- calamity was averted by the intercession of Bacchus, and ing well-known distich was followed by the marriage … Anticosti ANTICOSTI, a barren island of British North America, (engraved by Heydemann, supra) appears the scene of the situated in the Gulf of St Lawrence, between lat. 49? and intercession of Hercules. Anticyra ANTICYRA, in Ancient Geography, the name of three tion, king of Plithia, who gave her in marriage to Peleus, cities of Greece. (1.) In Phocis, on the Bay of Anticyra, the issue being a daughter, Polydora. Peleus having acciin the Corinthian Gulf. Its modern name is Aspra Spitia, dentally killed Eurytion in a hunt, some say the hunt of where some remains are still visible. It was a town of the Caly… Antietam ANTIETAM, a small river of the United States, which command of the war against Eli-moues, who had joined rises in Pennsylvania, and flowing into Maryland, joins the Perdiccas against the coalition of Antipater, Antigonus, Potomac about 50 miles from Washington. An indecisive and the other generals. Eumenes was thoroughly defeated, battle between the Federals under McClellan and the and was obliged… Antigonus ANTIGONUS (GONATAS), son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, and grandson of the former Antigonus, was born at Gouni in Thessaly about 319 B.C. Antigua ANTIGUA, one of the West Indian Islands, in the British Leeward group, situated 50 miles E. of St Christopher, in lat. 17? 6' N., and long. 61? 45' W. ; ? with an area of 108 square miles, and a circumference of about 50 miles. There is often a great scarcity of water in the island, which has also suffered severely from hurricanes; but it is on the whole healthy. and its soil is very fertile, prod… Antilegomena ANTILEGOMENA OrrAcy4p,cra, contradicted or disputed.), an epithet applied by the early Christian writers to denote those books of the New Testament which, although sometimes publicly read in th; churches, were not for a considerable time admitted to be genuine, or received into the canon of Scripture. Antilles ANTILLES, a name that is usually, although by no means uniformly, applied to the whole of the West Indian Islands, with the exception of the Bahamas ; it has also, on the one hand, bceu employed to designate smaller portions of the same group, and, on the other, it has been extended so as to comprehend the whole archipelago, inclusive of the Bahamas. Antimachus ANTIMACHUS, the Colophoniau, a Greek poet who was honoured by the Alexandrine grammarians with the second place iu their epic canon. Antimony ANTIMONY, a metal found native to a small extent in many of the localities from which its ores are derived. It has been obtained at Sahlberg, near Sahl in Sweden, at Anclreasberg in the Harz, at Allemont in Dauphiny, Przibram in Bohemia, besides being brought from Borneo, Chili, Mexico, New Brunswick, &e. It also occurs in nature alloyed with other metals ; allemontite being arsenical antimony ; d… Antinomians ANTINOMIANS ((lyTt, against, and 1,6i.tos, law), a term first employed by Luther as a designation of the followers of John Agricola, who maintained that the moral law was not binding, as such, upon Christians (see _AGRICOLA, JoHANNEs). In this, as in many other cases, however, the thing existed long before the name. From the 1st century of the Christian era downwards, there have been those who, on… Antinomy ANTINOMY is the word employed by Kant, in the Critical Philosophy, to mark the inevitable conflict or contradiction into which, according to his view, speculative reason falls with itself, when it seeks to conceive the complex of external phenomena, or nature, as a world or cosmos. Literally the word means a conflict or opposition of laws (Widerstreit der Gesetze). . It is used by Kant both in a g… Antinous ANTINOUS, a beautiful youth, who was page to the emperor Hadrian, and greatly beloved by him. After his mysterious death by drowning in the Nile (130 A.D.), Hadrian - for whose sake, according to one account, he had offered himself a voluntary victim to destiny - caused the most extravagant respect to be paid to his memory by ceremony and monument. Not only were cities called after him, medals str… Antioch ANTIOCH Iv PISIDIA, another of the many cities founded by Seleucus Nicator, was situated on the south side of the range of mountains between Phrygia and Pisidia. Antiochus ANTIOCHUS I. (Soma, the Deliverer) succeeded his father Seleucus Nicator, the founder of the Syrian kingdom, in 280 B.C. Antiochus Iii ANTIOCHUS III., surnamed the Great, was the son of Seleucus Callinicus, and ascended the Syrian throne at the age of fifteen, on the death of his brother, Seleucus Ceraunus. Antiochus Iv ANTIOCHUS IV. (EPIPHANES, the Illustrious, and by parody, EPIMANES, the Insane), who had been a hostage in Rome from 187 B.C., ascended the Syrian throne on the death of Seleucus, 175 B.C., and soon made himself famous by his conquest of Ccele-Syria, Palestine, and Egypt itself, with the exception of Alexandria, which would likely have also been his if the Romans had not interfered and forbidden h… Antiochus, Of Ascalon ANTIOCHUS, OF ASCALON, a philosopher of the 1st century before Christ, who, coming under the influence of Philo the Academic and of Mnesarchus the Stoic, was led to attempt a reconciliation between their antagonistic doctrines, and thus gave rise to what has been called the Fifth Academy. Antiope ANTIOPE (1), in Greek legend, the mother of Amphion and Zethus, was, according to the Odyssey (xi. 260), a. daughter of the river god Asopus. In later poems, as iu the Cypria, she is described as the daughter of Lycurgus, who appears as a king of Thebes. Her beauty attracted Jupiter, who, assuming the