Wildlife - History

Prehistoric humans constantly struggled with wild-life. Both sides were sometimes predators and sometimes prey, but humans quickly tipped the balance in their favor with two big advantages—superior intellect and weapons. Many of the large mammals of prehistoric times, such as mammoths, became extinct. Some archeologists, such as Dr. Brian Kooyman of the University of Calgary, believe that overhunting, in combination with climate and environmental factors, may have played a role in those extinctions. When societies became agricultural, some wild species were domesticated. These animals, such as sheep, goats, and cattle, had to be protected from wild animals.

As humans gained more control over nature, they began using wild animals not just as a food source but as a source of labor and entertainment. Elephants became beasts of burden. Mongooses and birds of prey were trained to be hunting assistants. Some lions, tigers, and bears were kept in cages to entertain or educate humans. Dangerous animals that could not be contained were often eliminated.

Eventually, governments declared their authority over wild animal populations. Some ancient rulers enacted game laws to allow species to multiply. The explorer Marco Polo described a law of Chinese ruler Kublai Khan (1215–94) that prohibited the killing of deer, rabbits, and large waterfowl during certain months to allow the species time to replenish.

Other rulers restricted the hunting of the most desirable animals to the upper social classes. Under English law, wildlife was the property of royalty. Members of the lower classes were permitted to hunt only low-value animals like rabbits. Big game were reserved for the upper classes. English royalty had exclusive hunting rights until 1215, when the Magna Carta was signed.

Wildlife in the United States

Problems with wildlife management plagued the first European colonists in the New World. Historical records show that the colonists fought off animal predators, including wolves, coyotes, cougars, bears, and mountain lions. They also lost domesticated animals to wild predators. Livestock, particularly hogs, sometimes wandered away and lived in the wild. Their offspring were feral animals (animals born and living in the wild that are descendants of domesticated animals). The colonists killed wild and feral animals whenever they could because they were a threat to livestock and crops. The colonists found wolves to be particularly bothersome. Early governing bodies established wolf bounty acts that paid people for killing wolves. Virginia had a wolf bounty act as early as 1632. It paid colonists and Native Americans for every wolf head they presented.

By the early 1700s official hunting seasons for certain species were established in some colonies. Over the next century, state governments set up fish and game departments and enacted hunting restrictions, requiring licenses and setting limits on the number of some species that could be killed during each hunting season.

ANIMALS DRIVEN TO THE BRINK OF EXTINCTION—OR BEYOND.

Colonization severely depleted the ranks of some native wild species through a combination of over-hunting and disease. The introduction of livestock brought new animal diseases that were devastating to some native species. Passenger pigeons and heath hens died out altogether. Bison, elk, and beaver stocks were severely diminished, though they did not become extinct.

Passenger pigeons were once extremely abundant in North America. Biologists estimate that there were billions of them in the United States in the early 1800s. The migratory birds traveled in enormous flocks, and an individual hunter could shoot thousands of them in one outing. They were extremely popular for food, and their numbers begin to dwindle dramatically. The last known passenger pigeon died in the Cincinnati Zoo on September 1, 1914.

Heath hens were small wild fowl prized for the meat they provided. Although once very common in the eastern United States, heath hens were virtually eliminated by the 1870s. The only surviving colony lived on the tiny island Martha's Vineyard in Massachusetts. This habitat was made a protected sanctuary, and the birds began to multiply. But during the early 1900s heath hens were decimated by forest fires, harsh winters, diseases contracted from domesticated turkeys, and natural predators. The last known heath hen died in 1932.

Bison once roamed the American West in the millions. Many were killed by colonists and Native Americans during the 1800s. Bison tongue was a highly prized delicacy, and the hides were valued as well. Many bison also died from diseases brought to the United States by domestic cattle. By the end of the nineteenth century, fewer than 1,000 bison were left. Conservation areas established by the U.S. government protected the last remaining herds and allowed them to repopulate. Similar efforts were required for elk and beaver because both species were also nearly hunted to extinction during the 1800s.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONSERVATION MOVEMENT.

Late in the nineteenth century people began to become aware of the value of natural resources, such as land, water, and wildlife, and worked to conserve wilderness spaces and protect them from development. According to Professor Daniel Edge of Oregon State University, the most important representatives of the conservation movement include:

• John Muir (1838–1914) established the Sierra Club in 1892 and worked toward the creation of Yosemite National Park. (See Figure 3.2.)
• President Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919) set aside millions of acres of land under federal government control for national refuges, forests, and parks.
• Gifford Pinchot (1865–1946) was a firm believer in conservation and a key adviser to Theodore Roosevelt. (See Figure 3.3.)
• Aldo Leopold (1887–1948) wrote Game Management in 1933, the first known publication on the science of wildlife management. FIGURE 3.2
  John Muir, founder of the Sierra Club. The Library of Congress.
• Ding Darling (1876–1962) advocated the restoration of wetlands and waterfowl habitats and was the driving force behind many wildlife protection programs and laws.

Early conservationists initiated programs that helped wild animals by preserving natural habitats, but they were not always motivated by the same concerns that drove people involved in the animal welfare movement. Many prominent conservationists were avid hunters. For example, President Theodore Roosevelt enjoyed hunting big game. Aldo Leopold also hunted and said that it gave him a deep appreciation and respect for wild animals. Many welfarists were (and are) opposed to hunting for sport. The ethical battle over hunting that began between conservationists and welfarists in the nineteenth century continues today.

THE GOVERNMENT ENACTS REGULATION LAWS.

In the twentieth century dozens of federal laws were enacted that regulated wildlife. Table 3.1 lists the most notable ones. The first federal wildlife law was the Lacey Act of 1900, which banned the transportation of illegally taken wildlife across state lines. It also established regulations regarding the importation of wildlife into the country. FIGURE 3.3
Gifford Pinchot, conservation adviser to President Theodore Roosevelt. The Library of Congress. Many laws were designed to fund conservation efforts through hunting fees. For example, the Duck Stamp Act of 1934 required people to purchase a stamp before they could hunt waterfowl. The Pittman-Robertson Act of 1937 added a special tax on guns and ammunition.

By the early twenty-first century wildlife in the United States was extensively regulated. As of 2005, more than a hundred federal laws had been passed dealing with the control, preservation, eradication, and management of wildlife. Some laws pertain directly to particular species, while others address preservation of habitat and use of federal lands.