Migration to Suburbs Continues
The economic prosperity following World War II enabled many American families to pursue what was perceived to be a better life in the wide-open spaces of the outlying, newly developing suburbs. The ties that bound the nuclear family, the extended family, and the ethnic neighborhood—all of which existed before the war—were loosened. With government aid, most notably Veterans'Administration (VA) mortgages, newlyweds and young couples with children bought homes in the suburbs. Leaving their parents and relatives, these young families soon became self-sufficient entities tending to their own needs. By 1960, suburban residents for the first time outnumbered those living in cities.
Additionally, in 1956 the federal government enacted the National Defense Highway Act, which provided for the construction of more than forty thousand miles of interstate highway. This expansion of the nation's highway system, coupled with low gas prices, facilitated the suburbanization of America. By 1960, the Census Bureau reported that 75% of families in the United States owned a car, compared with about 50% in the late 1940s. Many businesses also left cities to move to the suburbs. It did not take long for shopping and entertainment centers to follow.
During the 1970s and 1980s more middle-class and affluent families migrated to the suburbs, Census data showed. With the loss of many businesses and jobs to the suburbs, city dwellers began to see their quality of life diminish. Cities struggled with fewer jobs, poverty, high crime rates, and drug-related problems.
Suburban Dwellers in the Twenty-First Century
In 2002 the Census Bureau found that more than half of all households (55.5 million) were located in the suburbs. Nearly 56% (31.7 million) of married couples lived in the suburbs and another 21% (11.7 million) lived in rural areas and small towns. Regardless of where they lived, 83% of married couple families owned their homes.
New Home Construction Boom
The dream for many families is a new home, one in which they select the floor plan to meet their needs and choose everything from bathroom towel bars to light fixtures to floor coverings. Young families often bought their first new home as a completed model and looked forward to designing a future home their own way. Couples who had raised their children and were preparing for retirement will sometimes use the proceeds from the sale of the family home to build their dream house. Data collected by the U.S. Census Bureau and the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) provided a glimpse into new-home purchases. Of the 973,000 new homes sold in 2002 and 1,086,000 sold in 2003, just one-fourth were already completed when sold. Nearly 40% of new home buyers (361,000 in 2002 and 406,000 in 2003) selected the location for their home, participated in the design, and purchased it before construction began. (See Table 6.1.)
New homes came with sometimes staggering price tags. Of new homes sold in 2002 and 2003, just 6% were priced under $100,000, according to Census and HUD report, while 20% of new homes sold in 2002 and 24% sold in 2003 were priced in excess of $300,000. (See Table 6.2.) Reflecting a shift in population to the South and the West, those two areas claimed nearly three-quarters
TABLE 6.1
| New home sales by stage of construction, 2002–03 | ||||
| [Thousands of houses. Detail may not add to total because of rounding] | ||||
| Sold during period | ||||
| Period | Total | Not started | Under construction | Completed |
| SOURCE: Adapted from "Table 3. New Homes Sold and For Sale by Stage of Construction and Median Number of Months on Sales Market," in New Residential Sales in July 2004, U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, August 25, 2004, http://www.census.gov/const/newressales.pdf (accessed September 24, 2004) | ||||
| 2002 | 973 | 356 | 361 | 256 |
| 2003 | 1,086 | 416 | 406 | 264 |
of all new home sales in 2002 and 2003. The South led the market with almost half of the nation's new home sales (46% in 2002 and 47% in 2003). (See Table 6.3.)
Americans on the Move
Census figures showed that between 2002 and 2003, 40.1 million Americans moved. Over half of these moves (59%) were within the same county, and 19% were to another county within in the same state. Less than one-fifth of Americans moved to a different state. (See Figure 6.1.) While overall moving rates declined from 17% in 1994 to 14% in 2003, the Census Bureau reported that long distance moves increased slightly. In 1994 just 16% of all moves crossed state boundaries compared to 19% of moves in 2003.
Moving rates varied by characteristics such as age, race, ethnicity, nativity, marital status, household type, income, ownership/rental status, and poverty. Young people in the twenty to twenty-nine age range were most mobile. Persons age sixty-five and over were least likely to move. (See Figure 6.2.) The Census Bureau reported that although they were generally less mobile than younger people, persons age fifty-five and older were more likely to move to another state. Younger people moved more frequently for jobs and to form new families; many people over fifty-five often moved to settle in a new location for retirement. Often seniors chose retirement locations near where their children had settled or opted for warmer climates and social amenities of southern retirement communities.
