Wildlife - The Goals Of Governmentwildlife Regulation

Wildlife control efforts in the United States have historically focused on protecting human interests and preserving endangered species. Human interests include health and safety and also property and resources—livestock, crops, trees, lawns, structures, water, food supplies, vehicles, pets, and so forth. Wild animals that threaten any of these are subject to removal or elimination. In the past, control was left up to private citizens, who could kill any wild animals that they considered a threat. Today, most control efforts are led or managed by government agencies. For example, hunting requires a license and payment of fees. However, private citizens may legally kill some wildlife that are considered pests (such as rodents) in and around their homes or businesses.

Protecting Health and Safety

Violent confrontations between wild animals and people are relatively rare in contemporary times. Of greater concern is the danger from zoonotic diseases. These are diseases that can be passed from animals to people. Zoonotic diseases associated with wild animals include rabies, West Nile virus, Lyme disease, bovine tuberculosis, chlamydiosis, histoplasmosis, salmonellosis, and granulocytic ehrlichiosis.

One of the most feared diseases is rabies. Rabies killed an average of 100 people annually in the early twentieth century, but a combination of control methods greatly reduced its threat. By the end of the century, only one or two people died each year from the disease. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) conducts rabies epidemiology (the study of the distribution and causes of disease in populations). The latest CDC report available includes rabies data from 2001. According to the CDC, there were 7,437 confirmed cases of animal rabies in the United States in 2001. Wild animals accounted for 93% of these cases. (See Figure 3.4.) Raccoons, skunks, and bats were the most common wild animals reported to carry rabies.

The CDC reported that were thirty-six confirmed cases of human fatalities due to rabies in the United States between 1990 and 2002. The vast majority were linked to bat bites. In June 2004 three people died of rabies contracted from organ transplant surgery. The organ donor had died of a brain hemorrhage. Rabies testing was not part of the routine screening conducted prior to organ donation. Laboratory testing performed after the transplant recipients died indicated that the rabies virus present was a type commonly associated with bats.

As shown in Figure 3.4, the number of rabies cases reported in wild animals greatly increased between the FIGURE 3.4
Cases of animal rabies, 1955–2001
SOURCE: Adapted from "Cases of Animal Rabies, 1955–2001," in Rabies Epidemiology, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, February 12, 2003, http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/rabies/Epidemiology/Epidemiology.htm (accessed March 11, 2005) mid-1970s and 2001. This was because of an epidemic of rabies in raccoons in the mid-Atlantic states. This type of epidemic that affects many of the same species of animals is called an epizootic. According to the CDC, the rabies epizootic in raccoons began in 1977 along the border between Virginia and West Virginia. It spread quickly to neighboring states and reached Canada in 1999. State and federal wildlife officials began using baits laden with oral rabies vaccine (ORV) in the early 1990s. Between 1997 and 2003, more than thirteen million doses of ORV were placed in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont, Virginia, and West Virginia. More than four million ORV doses were distributed during 2003 alone, as shown in Figure 3.5. Wildlife authorities hope to create a barrier to prevent the epizootic from spreading westward.

Scientists have become increasingly concerned about emerging and resurging zoonotic diseases. In May 2003, for example, doctors in Wisconsin, Indiana, and Illinois reported that several patients had contracted monkeypox from infected prairie dogs purchased as pets. Monkeypox is a disease similar to smallpox, though it is far less lethal to humans. Scientists believe that the prairie dogs caught the disease after being exposed to Gambian rats from Africa in an exotic pet store. Monkeypox is found in Africa but previously did not exist in the Western Hemisphere.

FIGURE 3.5
Oral rabies vaccine distribution by state agencies, 1992–2003
SOURCE: Craig D. Kostrzewski, "Figure 1. Cooperative Rabies Management Program ORV Initiation History, Cooperating Agencies, and Number of Baits Distributed in the United States, 2003," in Cooperative Rabies Management Program: National Report 2003, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, 2004, http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ws/rabies/annual_report/NationalReport_2003.pdf (accessed March 17, 2005)

Another emerging disease associated with wild animals is severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). SARS is a deadly flu-like virus believed to have originated in China. In April 2003 researchers reported that the virus had been found in six palm civet cats purchased at a live animal market in southern China. Palm civets are not really cats but are related to mongooses. They are considered a delicacy in Chinese cuisine. Scientists fear that SARS may have originated in these or other wild animals and then jumped to humans. According to the CDC, the SARS virus infected just over 8,000 people during 2003, killing 774. Most of the deaths were in Asia and Canada. Only eight people in the United States contracted the disease. All had recently traveled to countries affected by the SARS outbreak. In April 2004 Chinese authorities reported four additional cases of the disease. All of the infected people were reportedly scientists or laboratory workers who had been conducting research on the disease.