form of a satyr, took her by force. After this she was carried off by Epopeus, king of Sicyon, wh… Antiope ANTIOPE (2), an Amazon who bore to Theseus a son, Hippolytus. Antiparos ANTIPAROS, the ancient Oliaros, an island of the kingdom of Greece, one of the Cyclades, in the modern eparchy of Naxos, situated on the west of Paros, front which it is separated by a strait about a mile and a half wide at the narrowest point. Antipater ANTIPATER, regent of Macedonia durinc,? Alexander's Eastern expedition, 334 B.C. He gained this distinguished position by his faithful attachment and his prudence. In 330 he had to subdue the rebellious tribes of Thrace ; but even before this insurrection was quelled, the Spartan king Agis had risen against Macedonia. Having settled affairs in Thrace as well as he could, Antipater hastened to the … Antiphilus ANTIPHILUS, a painter of the 4th century before Christ, who was placed by the ancient critics in the highest rank after Apelles and Protogenes. Antiphon ANTIPHON, the most ancient of the ten Athenian orators contained in the Alexandrine canon. He was born 480 B.C. at Rhamnus. During the Peloponnesian war he was several times entrusted with the command of detachments of the Athenian forces, and took an active part in the political affairs of Athens. He had a hand in the overthrow of the democracy, and the establishment of the oligarchy of the Four … Antiphony ANTIPHONY (cIrrt, and Ocianj, a voice), a species of psalmody in which the choir or congregation, being divided into two parts, sing alternately. Antipodes ANTIPODES, a word of Greek derivation (dvTI, against, opposed to, 7rOSEs., feet), - from the inhabitants walking feet to feet, - is a relative term applied to any two peoples or places on opposite sides of the earth, so situated that a line drawn from the one to the other passes through the centre of the globe and forms a true diameter. Thus, the North Pole is exactly antipodal to the South. Any t… Antique ANTIQUE, denoting etymologically anything that is ancient, is conventionally restricted to the remains of Greek and Roman art, such as sculptures, gems, medals, seals, &c. Antiquities ANTIQUITIES. In keeping with its derivation, the word "antiquities" had for long a wide and general acceptation, embracing everything belonging to the knowledge of the remoter past. The range of the term has been gradually lessened, and a distinction has grown up between history on the one hand and antiquities on the other, though the line of demarcation is not of the most definite kind. Dr Arnold… Antiseptics ANTISEPTICS (arri, against, and oaprrOs, putrid, from c?-r;m0, to make rotten), substances which have the property of preventing or arresting putrefaction in dead animal or vegetable matter. The access of air, together with a moderate amount of warmth and of moisture, are neeossary to the occurrence of the putrefactive changes, which consist essentially in the breaking up of the complex organic ma… Antisthenes ANTISTHENES was the earliest Greek expositor of a philosophy and mode of life to which the name Cynicism soon came to be applied. Though a native of Athens, he was the son of a Thracian mother ; and it was in the gymnasium of Cynosarges, to which the half-breeds were restricted, that he is said to have taught. From that place he and his followers probably received the name Cynic ; but the popular … Antithesis ANTITHESIS (etr(OEcrts) is, in rhetoric, the bringing out of a contrast in the meaning by an obvious contrast in the expression, as in the following : - " When there is need of silence, you speak, and when there is need of speech, you are dumb ; when present, you wish to be absent, and when absent, you desire to be present ; in peace you are for war, and in war you long for peace ; in council you … Antitype ANTITYPE (cirrtraros) denotes a type or figure corresponding to some other type. Antium ANTIUM, a city on the Italian coast, about 33 miles S. from Rome. Its site is now occupied by the village Porto cl'Anzio, or d'Anzo. Founded, it is supposed, by Pelasgians, it became connected with the Latin League, and about the beginning of the 4th century before Christ hands into the ands of the Volsci. As the chief city of this people it continued, in spite of repeated defeat, to carry on, wit… Antivari, Or Bar ANTIVARI, or BAR, a town of Turkey, in Albania, situated on the Adriatic Sea, 18 miles N.W. of Scutari. Antonello Da Messina ANTONELLO DA MESSINA. Of the events of this celebrated painter's life we know little more than that ho was probably born at Messina about the beginning of the 15th century ; lived and laboured at his art for some time in his native country; happening to see at Naples a painting in oil by Jan Van Eyck, belonging to Alfonso of Aragon, was struck by the peculiarity and value of the new method ; set o… Antonides, Hans ANTONIDES, HANS [JAN VAN DER. GOES], a Dutch poet, was born April 3, 1647, at Goes, in Zealand, of poor but respectable parents. They removed to Amsterdam when he was about four years old, and he there enjoyed the tuition of Hadrian Junius, and James Cocceius. He was only nineteen when he attracted attention by his tragedy, Trazil, of overrornpelt Sina - Trazil, or the Conquest of China. The vener… Antonini Itinerarium ANTONINI ITINERARIUM, a valuable register, still extant, of the stations and distances along the various roads of the Roman empire, seemingly based on official documents, which were probably those of the survey organised by Julius Cesar, and carried out under Augustus. Antoninus, Wall Of ANTONINUS, WALL OF, called GRAHAM'S DYKE by the natives of the district through which it passed, is the name given by historians to that series