African-Americans and Hispanics of any race had the highest overall moving rate at 18%, while non-Hispanic whites had the lowest rate at 12%. Nearly one-third of renters moved in 2003, compared to only one in fourteen homeowners. More people in poverty (24%) moved than those with incomes above poverty level (13%). This trend may have reflected the greater likelihood that people in poverty were renters and were challenged to find adequate affordable housing. (See Table 6.4.)
FIGURE 6.1
More than half of all moves were done with a change of housing in mind—either to find a better home, safer neighborhood, or more affordable rental unit. These were typically moves within the same community or county. Family reasons motivated 26% of all moves—for example, a change in marital status—followed by 16% listed as job-related. People who made longer distance moves did so most often for a better job (18.6%) or family reasons (16.8%). (See Table 6.5.) People who moved to the United States from other countries did so primarily for job (38.1%) or family reasons (29.4%).
Americans continue to move out of the Northeast and the Midwest, a trend that began in the 1990s. According to the Census Bureau, between 2002 and 2003 both areas of the country experienced net population losses of about 100,000 people due to migration. Much of this loss was offset, however, by movers who came from abroad. The Northeast gained 161,000 and the Midwest gained 179,000 residents from other countries. The populations of the South and the West grew significantly from both domestic and foreign migration.
Mobile Military Families
Frequent relocations are a way of life for military families. The Department of Defense (DoD) counted
TABLE 6.2
| New home sales by price, 2002–03 | ||||||||
| (Thousands of houses. Components may not add to total because of rounding.) | ||||||||
| Period | Total | Under $100,000 | $100,000 to $124,999 | $125,000 to $149,999 | $150,000 to $199,999 | $200,000 to $249,999 | $250,000 to $299,999 | $300,000 and over |
| *Houses for which sales price was not reported have been distributed proportionally to those for which sales price was reported. | ||||||||
| SOURCE: Adapted from "Table 2. New Houses Sold, by Sales Price," in New Residential Sales in July 2004, U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, August 25, 2004, http://www.census.gov/const/newressales.pdf (accessed September 24, 2004) | ||||||||
| Number of houses* | ||||||||
| 2002 | 973 | 62 | 94 | 138 | 237 | 139 | 107 | 196 |
| 2003 | 1,086 | 54 | 96 | 146 | 264 | 148 | 112 | 266 |
FIGURE 6.2
TABLE 6.3
| New home sales by location, 2002–03 | |||||
| (Thousands of houses. Detail may not add to total because of rounding.) | |||||
| Sold during period1 | |||||
| Period | United States | North–east | Mid–west | South | west |
| SOURCE: Adapted from "Table 1. New Houses Sold and For Sale," in New Residential Sales in July 2004, U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, August 25,2004, http://www.census.gov/const/newressales.pdf (accessed September 24,2004) | |||||
| 2002 | 973 | 65 | 185 | 450 | 273 |
| 2003 | 1,086 | 79 | 189 | 511 | 307 |
1,434,377 active-duty military personnel with more than two million dependents on September 30, 2003.
The Department of Defense Education Activity (DoDEA) in April 2003 operated 219 public schools in seven states, Puerto Rico, Guam, and thirteen foreign countries for children of military personnel and civilian DoD employees. Enrollment in April 2003 was approximately 102,600 children in elementary and secondary levels with the majority—71,100—in overseas schools. The frequent reassignments of military personnel resulted in a 35% transient rate in DoDEA schools.
Mobility Disconnects Extended Families
