Peacekeeping The Military and National Security - Military Administration

Department of Defense (DOD) Organization

The secretary of defense is the president's principal defense advisor and oversees the DOD. The secretary advises the president on military strategy and policy, sets defense budgets, and administers the department. The Office of the Secretary of Defense is the secretary's staff, assisting him in directing the undersecretaries, assistant secretaries, and lower-ranking officials who populate the department, which is organized along both functional and regional lines.

The DOD below the secretary and the secretary's office is made up of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS; a council consisting of the highest-ranking member of each service) and their staff, called the joint staff; the military departments (army, air force, navy/Marines); the nine unified combatant commands (the multiservice groups that directly control U.S. combat forces); and several defense agencies that provide services across the entire DOD, such as the Defense Intelligence Agency.

The Secretary of Defense and the Goldwater-Nichols Act

Originally created in 1947, the position of secretary of defense was meant to be that of a basic coordinator of the armed services, which prior to that time were much more independent organizations. However, the Goldwater-Nichols Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1986 (PL 99-433), sponsored by Senator Barry Goldwater (R-Arizona) and House Representative Bill Nichols (D-Alabama), attempted to reduce interservice rivalries and the services' independent organization, promoting "jointness" within the DOD. The act specified the chairman of the JCS as the "principal military advisor to the President, the National Security Council, and the Secretary of Defense." In addition to reporting JCS positions on issues and problems, the JCS chairman could now give any advice he or she thought appropriate. The act also created the new position of vice-chairman of the JCS.

To bridge differences within the separate services' personnel systems, the Goldwater-Nichols Act called for the creation of a "joint specialty," requiring the army, navy, and air force to send a share of their most outstanding officers to both the joint staff in Washington and the unified commands in the field. These officers also had to receive a specified share of available promotions. Goldwater and Nichols, the bill's congressional sponsors, had relied chiefly on analysis and policy recommendations drawn from a study on developing "jointness" and inter-service cooperation by the well-known Washington think tank the Center for Strategic and International Studies.

The new measures yielded a defense secretary who, far more than a coordinator, could actively consult the president on defense policy. The military as a whole, according to specialists, became more flexible and responsive; the DOD became more centralized; and the role of defense secretary became more prominent and proactive.

The Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS)

The members of the JCS have been called the "hinge" between the highest U.S. civilian authorities and the uniformed services. The JCS has six members: the heads of the four branches of the military—the army and air force chiefs of staff, the chief of naval operations, and the Marine Corps commandant—the chairman, and the vice-chairman. The chairman of the JCS is the highest ranking officer in the military. Collectively, they are the senior military advisors to the president, the National Security Council (NSC), and the defense secretary.

Either the chairman or the vice-chairman represents the JCS as a whole at meetings of the NSC and other inter-agency forums. The Goldwater-Nichols Act included a significant attempt to improve the relationship of the JCS to the executive branch. It enhanced the JCS role by increasing the JCS chairman's power and conferring on individual JCS members the right to go directly to the president.

JCS can be important to a president seeking the support of the U.S. populace and Congress for a controversial national security initiative. For example, the JCS supported the president's resolve to achieve ratification of the Panama Canal Treaty in 1977–78. It also supported President Ronald Reagan's decision to discard the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty II limits on nuclear weapons in 1986 and President George H. W. Bush's reduction of combat forces in Europe by half in 1990. However, some critics believe this record shows that the JCS too often succumbs to presidential pressure instead of staking out its own position on strategic issues.

U.S. Armed Services

The DOD provides the military forces needed to avoid war and to protect national security. The military departments are separate entities, with their own secretaries and service chiefs, which all report to the secretary of defense. They are charged with organizing, training, equipping, and providing forces that will defend the nation and protect national security.

Three military departments, each with its own armed services, report directly to the DOD—the army, navy, and air force. The Marine Corps is a part of the Department of the Navy. The Coast Guard, long under the control of the Department of Transportation, is now a part of the Department of Homeland Security.

THE ARMY. The U.S. Army was created during the American Revolution by the Continental Congress on June 14, 1775, and for more than two centuries it has worked at home and abroad to protect and maintain American interests. As of 2004 the army maintained a standing force of just under 500,000 soldiers. Its main jurisdiction is land combat, and it is often the decisive force in conflicts because of its ability to attack and control large geographic areas. Although the U.S. Army ranks behind many other countries in the number of active-duty soldiers, its advantages in equipment, technology, training, and mobility make it the world's most formidable ground force.