of defensive posts, connected by a rampart and a wall, which at one time extended across the island from the Frith of Clyde on the west to the Frith of Forth on the east. The former of these appellations it has received from the Roman emperor in whose reig… Antonio, Nicola ANTONIO, NICOLA?, a Spanish bibliographer, was born at Seville in 1617. Antonius ANTONIUS, i1Ltacus [MARK ANTONY], grandson of Antonius the orator, and son of Antonius Creticus, seems to have been born about 83 B.C. While still a child he lost his father, whose example, however, had he been spared, would have done little for the improvement of his character. Brought up under the influence of the disreputable Cornelius Lentulus Sura, whom his mother had married, Antony spent hi… Antonius ANTONIUS, MArlcus, the Roman orator, was born 143 B.C. Antonomasia ANTONOMASIA (avrovolAao-ta) is, in rhetoric, the substitution of any epithet or phrase for a proper name; as "Pelides," or "the son of Peleus," for Achilles; "the Stagy-rite." for Aristotle ; " the author of Paradise Lost" for Milton ; "the little corporal" for Napoleon the First; " Macedonia's madman" for Alexander the Great, &c. Antrim ANTRIM, a maritime county in the north-east corner of Ireland, in the province of Ulster, situated between 54? 26' and 55? 12' 16" N. lat., and 5? 47' and 6? 52' W. long. It comprises, without including the 50,803 acres under water, an area of 711,275 statute acres, of which 16,702 belong to the incorporated county of the town of Carrickfergus. There were, in 1871, 257,211 acres under tillage, 373… Antrim ANTRIM, a town of Ireland, in the county noticed above, half a mile from Lough Neagh, on the banks of the Six-mile Water, in a fertile and beautiful valley, 13 miles northwest of Belfast, and 106 north of Dublin. It gives the title of earl to the family of MacDonnell, and prior to the Union returned two members to parliament by virtue of letters patent, granted to the inhabitants in 1666 by Charle… Antwerp ANTWERP, the capital of the province of the same name, is situated about .50 miles from the open sea, and Plan of Antwerp and Environs. Dukes of Brabant, at that time in possession of the marquisate. In 1338, while Edward III. of England was spending the winter in the city with his queen Philippa, she gave birth to Lionel, afterwards Duke of Clarence, and the event was celebrated by a magnificent… Antwerp ANTWERP (Dutch, Antwerpen ; French, Anvers ; Spanish, Amberes ; Old German, Antorf; from " aent werf," "on the wharf "), a province of Belgium, bounded by the Dutch province of North Brabant on the N., and by the Belgian provinces of Limbourg on the E., South Brabant on the S., and East Flanders on the W. Anubis ANUBIS, an Egyptian deity, called in hieroglyphs Anepu or Anup, and in Coptic, Anob or Anoub. It appears from the hieroglyphic legends that he was the son of Osiris and Isis, not Nephthys, as stated by Plutarch. His name has no particular meaning in hieroglyphs, although it resembles the Coptic anebe, the appellation of a particular kind of clog. His warship was of the oldest period, and is found … Anvil ANVIL, an iron block, with a smooth flat steel face, on which the malleable metals are hammered and shaped. Anwari ANWARI, one of the earlier Persian poets, was born in Khorassan, in the 12th century. Anzin ANZIN, a town of France, in the department of Nord, situated on the Escaut (Scheldt), not far from Valenciennes, in the centre of the most valuable coal-mining district in France, a large part of which takes its name from the town, and gives employment to about 6000 persons. Aosta AOSTA, a town of the kingdom of Italy, the capital of a circle of the same name in the province of Turin, situated on the Dora Baltea, at the point where the roads over Great and Little St Bernard meet, 49 miles N. of Turin. Apamea APAMEA, in Ancient Geography, the name of several Asiatic cities :-1. Apanage APANAGE (apanagium, probably from panis, bread), the provision in the form of lands or feudal superiorities made for younger sons by the kings of France. The custom of bestowing apanages was first established under the dynasty of the Capets ; the rule at an earlier period being that the kingdom should be divided as equally as possible among all the members of the family on the death of the soverei… Apeldoorn APELDOORN, a flourishing town in the Netherlands, who were rubbing down colours in the studio might laugh in the province of Guelderland, 17 miles N. of Arnheim, at him. Apellas APELLAS, a Greek sculptor, mentioned by Pausanias Apelles. Apelles APELLES, the most celebrated of ancient Greek painters. by other incidents, as when he told an artist, who boasted The date assigned to him by Pliny prat. Hist., xxxv. 79) of his speed in work, that the wonder was why he could is 332 B.C., and with this agrees the fact of his having not produce more of such stuff in the same time ; or, when been the court painter of Alexander the Great, who it was… Apenrade APENRADE, a town of Prussia, in Schleswig, beautifully situated on the Apenrade fiord, an arm of the Littlo Belt, 38 miles N. of Schleswig. It is connected by a branch line with the main railway of Schleswig, and possesses a tolerably good harbour, by means of which it carries on a considerable transit trade, while there are also several manufactures, as well as some shipbuilding and sea-fishing. … Aphasia APHASIA (from a and stgicris ; synonyms, Aphonia, Alalia, Aphrasia, Aphthongia, Aplahenxia), a term applied to indicate a condition in which the function of expressing ideas by articulate sounds is arrested, perverted, or destroyed, in consequence of lesion of the brain. Loss or perversion of the power of expressing ideas by written signs is often associated with this condition. The term Aphasia i… Aphorism APHORISM (Ckopto-pis, from clOopiZa, to define) is a terse and definite statement of a principle or important doctrine in science or philosophy. Aphrodite APHRODITE [VEsus]. From the accepted meaning of the name Aphrodite, "born in the foam of the sea," (aySpos), together with Hesiod's .