One downside to increased mobility was the scattering of families that, a generation earlier, had gathered for dinner every Sunday. "These days families are all spread out and cousins don't live around the corner anymore," said Edith Wagner, founder of Reunions magazine, in a New York Times article from August 13, 2004, about family reunions. According to the article's author, Tamar Lewin, the need to revive the sense of family connection in a mobile society made reunions popular. And the gatherings "evolved into a very different affair from a simple afternoon picnic held in the grandparents' backyard," Lewin wrote. The long distances that separate far-flung relatives prompted reunions to grow into two- or three-day
TABLE 6.4
| Geographic mobility by selected characteristics, 2002–03 | ||||||||
| (Numbers in thousands) | ||||||||
| Percent moved | ||||||||
| Total, 1 year and older | Same residence (nonmovers) | Different county | ||||||
| Selected characteristics | Total movers | Total | Same county | Same state | Different state | From abroad | ||
| SOURCE: Jason P. Schachter, "Table B. Geographic Mobility by Selected Characteristics, 2002–2003," in Geographical Mobility, 2002–2003, Current Population Reports, P20–549, U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau, March 2004, http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/p20–549.pdf (accessed July 19, 2004) | ||||||||
| Total, 1 year and older | 282,556 | 242,463 | 40,093 | 14.2 | 8.3 | 2.7 | 2.7 | 0.5 |
| Age | ||||||||
| 1 to 4 years | 16,409 | 12,896 | 3,513 | 21.4 | 13.6 | 3.9 | 3.3 | 0.6 |
| 5 to 9 years | 19,708 | 16,584 | 3,124 | 15.9 | 9.8 | 2.9 | 2.7 | 0.4 |
| 10 to 19 years | 41,372 | 35,715 | 5,657 | 13.7 | 8.3 | 2.6 | 2.4 | 0.4 |
| 20 to 24 years | 19,884 | 13,906 | 5,979 | 30.1 | 17.8 | 5.8 | 5.6 | 0.8 |
| 25 to 29 years | 18,721 | 13,470 | 5,252 | 28.1 | 16.1 | 5.5 | 5.2 | 1.3 |
| 30 to 34 years | 20,522 | 16,460 | 4,061 | 19.8 | 11.7 | 3.6 | 3.8 | 0.7 |
| 35 to 44 years | 44,074 | 38,139 | 5,934 | 13.5 | 7.8 | 2.7 | 2.5 | 0.5 |
| 45 to 54 years | 40,234 | 36,786 | 3,448 | 8.6 | 4.9 | 1.6 | 2.0 | 0.2 |
| 55 to 64 years | 27,399 | 25,644 | 1,755 | 6.4 | 3.2 | 1.3 | 1.8 | 0.2 |
| 65 to 84 years | 30,687 | 29,441 | 1,246 | 4.1 | 1.9 | 1.0 | 1.1 | 0.1 |
| 85 years and older | 3,547 | 3,422 | 125 | 3.5 | 2.4 | 0.7 | 0.4 | 0.0 |
| Sex | ||||||||
| Male | 138,156 | 118,105 | 20,051 | 14.5 | 8.4 | 2.8 | 2.8 | 0.5 |
| Female | 144,400 | 124,358 | 20,042 | 13.9 | 8.2 | 2.7 | 2.6 | 0.4 |
| Race and Hispanic origin | ||||||||
| White alone | 228,198 | 197,953 | 30,244 | 13.3 | 7.6 | 2.7 | 2.6 | 0.3 |
| White alone, not Hispanic | 192,458 | 168,524 | 23,934 | 12.4 | 7.0 | 2.7 | 2.7 | 0.2 |
| Black alone | 35,333 | 28,981 | 6,352 | 18.0 | 11.7 | 2.8 | 3.1 | 0.4 |
| Asian alone | 11,430 | 9,507 | 1,923 | 16.8 | 8.6 | 2.7 | 2.8 | 2.7 |
| Hispanic (of any race) | 38,680 | 31,727 | 6,953 | 18.0 | 11.5 | 2.7 | 2.5 | 1.3 |
| Nativity | ||||||||
| Native | 249,103 | 214,823 | 34,279 | 13.8 | 8.3 | 2.9 | 2.8 | 0.2 |
| Foreign born | 33,453 | 27,639 | 5,814 | 17.4 | 9.9 | 2.6 | 2.9 | 3.5 |
| Marital Status (15 years and older) | ||||||||
| Total | 225,250 | 194,594 | 30,656 | 13.6 | 7.8 | 2.7 | 2.7 | 0.5 |
| Married 120,349 | 108,051 | 12,298 | 10.2 | 5.5 | 2.0 | 2.3 | 0.4 | |
| Divorced or separated | 26,396 | 21,694 | 4,703 | 17.8 | 11.2 | 3.5 | 2.8 | 0.3 |
| Widowed | 14,001 | 13,077 | 924 | 6.6 | 3.2 | 1.5 | 1.7 | 0.2 |
| Never married | 64,503 | 51,772 | 12,731 | 19.7 | 11.6 | 3.8 | 3.7 | 0.6 |
| Education (25 years and older) | ||||||||
| Total | 185,183 | 163,362 | 21,821 | 11.8 | 6.7 | 2.3 | 2.4 | 0.4 |
| Not a high school graduate | 28,599 | 25,186 | 3,413 | 11.9 | 7.7 | 1.8 | 1.8 | 0.7 |
| High school graduate | 59,292 | 52,953 | 6,339 | 10.7 | 6.2 | 2.1 | 2.1 | 0.2 |
| Some college or associate degree | 46,910 | 41,167 | 5,743 | 12.2 | 6.9 | 2.6 | 2.5 | 0.2 |
| Bachelor's degree | 33,213 | 28,793 | 4,420 | 13.3 | 6.9 | 2.7 | 3.0 | 0.7 |
| Graduate degree | 17,169 | 15,264 | 1,906 | 11.1 | 5.4 | 2.1 | 3.0 | 0.7 |