THE NAVY. In a move to protect the freedom of the seas, the U.S. Congress created the U.S. Navy on April 30, 1798. The navy's primary objectives have been to guard American shores from foreign attack, preserve freedom of the seas for commerce, protect American interests overseas, support U.S. allies, and serve as an instrument of American foreign policy. The U.S. Navy is by far the most capable navy in the world because of its advantages in technology, training, and readiness, along with 376,000 active-duty sailors.

THE AIR FORCE. The U.S. Air Force was split off from the U.S. Army and made a separate branch of the military in 1947. It plays a crucial role in national security through its control of air and space. It deploys aircraft to fight enemy aircraft, bomb enemy targets, provide reconnaissance, and transport soldiers for the other armed services. In addition, the air force maintains the greatest portion of the country's nuclear forces and military satellites. In 2004 the air force consisted of more than 370,000 active-duty members, who crewed and supported a fleet of approximately 3,700 aircraft of all types.

THE MARINES. The first battalions of the U.S. Marine Corps were formed in November 1775 to fight in the American Revolution. Today it is a military service operating within the Department of the Navy. In 2004 the Marine Corps was made up of 177,000 active-duty soldiers. Marines are trained to fight in a combination of land, sea, and air operations and are a key element in U.S. rapid-response capability. The United States is the only country to have a Marine Corps as a truly independent fighting force.

THE COAST GUARD. Commissioned in 1790 to collect taxes from ships carrying imported goods, the U.S. Coast Guard is known today as a worldwide leader in maritime safety, search and rescue, and law enforcement operations. During peacetime, the Coast Guard operates under the Department of Homeland Security. As of July 2004, 39,000 active-duty men and women served in the Coast Guard. It maintains a fleet of approximately two hundred cutters (vessels sixty-five feet or longer), 1,400 smaller vessels, and more than two hundred aircraft.

While all of the services were heavily influenced by the terrorist events of September 11, 2001, the Coast Guard in particular has gained new responsibilities for homeland security. Prior to the attacks, its vital missions included counternarcotics/drug interdiction, migrant interdiction, fisheries enforcement, marine safety, environmental protection, and, to some degree, port security. Now, however, port security has begun to dwarf other Coast Guard roles, which have been sharply reduced.

ATTEMPTS AT "JOINTNESS." Military specialists have long granted that the army, navy, air force, Marines, and Coast Guard have distinct service identities, "personalities," and cultures; that they suffer from interservice rivalries; and that these factors have as much impact on molding the armed services as national security threats. To mitigate these conditions, the Goldwater-Nichols Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1986 required that officers serve in joint assignments before they can rise to the rank of general or admiral. The law broke down the services' cultural barriers in other ways, as well, promoting greater "jointness" and teamwork.

Unified Combatant Commands

The president applies his constitutional authority as commander in chief of the armed forces by filtering orders and other communications down through the secretary of defense, the JCS chairman, the JCS, the heads of the military agencies, and the nine unified combatant commands. Together the president and the secretary of defense are known as the National Command Authority. The JCS chairman is not formally part of the operational chain of command but still transmits orders from the National Command Authority to the nine unified combatant commands. In this chain of command, the secretary of defense is tantamount to a deputy commander in chief, who relies on the individual chiefs' advice and assistance to implement national commands.

The unified combatant commands directly control U.S. combat forces. Each command is composed of forces from two or more services; has a broad and continuing mission; and is normally organized on a geographical basis. The number of unified combatant commands is not fixed by law or regulation and may vary from time to time. The nine commands as of August 2004, and their locations, are as follows: U.S. Northern Command, Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado; U.S. European Command, Stuttgart-Vaihingen, Germany; U.S. Pacific Command, Honolulu, Hawaii; U.S. Joint Forces Command, Norfolk, Virginia; U.S. Southern Command, Miami, Florida; U.S. Central Command, MacDill Air Force Base, Florida; U.S. Special Operations Command, MacDill Air Force Base, Florida; U.S. Transportation Command, Scott Air Force Base, Illinois; and the U.S. Strategic Command, Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska.

Defense Agencies

Besides the various branches of the military, a number of agencies related to the DOD perform a host of tasks ranging from advanced defense modeling to logistical support. Some of the primary defense-related organizations are detailed below.