(Theog., 187-206) account of her appearing first in the waters round Cythera, and finally landing on Cyprus ; and from the further explanation of her principal title Urania, to the effect that she derived her being from the maimed Uranos, this goddess might appear to… Apicius APICIUS. Apion APION, a Greek grammarian and commentator upon Homer, son of Posidonius, was born at Oasis in Libya, but called himself a native of Alexandria, where he studied. Apis APIS, a sacred bull worshipped at Memphis from the earliest period, having probably been introduced into the religious system as early as the 2d dynasty by the king Kaiechos, who instituted the worship of Apis and the ball Mnevis. His name in hieroglyphs was Hapi, and meant " the hidden," as he had to be discovered amidst the cattle, which was done by certain diacritical marks. According to the hi… Apocalypse APOCALYPSE, a designation under which the last book of the New Testament is frequently referred to. Apocalyptic Literature APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE. This branch of later Jewish literature took its rise after the older prophecy had ceased, when Israel suffered sorely from Syrian and Roman oppression. Its object was to encourage and comfort the people by holding forth the speedy restoration of the Davidic kingdom of Messiah. Attaching itself to the national hope, it proclaimed the impending of a glorious future, in which … Apocrypha APOCRYPHA. This term is a Greek word meaning hidden, secret. It occurs, for example, in Col. ii. 3, " In whom are hid all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge," and elsewhere in the New Testament. It is first found applied to writings in Clemens Alexandrines, Stroinata, c. 4. When applied to writings (erarimpusba sc. flLfasa) the name may be supposed to have first expressed the nature of their co… Apocryphal Books Of The New Testament APOCRYPHAL BOOKS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. - These may be divided into two classes - those books which were actually held as inspired by some portion of the Christian church, and those which were never acknowledged as canonical. Among the first are some of the writings ascribed to the apostolical fathers. The First Epistle of Clement was read in the churches, is quoted in the same manner as Scripture … Apocrypha Of The Old Testament APOCRYPHA OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. - The books bearing this name are not contained in the Jewish or Palestinian Canon, i.e., in the Hebrew Bible, but in the Alexandrian Canon, i.e., in the Greek translation known as the Septuagint. Considerable obscurity hangs over the date and the circumstances of the close of the Hebrew Canon, and the principles which guided the collectors in their selection of boo… Apolda APOLDA, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Saxe Weimar, situated near the river Ilm, 9 miles east of Weimar, with which it is connected by railway. Hosiery and cloth are the chief manufactures of the town, besides which it contains pin and button factories, and bell foundries. There are mineral springs in the neighbourhood. Population in 1871, 10,507. AI?OLLINARIS SIDONIUS, CAIIIS SoLmus, an… Apollinaris, Sulpicius APOLLINARIS, SULPICIUS, a learned grammarian of Carthage, lived in the 2d century, under the Antonines. Apollo APOLLO. The influence of the sun on nature in a country like Greece, either brightening the fields and cheering mankind, or scorching and destroying with a pestilence, or again dispelling the miasma collected from marshes by night, was taken by the Greeks to be under the control of a divine being, to whom they ascribed, on human analogy, a form and character in which were reflected their own ensat… Apollonius APOLLONIUS, surnamed TYANiEUS, a Pythagorean philosopher, born at Tyana, the capital of Cappadocia, shortly before the Christian eras According to his biographer Philostratus, he studied grammar and rhetoric at Tarsus under Euthydemus, but he soon left that gay and luxurious city for the quiet town of /Egad in the vicinity, where he spent his time in the company of philosophers and priests within … Apollonius APOLLONIUS, surnamed DYSCOLUS (A - t:ric0A.05), or The time we cannot distinguish the original from the borrowed Crabbed, was a native of Alexandria, and lived in the propositions ; but, though it is certain that he both added reigns of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. Apollonius APOLLONIUS, a grammarian of Alexandria, author of 16th century, Viviani, the last favourite pupil of Galileo, a Homeric Lexicon, Aacts`0,fipum4 which was first pub- Fermat, Halley, Simson, and a number of others, all lished. by Villoison, in two vols, fol., at Paris, in 1773. attempted this with more or less success. Apollonius APOLLONIUS, a Greek epic poet-, surnamed Iltronms, sections may be cut from the same cone, by varying the from his long residence in Rhodes, though he is supposed position of the intersecting plane ; for previous authors to have been a native of Alexandria.. He is known to us as had supposed the plane of section always perpendicular the author of the Argonautica, a poem which he began to the slant… Apollonius APOLLONIUS of TRALLES and his brother TAURISCUS of Golius stated that the eighth book had never been were