Besides diseases, humans face dangers posed by collisions between moving vehicles and wild animals and birds. Wildlife Services reported in 2001 that more than one million collisions between deer and automobiles occur each year, injuring approximately 29,000 people and killing 200. The Journal of Wildlife Management noted in its July 2004 issue that 46,514 collisions between wildlife and civil aircraft were reported to the Federal Aviation Administration from 1990 through 2002. These collisions had associated costs of approximately $489 million annually. Birds were involved in 97% of the collisions. Although multiple species of birds can be involved in a single incident, aircraft collisions were most commonly associated with waterfowl and raptors. Wildlife and aircraft collisions caused 140 human deaths between 1990 and 2000.

Protecting Property and Pleasure

Wildlife Services estimated in 2001 that wildlife cause $600 million to $1.6 billion worth of damage annually to agriculture. Each year, farmers and ranchers lose thousands of calves and lambs, worth more than $71 million, to wild predators such as coyotes, wolves, and mountain lions. The National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) estimated in November 2001 that 273,000 sheep and lambs, 147,000 cattle and calves, and 61,000 goats and kids were lost to wild predators in 1999. Coyotes are blamed for the majority of the losses. Wild predators are primarily a problem in western states where ranchers graze their livestock on open rangelands. According to a 2002 report from the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) (Wildlife Services: The Facts about Wildlife Damage Management), wildlife also eat and damage more than $110 million worth of commercially grown berries and flowers annually.

The same APHIS report noted that collisions between deer and automobiles cause more than $1 billion worth of damage to vehicles each year. According to the Journal of Wildlife Management, collisions between wildlife and civil aircraft had associated costs of approximately $489 million annually from 1990 through 2002.

In 2001 the GAO did an extensive investigation into wildlife damage across the country. Table 3.2 lists wild-life problems reported by each state. Birds, especially Canada geese, are a problem in thirty-nine states. Coyotes are mentioned as an issue in twenty states. Beavers are considered a problem in seventeen states.

Federal and state wildlife agencies use a variety of direct control methods to deal with so-called nuisance wildlife, including relocation, poisons, sharpshooters, contraceptives, and repellents. Table 3.3 summarizes the methods used by the WS during fiscal year 2003 for dispersing or killing animals. The agency dispersed 68.5 million animals, primarily by chemical methods. Nearly 1.7 million animals were killed. Table 3.4 lists the types of animals killed by species.

Government agencies also indirectly control wildlife by issuing hunting permits and allowing recreational hunts to take place. Lethal control methods employed by wildlife agencies are described in government publications as "depopulating" or "harvesting" surplus animals.

Controversies over Government Control of Wildlife

Animal rights and welfare groups maintain that government wildlife agencies rely far too much on killing as a control method. The WS denies this and claims that 75% of the NWRC's 2001 budget was spent on developing or improving nonlethal controls. One example is called the Electronic Guard. This device uses sirens and strobe lights to frighten coyotes away from sheep and lamb herds. The WS says that it successfully dispersed nearly four million birds during fiscal year 2000 using nonlethal methods. According to a fiscal year 2002 fact sheet, "USDA Wildlife Services Protects Wildlife," the agency claims that it only uses lethal methods when nonlethal methods have proved ineffective and that it "strives to select the method that will kill the predator in the quickest and most humane way possible."

Critics say that overuse of lethal methods actually aggravates problems because predators naturally respond by producing more offspring. The WS denies that this is the case. In a 2002 bulletin titled "Wildlife Services: The Facts about Wildlife Damage Management," the WS cited a study published in Carnivores in Ecosystems: The Yellowstone Experience (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999), which found that coyote litter size "appears largely unaffected by levels of human exploitation." According to studies cited by the WS, habitat conditions and abundance of food are the determining factors in predator litter sizes.

PROBLEM BIRDS.

Animal protection groups are growing increasingly concerned about the eradication efforts being waged against wild birds. A prime example involves mute swan populations in Maryland. In May 2003 the group Fund for Animals (FFA) filed a lawsuit in federal court to stop the state of Maryland from killing thousands of mute swans in Chesapeake Bay. Officials believed that relocation and repellents were not good options in this case. They hoped to donate the swan meat to food programs for the poor. The swans were blamed for eating aquatic vegetation essential to natural habitats in Chesapeake Bay. According to the FFA, the mute swans are being unfairly blamed for vegetation damage. The organization claims that waste discharges from chicken farms and sewage treatment plants located around the bay kill more vegetation than the swans.