DEFENSE ADVANCED RESEARCH PROJECTS AGENCY. The primary mission of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency is research and development in science and technology. It takes innovative, cutting-edge research ideas and tries to develop potential military applications by creating prototypes.

DEFENSE CONTRACT MANAGEMENT AGENCY. The Defense Contract Management Agency is the main contact point for most defense contractors/suppliers working for the U.S. military. It helps to ensure that military and allied government supplies are delivered on time and meet quality standards.

DEFENSE INFORMATION SYSTEMS AGENCY. The Defense Information Systems Agency is primarily a combat support organization that helps to plan, develop, operate, and support the DOD's C4I (command, control, communications, computers, and information) elements during times of both conflict and peace. The agency makes sure that the military's C4I systems are interoperable (able to share information and communicate with each other) and secure at all times.

DEFENSE INTELLIGENCE AGENCY. Also a combat support group, the Defense Intelligence Agency is a vital component of the U.S. intelligence infrastructure. Its personnel primarily gather information on foreign military intelligence. The agency is headquartered at the Pentagon in Washington, D.C., but has a significant operational presence at the Defense Intelligence Analysis Center, the Armed Forces Medical Intelligence Center, and the Missile and Space Intelligence Center.

DEFENSE LEGAL SERVICES AGENCY. The Defense Legal Services Agency is the main organization providing legal advice and services to DOD agencies and personnel. It is headed by the general counsel of the DOD, who is appointed by the president (with the advice and consent of the Senate). The general counsel also leads the DOD in all international negotiations and treaty commitments.

DEFENSE LOGISTICS AGENCY. As its name implies, the Defense Logistics Agency is responsible for providing logistical support (supplies and services) to military personnel around the world. As of August 2004 the agency was working out of twenty-eight countries. During Operation Iraqi Freedom it provided U.S. troops with 138 million field meals and delivered 1.8 million Humanitarian Daily Rations to displaced refugees.

DEFENSE SECURITY COOPERATION AGENCY. The Defense Security Cooperation Agency helps create and maintain ties between the U.S. and foreign militaries in order to achieve common defense goals. It runs a group of programs (authorized under the 1961 Foreign Assistance Act and the Arms Export Control Act) by which the DOD and military contractors sell materials and services abroad.

DEFENSE SECURITY SERVICE. Formerly known as the Defense Investigative Service, the Defense Security Service plays an integral part in the country's security infrastructure. It conducts personnel security investigations, provides industrial security products, and holds comprehensive security training for DOD personnel.

DEFENSE THREAT REDUCTION AGENCY. The Defense Threat Reduction Agency has a crucial role in ensuring American preparedness for attacks involving weapons of mass destruction (WMD). Under the agency, all DOD resources are combined to ensure that the country is prepared for any potential WMD threat.

MISSILE DEFENSE AGENCY. Formerly known as the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization, the Missile Defense Agency has the primary mission of developing, testing, and preparing for the deployment of a system to defend the United States from nuclear missiles.

NATIONAL GEOSPATIAL-INTELLIGENCE AGENCY. The National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (called the National Imagery and Mapping Agency until November 2003) provides geospatial intelligence, or geographic data gathered from satellite imagery (including imagery, imagery intelligence, and geospatial data and intelligence) from across the globe. Organizationally, it is divided into the Analysis and Production Directorate (intelligence analysis for policy makers), Acquisition Directorate (acquires and produces business solutions that help it advance the agency's mission), and the Innovision Directorate (forecasts future environments and trends in the science and technology industry).

NATIONAL SECURITY AGENCY. The National Security Agency is the U.S. government's foremost intelligence organization in terms of gathering and analyzing electronic intelligence, and protecting U.S. information systems and communications. Two primary missions of the agency, as outlined on its Web site (http://www.nsa.gov), are "designing cipher systems that will protect the integrity of U.S. information systems and searching for weaknesses in adversaries' systems and codes." The agency is headquartered in Fort Meade, Maryland, and employs a range of cryptographers, computer programmers, analysts, engineers, and researchers.

PENTAGON FORCE PROTECTION AGENCY. Established primarily in response to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, the Pentagon Force Protection Agency is basically a police force for the Pentagon. The newly created agency incorporated the former security force for the Pentagon (Defense Protective Service) and provides law enforcement and security for the Pentagon.