the sculptors of the famous Farnese Bull, a group translated into Arabic. Apollonius APOLLONIUS, surnamed Moro, a distinguished Greek His treatise on the Conic Sections gained him the title of rhetorician, the instructor of Czesar and of Cicero. Born The Great Geometer, and is that by which his fame has been at Alabanda, he settled at Rhodes, and in the dictatorship of transmitted to modern times. It is not, indeed, to be for a Sulla, was sent as ambassador from the Rhodians to Ro… Apollonius APOLLONIUS of PERGA (PERG-EUS), next to Archi- by the descriptions of Pappus, and the assertion that his medes the most illustrious of the ancient Greek geome- preliminary lemmas to the seventh book really belonged tc tricians, was born probably about 250 B.C., and died during the eighth, as well as by the statement of Apollonius him-the reign of Ptolemy Philopater (222-205 n.c.), flourishing self… Apollos APOLLOS, a Jew of Alexandria, who came to Ephesus tions. The special form, too, which Apologetics has for the during the absence of St Paul at Jerusalem (Acts xviii. 24). most part assumed - a defence or vindication of ChristiApollos was a learned man (Aoy(os, in the authorised version anity - has made it more changeable. It has been comtranslated eloquent), "mighty in the Scriptures, " and pelled… Apologue APOLOGUE. Apophthegm APOPHTHEGM (arOchOcyua, from (1)N-y-yop.ai, to speak), especially where the blood has been extravasated in or a short, sententious, instructive utterance, as "Knowledge around the important structures at the base of the brain, is power, " " True greatness always wills. " Of such the result is a fit of apoplexy as above described, and death sayings Plutarch made a famous collection in his Apo- not unfrequently follows within a short period. Apoplexy APOPLEXY (tiro, 7rArjo-o-co, to strike down, to stun), a But even in such cases some degree of paralysis remains at term in medicine which, though now also employed with least for a time. Moreover, the nutrition of thelbrain is so other significations, is commonly understood to apply to a impaired as to render probable a recurrence of the hmorfit of sudden insensibility occurring in connection wit… Apostasy APOSTASY (d760-Tao-cc), denoting in classic Greek (Herodotus, Thucydides) a defection or revolt from a military commander, is generally employed to describe a complete renunciation of the Christian faith. Apostle APOSTLE (Greek arico-roXos, one who is sent forth) is in the New Testament, and in Christian literature, a technical term - apostle of Jesus Christ. It appears from Mat. x., Mark vi., that the name was originally applied to the twelve disciples in reference to the special mission to preach and work miracles in Israel, on which our Lord sent them forth during His ministry on earth. Luke alone of th… Apostolic Canons APOSTOLIC CANONS. These are rules to regulate Christian life and the discipline and government of the Christian church, which, it is supposed, have come down to us' from the apostles. Several collections of rules claiming apostolic origin and authority have descended to us, and of these the two most important are the canons of the Apostolic Synod of Antioch and the collection now described, which … Apostolic Fathers APOSTOLIC FATHERS. The apostolic fathers is a name given to certain writers tin the earliest period of Christianity, who were believed to have been the disciples of the apostles, and to have had intercourse with them. Those generally included under the title are Clemens Romulus, Ignatius, Polycarp, Barnabas, and Hermas Sometimes the name is extended to Papias of Hierapolis and the writer of the Ep… Apostolici, Or Apostolic Brethren APOSTOLICI, or APOSTOLIC BRETHREN, a name assumed by three different sects, which professed a close adherence to the doctrines and practice of the apostles. The earliest, known also as the Apotactici, were a branch of the Encratites, and came into existence in the 3d century. According to Epiphanius, their principles were communistic. The second sect of the name was formed in the district surround… Apostolic Or Apostolical APOSTOLIC or APOSTOLICAL, a name assumed at different times by:various churches and sects on the ground of some special connection with the'-apostles. Apostolius, Michael APOSTOLIUS, MICHAEL, a Greek theologian and rhetorician of the 15th century. When, in 1453, the Turks made themselves masters of his native city, Constantinople, he fled to Italy, and there obtained the protection of Cardinal Bessarion. But engaging in the great dispute that then raged between the upholders of Aristotle and Plato, his zeal for the latter led him to speak so disrespectfully and con… Apothecary APOTHECARY. This name is derived from the Greek 'Ar-o04Kii, a word used by Galen to denote the repository where his medicines were kept. In Scotland the term is often applied to one who compounds and sells drugs, but this class is now defined in the language of some recent Acts of Parliament as pharmaceutical Iemists, and chemists and druggists, both in England and Scotland. In England the name in… Apotheosis APOTHEOSIS, deification, the enrolment of a mortal among the gods. In its most rudimentary form, this practice may be regarded as an offshoot of the univci sal belief of primitive mankind in the existence of disembodied spirits, and their continued agency in human affairs. (Tylor, Primitive Culture, ch. xi. - xvii.) An invisible being thus invested with beneficent or malefic attributes, and capabl… Appalachian Mountains APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS, the general name given to a vast system of elevations in North America, partly in Canada, but mostly in the United