| Household income (in 2002) | ||||||||
| Less than $25,000 | 62,143 | 50,336 | 11,807 | 19.0 | 12.0 | 3.3 | 3.2 | 1.0 |
| $25,000 to $49,999 | 75,010 | 63,424 | 11,587 | 15.4 | 9.4 | 3.0 | 2.8 | 0.4 |
| $50,000 to $99,999 | 95,232 | 83,651 | 11,581 | 12.2 | 7.0 | 2.6 | 2.3 | 0.3 |
| $100,000 and over | 50,171 | 45,052 | 5,119 | 10.2 | 5.2 | 2.0 | 2.7 | 0.2 |
| Poverty status (in 2002) | ||||||||
| Above poverty level | 248,066 | 216,284 | 31,782 | 12.8 | 7.4 | 2.6 | 2.5 | 0.3 |
| Below poverty level | 34,490 | 26,178 | 8,312 | 24.1 | 14.7 | 3.8 | 4.0 | 1.7 |
| Household type | ||||||||
| In married-couple family households | 180,967 | 162,233 | 18,734 | 10.4 | 5.7 | 2.1 | 2.2 | 0.4 |
| In other households | 101,589 | 80,230 | 21,359 | 21.0 | 13.0 | 3.9 | 3.5 | 0.6 |
| Housing tenure | ||||||||
| Owner-occupied | 200,627 | 185,686 | 14,941 | 7.4 | 4.3 | 1.6 | 1.4 | 0.2 |
| Renter-occupied | 81,929 | 56,777 | 25,152 | 30.7 | 18.2 | 5.5 | 5.8 | 1.2 |
day affairs, making the distance traveled worthwhile. Some families gathered on the family farm. Ethnic roots of families with immigrant grandparents or great-grandparents often made traditional foods, music, and religious celebrations focal points of reunions. According to Lewin, Alex Haley's Roots prompted a surge in family
TABLE 6.5
| Reasons for moving by type of move, 2002–03 | ||||
| (Movers, 1 year and older) | ||||
| Reason | All movers | Intracounty | Intercounty | From abroad |
| SOURCE: Jason P. Schachter, "Table F. Reasons for Moving by Type of Move, 2002–2003," in Geographical Mobility, 2002–2003, Current Population Reports, P20-549, U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau, March 2004, http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/p20-549.pdf (accessed July 19, 2004) | ||||
| Total movers (thousands) | 40,093 | 23,468 | 15,356 | 1,269 |
| Percent | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 |
| Family-related reasons | 26.3 | 24.7 | 28.5 | 29.4 |
| Change in marital status | 6.7 | 6.4 | 7.1 | 5.9 |
| To establish own household | 7.0 | 8.8 | 4.5 | 4.6 |
| Other family reasons | 12.6 | 9.5 | 16.8 | 19.0 |
| Work-related reasons | 15.6 | 6.0 | 28.3 | 38.1 |
| New job/job transfer | 8.8 | 1.7 | 18.6 | 22.6 |
| To look for work/lost job | 1.9 | 0.7 | 3.0 | 9.0 |
| Closer to work/easier commute | 3.2 | 2.9 | 3.9 | 0.2 |
| Retired | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.6 |
| Other job related reason | 1.4 | 0.6 | 2.4 | 5.7 |
| Housing-related reasons | 51.3 | 65.3 | 33.5 | 8.8 |
| Wanted to own home/not rent | 10.2 | 12.7 | 7.1 | 0.5 |
| New/better house/apartment | 19.8 | 26.2 | 11.3 | 4.5 |
| Better neighborhood/less crime | 3.8 | 4.7 | 2.7 | 0.5 |
| Cheaper housing | 6.5 | 8.2 | 4.5 | 0.6 |
| Other housing | 11.0 | 13.5 | 7.8 | 2.7 |
| Other reasons | 6.8 | 3.9 | 9.9 | 23.7 |
| Attend/leave college | 2.5 | 1.1 | 4.2 | 9.1 |
| Change of climate | 0.4 | 0.0 | 1.0 | 0.5 |
| Health reasons | 1.4 | 1.1 | 2.0 | 0.9 |
| Other reason | 2.5 | 1.8 | 2.7 | 13.2 |
reunions among African-American families as early as the 1970s and 1980s. A 2002 poll by the Travel Industry of America revealed that one in three adults had traveled to a reunion in the last three years, and nearly one-fourth had attended a reunion in the past year.
Mobility also resulted in social disconnection for some families, particularly those that moved often. In his 2000 book Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community, Harvard University professor Robert D. Putnam noted that putting down roots in a new community took time. People who expected to move again in the next five years were 20–25% less likely to attend church, join clubs, or do volunteer work. The effort to become part of the new community, only to move again and leave new friends, seemed too much for some families.
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