States, extending for 1300 miles, from Cape Gaspe, on the Gulf of St Lawrence, south-west to Alabama. The whole system may be conveniently divided into three great sections : the Northern, from Cape Gaspe to New York ; the Central, from New York to the valley of… Apparitions APPARITIONS, in the ordinary acceptation of the word, can scarcely be better defined than in the terms used by Defoe : "They are the invisible inhabitants of the unknown world, affecting human shapes or other shapes, and showing themselves visibly to us." In this definition no account is taken of "spectral illusions, involuntarily generated, by means of which figures or forms, not present to the a… Appeal APPEAL, in its usual modern sense, is the act by which a decision is brought for review from an inferior to a superior court. In Roman jurisprudence it was used in this and in other significations ; it was sometimes equivalent to prosecution, or the calling up of an accused person before a tribunal where the accuser appealed to the protection of the magistrate against injustice or oppression. The … Appenzell APPENZELL, the chief town of Timer Rhodes, in the-canton of Appenzell, derives its name (Abbatis Cella, Abtenzelle), like Bischofszell and St Peterzell in the same region, from its ancient ecclesiastical connection. Appenzell APPENZELL (for "derivation see below), one of the twenty-two cantons of the Swiss Confederation, is an alpine region, with an area of about 152 square miles, entirely surrounded by the canton of St Gall. The mountains in the south attain a considerable elevation, the highest, Mount Sentis, being 8215 feet in height, and reaching the region of perpetual snow ; but towards the north the surface is c… Apperley, Charles James APPERLEY, CHARLES JAMES, a sportsman and sporting writer, better known as "Nimrod," the nom de plume under which he published his works on the chase and the turf, was born at Plasgronow, near Wrexham, in Denbighshire, in 1777. During the period of his education at Rugby he paid more attention to field-sports than to classics ; and between the years 1805 and 1820 he devoted himself almost wholly to… Appia APPIA. Appian APPIAN, an eminent writer of Roman history in Greek under the reigns of Trajan and Adrian. Appiani, Andrea APPIANI, ANDREA, the best fresco painter of his age, born at Milan in 1754, died in 1817. Apple APPLE. The apple (Pomme, Fr. ; Apfel, Ger.) is the fruit of Pyrus Mains, belonging to the Sub-order Pomacece, of the Natural Order Rosacece. It is one of the most widely cultivated, and best known and appreciated of fruits belonging to temperate climates. In its wild state it is known as the crab-apple, and is found generally distributed throughout Europe and Western Asia, growing in as high a lat… Appleby APPLEBY, a market and borough town of England, capital of Westmoreland, situated on the Eden, 13 miles S.E. of Penrith. Appraiser APPRAISER (from ad and pretiunt, value), one who sets a value upon property, real or personal. Apprentice APPRENTICE - APPRENTICESHIP. Apprenticeship (from apprendre, to learn) is a contract whereby one person, called the master, binds himself to teach, and another, called the apprentice, undertakes to learn some trade or profession, and to serve his master for a certain time. The contract is generally created by indenture, but any writing properly expressed and attested will suffice. The Civilians ar… Apricot APRICOT, the fruit of Prunus armeniaca (Linn.) or Armeniaca vulgaris, according to others. April APRIL was, in the old Roman reckoning, the second month of the year, but is counted in the Julian calendar as the fourth. The derivation of the name is unknown, though as far back as Varro we find the traditional etymology, omnia aperit, "it opens everything," which is supported by comparison with the modern Greek use of avocets (opening) for spring ; while some would make out a connection with Ap… Apse APSE (Cr. ao's; Let. absis, tribuna, concha ; Fr. abside, chet'et, rond-point; Ital. upside, tribuna ; Ger. Ablaut), the semicircular or polygonal termination to a church. These forms were no doubt derived from the concha or bona, in the classic and early Christian basilica. In both cases it was the place appropriated to those who administered justice, the praetor's chair in the one being represen… Apsheron APSHERON, a peninsula of Asia, in Georgia, extending from the eastern extremity of the Caucasus range for about 40 miles into the Caspian Sea, and terminating in Cape Apsheron. It produces naphtha, salt, and saffron in great abundance ; and has long been celebrated among the fire-worshippers of Asia for the sacred fires that issue from its soil. On its southern coast is the port of Baku. APT, the … Apuleius APULEIUS, Lucius, celebrated as a philosopher and a writer of romance, was born at Madaura in Numidia, about 125 A.D. As the son of one of the principal inhabitants, he received an excellent education, first at Carthage and subsequently at Athens. After leaving Athens he undertook a long course of travel, principally with the view of obtaining initiation into religious mysteries. On a journey to A… Apulia APULIA, the name applied to a district of southern Italy, the limits of which were not very definitely or permanently marked. It is usually regarded as having been bounded by the country of the Frentani on the N., Samnium on the W., Calabria and Lucania on the S., and the Adriatic on the E. The northern portion comprised the district sloping eastward from the Apennines, but did not take in any par… Apurimac APURIMAC, or TAmno, a Peruvian river which rises in the lagoon of Villafro, near Caylloma, flows in a generally northward direction, and, receiving the waters of the Velille, the San Tomas, the Mamara, the Pachachaea, the Pampas, the Mantaro, and the Perene, falls into the Ucayali, an affluent of the Amazon. Aquarians AQUARIANS, a name given to various sects of Christians in the primitive church who substituted water for wine in the communion service. Aqueduct AQUEDUCT, a conduit or channel for the conveyance of water (Lat. aquceductus), but commonly a structure of masonry erected to conduct water across a valley at a high level, though structures of this kind would be more properly termed aqueduct bridges. This distinction it is necessary to bear in mind, more particularly when dealing with the undertakings of this class carried out by the Greeks and R… Aquila AQUILA ('AKAas), a native of Pontus, who flourished about 130 A,D., celebrated for his translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek. Aquila AQUILA, a town of Italy, capital of the province of Abruzzo Ulteriore II., beautifully situated on the Aterno, about 56 miles from Rome. It is a well-built place, containing a citadel, which dates from 1534, a cathedral (S. Bernardino du Siena), as well as numerous other churches and religious establishments, a theatre, a fine town-hall, and a number of ancient mansions, such as the Palazzo Torres… Aquila, Caspar AQUILA, CASPAR, the Latin name of Kaspar Adler, a celebrated German theologian who espoused the cause of the Reformation. He was born at Augsburg in 1488 ; and after studying there as well as at Berne and Leipsic, and for several years in Italy, he was appointed pastor of Jenga, a village near Augsburg. Here he embraced the doctrines of Luther ; but his boldness and 'zeal in the cause of the refor… Aquila, Serafino Dell AQUILA, SERAFINO DELL', a famous Italian poet and improvisatore, was born in 1466 at the town of Aquila, from which he took his name, and died in the year 1500. Aquileia AQUILEIA, an ancient city, at the head of the Adriatic, founded or at least colonised by the Romans about 181 B.C., which, on account of its commanding the north-eastern entrance into Italy, soon rose into importance as a commercial centre and as a military post. Connected by the /Emilian way with the capital and the south, it was also the starting-place of the roads to Rhtetia, Pannonia, Istria, … Aquillius AQUILLIUS, MANiu-s, was Roman consul in 101 B.c., and successfully reduced a revolt of slaves in Sicily. Aquinas, Thomas AQUINAS, THOMAS [THOMAS or AQUIN OR AQUINO], was of noble descent, and nearly allied to several of the royal houses of Europe. He was born in 1225 or 1227, at Rocca. Sicca, the castle of his father Landulf, count of Aquino, in the territories of Naples. Having received his elementary education at the monastery of Monte Cassino, he studied for six years at the University of Naples, leaving it in hi… Aquitan Ia AQUITAN IA. This was, in the time of Julius Cmsar, the name given to that part of Gallia which lay between the Garmima and the Pyrenees, and was inhabited by a race distinct from the Celtm. According to Bial and Belloguet, Aquitani is probably a form of Auscetaui, a Hispanic lengthening of Ausces (Ausks, Wasks, Basques), and Aquitania would thus be radically identical with Gascony (Wasconia), a wo… Arabesque ARABESQUE, a term to which a meaning is now commonly given that is historically incorrect. We apply it to the grotesque decoration derived from Roman remains of the early time of the empire, not to any style derived from Arabian or Moorish work ; the term is therefore a misnomer. Arabesque and Mo?esque are really distinct; the latter is from the Arabian style of ornament, developed by the Byzantin… Arabian Philosophy ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY owed to Arabia little more than its name and its language. It was a system of Greek thought, expressed in a Semitic tongue, and modified by Oriental influences, called into existence amongst the Moslem people by the patronage of their more liberal princes, and kept alive by the intrepidity and zeal of a small band of thinkers, who stood suspected and disliked in the eyes of thei… Arabian Sea ARABIAN SEA, the name applied to the large sheet of water, really a portion of the Indian Ocean, bounded on the E. by Hindustan, on the N. by Beloochistan, on the W. by Arabia and the Gulf of Aden, and on the S. by an imaginary line stretching between Cape Guarclafiii, in the N.E. of Africa, and Cape Comoriu in Hindustan. This is the Arabian Sea proper, but under the name Gulf of Aden it penetrate… Arabici ARABICI, a sect originating about the beginning of the 3d century, which is mentioned by Augustine (De Hceres., c. 83), and called also Thnetopsychike by Johannes Damascenus (De Ilceres., c. 99). Arad, Old ARAD, OLD, a city of Hungary, in the county of Arad, situated on the Maros, 145 miles S.E. of Pesth. It is a well-built town, with a fortress of considerable strength, erected in 1763, which occupies an advantageous position between two branches of the river. It is the seat of a Greek bishop, and has a Greek theological seminary. Its chief manufacture is that of tobacco; and, besides carrying on a… Aragon ARAGON, a captaincy general, or, as it is usually called by the Spaniards, a kingdom, of Spain, situated between lat. 40? and 42? 51' N., and between long. 2? 10' W. and 10 45' E., is bounded on the N. by the Pyrenees, which separate it from France, E. by Catalonia and Valencia, S. by Valencia, and W. by Navarre and the two Castiles. It has an area of 14,726 English square miles, and a population … Araguaya, Or Araguia ARAGUAYA, or ARAGUIA, a river of Brazil which rises in the Sierra Sciada, and flows north between the provi.nces of Matto Grosso and Goyaz till it joins the Tocantins at San Joao das dual Barras, about lat. 6? S. Arahal ARAHAL, a town in Spain, 7 miles from Seville. Arakan ARAKAN, a division of British Burmah, and within the jurisdiction of the chief commissioner of that province. It consists of a strip of country running along the eastern seaboard of the Bay of Bengal, from the Nal estuary, on the borders of Chittagong, to Cape Negrais. The division is situated between 16? 2' and 21? 33' N. lat., and between 92? 10' and 94? 50' E. long. It is bounded on the N. by t… Aral ARAL, a vast lake or inland sea, in the west of Asia, situated between lat. 43? 42' and 46" 44' N., and long. 58? 18' and 61? 46' E. It was known to the Persian geographers as the Sea of Khuwarizm or Khwarezm, from the neighbouring district of the Chorasmii, and derives its present name from the Kirghese designation of Aral Denghis, or Sea of Islands. Its length, from north to south, is 265 miles,… Aramaic Languages ARAMAIC LANGUAGES are so called from Aram, a geographical term, which in old. Semitic usage designates nearly the same districts as the Greek word Syria. Aram, however, does not include Palestine, while it comprehends Mesopotamia (Ileb. Aram of two rivers), a region which the Greeks frequently distinguish from Syria proper. Thus the Aramaic languages may be geographically defined as the Semitic di… Aram, Eugene ARAM, EUGENE, was born of humble parents at Rams-gill in Yorkshire, in 1704. He received little education at school, but manifested an intense desire for learning. While still young, he married and settled as a schoolmaster at Netherdale, and during the years he spent there, he taught himself both Latin and Greek. In 1734 he removed to Knaresborough, where he remained as schoolmaster till 1745. In… Aranda, Pedro Pablo Abarca ARANDA, PEDRO PABLO ABARCA Y BOLEA, Count of, a descendant of a noble family in Aragon, was born at Saragossa, 21st Sept. 1718. He served for several years in the army, and, after retiring with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, spent some time in travelling through France, Italy, and Prussia. He seems to have fallen under the displeasure of Ferdinand VI., but on the accession of Charles III. in 1759… Aran Islands, South ARAN ISLANDS, SOUTH, three islands of carboniferous limestone, which lie across Galway Bay, on the west coast of Ireland, in a south-easterly direction, forming a kind of natural breakwater. They are called respectively - beginning with the most northern - Inishmore (or Aranmore), the Great Island ; Inishmaan, the Middle Island ; and Inisheer, the Eastern Island. The first has an elevation of 351 … Aranjutz ARANJUTZ (Ara Jovis 7), a town in Spain, in the province of Madrid, situated 1640 feet above the sea, in a beautiful valley on the left bank of the Tagus, near its junction with the Jarama, 28 miles S.S.E. of the capital, and 22 E.N.E. of Toledo, and united by rail with both these cities. The master of the Order of Santiago had a country seat at Aranjuez in the 14th and 15th centuries, which passe… Ararat ARARAT. This name, originally designating a whole district of Asia (Gen. viii. 4), has long been appropriated by the uniform usage of Europeans to the lofty Armenian mountain which stands on the confines of the Russian, Turkish, and Persian dominions, in lat. 39? 42' N., long. 44? 35' E., known to the Armenians as Jfasis, to the Turks as Ak-Dagh, and to the Persians as Ku/r-i-AVuk, or Noah's Mount… Aras ARAS, the ancient Araxes (Turk. and Arab. Arat Us ARAT US, a Greek poet, was born at Soli, in Officio.. The date of his birth is uncertain, but it is known he lived about 270 B.C., and as he was court-physician to Antigouus Gonatas, king of Macedonia, he must have been contemporary with several of the great Alexandrian writers, - Aristophanes of Byzantium, Aristarchus, and Theocritus. Though not an Alexandrian, Aratus has all the characteristics … Aratus ARATUS, one of the rulers of Sicyon, was born in that city, 271 B.c. His father, Clinias, was slain by Abantidas ; and Aratus, then seven years of age, only escaped a similar fate through the kindness of Soso, the sister of Abantidas, who had him conveyed secretly to Argos. At the age of twenty he regained without bloodshed his native city of Sicyon, and induced the citizens to join the Achrean Le… Araucania ARAUCANIA, a territory of South America, between lat. 37? and 39? 50' S., and long. 70? and 75? 20' W. Araucaria ARAUCARIA, a genus of Coniferous trees included under the tribe Abietinex, and the sub-tribe Araucania. The sub-tribe has been thus defined : - Leaves flat, often four-angled, arranged more or less in a spiral manner ; male flowers in cylindrical terminal spikes, anthers six or more in two rows ; female flowers in cones, which are large and globose ; scales of the cone linear, arranged in a spiral… Aravalli Hills ARAVALLI HILLS, a range of mountains in India, running for 300 miles in a north-easterly direction through the Rajputana states and the British districts of Mairwara and Ajmfr, situated between 24? and 27? 10' N. lat., and between 72? and 75? E. long. They consist of a series of ridges and peaks, with a breadth varying from 6 to 60 miles, and an elevation of 1000 to 3000 feet, the highest point be… Arbaces ARBACES, the founder of the Median empire in 876 B.C., was one of the generals of Sardanapalus, king of Assyria, and had command of the contingent from the province of Media. Volume 3 [ATH-BOI]: Aitdran to Balzac [next] [back] Volume 1 [A - ANA]: 100-00 to Adamnan Or Adomnan Copyright © 2013 Net Industries and its Licensors – All Rights Reserved – Terms of Use Share this page: Tweet More To Explore	Contact & About Privacy Policy