TABLE 3.2
Examples of resources damaged by wildlife and related emerging concerns, by state, 2001

State	Injurious wildlife	Resource damaged (annual damage estimate, if available)	Emerging concerns
Alabama	Fish-eating birds (e.g., cormorants, pelicans, herons, egrets)	Catfish ($4 million)	Wildlife diseases pose greater threats to humans, livestock, and pets; populations of fish-eating birds continue to increase; and diminished sport trapping is adding to the increase in beaver populations.
	Beavers	Timber ($19 million), transportation infrastructure
Alaska	Arctic foxes	Aleutian Canada goose (threatened), nesting seabirds	Increased air travel throughout the state, coupled with immense populations of migratory birds and other wildlife, has created an urgent need for state and federal management of wildlife threats. Also, farmers and ranchers need assistance with damage from birds and predators.
Arizona	Coyotes, black bears, mountain lions	Livestock	Increased human populations and increased recreational use of public lands emphasize the need to deal with risks of wildlife disease transmission.
	Blackbirds	Dairy cattle, feedlot cattle (disease risk from contaminated feed and water)
Arkansas	Blackbirds	Rice crops ($3.5 million)	The growing rice and aquacultures industries require additional protection from the increasing populations of fish-eating birds.
	Fish-eating birds	Catfish ($2.3 million)
California	Coyotes, black bears, mountain lions	Livestock (nearly $2 million)	Increased airline traffic and population growth of many bird species has created a greater need for wildlife control at airports; the recent surge in the number of direct attacks on humans creates an increased need to protect humans from large predators such as coyotes, black bears, and mountain lions.
		Birds, rodents		Row crops, fruit and nut crops, vineyards
	Feral cats, red foxes, raccoons, coyotes, striped skunks, raptors	Threatened or endangered species (e.g., California red-legged frog, salt marsh harvest mouse, Sierra Nevada big horn sheep, Monterey Bay western snowy plover)
Colorado	Coyotes	Sheep and lambs ($1.5 million), black-footed ferrets (endangered)	Human population growth, especially in rural and semi-rural areas, creates an increased potential for human-wildlife conflicts.
Connecticut	Starlings, blackbirds	Dairy cattle (salmonella risk from contaminated feed and water)	Preventing wildlife-borne diseases from affecting humans and livestock has become a growing concern with the recent outbreaks of rabies, West Nile virus, salmonella, and E. coli; increased air travel and growing bird populations also call for increased wildlife control at airports.
	Canada geese, blackbirds, mute swans	Vegetable crops, cranberries
	Birds, bats, squirrels, monk parakeets, ospreys	Buildings, landscaping, utilities
Delaware	Snow geese	Coastal salt marsh habitat	West Nile virus is a major health concern. In fiscal year 2000, Delaware reported that four horses tested positive for the virus. Growth in air travel, coupled with growth in deer and bird populations, has created a greater need for wildlife control at airports.
	Canada geese	Grain crops, golf courses ($75,000)
Florida	Raccoons, red foxes, coyotes, feral hogs, ghost crabs, armadillos	Threatened or endangered sea turtles (e.g., leatherback, hawksbill, loggerhead turtles)	Wildlife continue to threaten the safety of air travelers at many airports, but resource constraints have prevented Wildlife Services from resolving the hazards; livestock producers suffer losses from coyote and vulture predation, and direct assistance from Wildlife Services, rather than advice, would help reduce these losses.
	Foxes, coyotes, black rats, skunks, raccoons, snakes, armadillos, dogs	Endangered beach mice (e.g., Perdido Key, Anastasia Island, Choctawhatchee beach mice)
	Red foxes, rats, coyotes, raccoons, feral cats	Threatened or endangered birds (e.g., roseate tern, least tern, Puerto Rican parrot)
	Beavers	Flooded timber lands, croplands, roadways ($620,000)
Georgia	Armadillos, raccoons, coyotes	Ground-nesting birds (e.g., bobwhite quail)	Increased habitat loss, human population growth, and the adaptability of many wildlife species to human environments increase the need for professional resolution of wildlife problems. Of concern are deer, geese, beavers, vultures, cormorants, pigeons, feral hogs, and raccoons.
	Beavers	Landscapes, pastures, timber, sanitation lines, culverts, highways, wells ($152,000)
	Resident Canada geese, while-tailed deer	Crops, property, neighborhood landscapes and gardens

TABLE 3.2
Examples of resources damaged by wildlife and related emerging concerns, by state, 2001 [CONTINUED]

State	Injurious wildlife	Resource damaged (annual damage estimate, if available)	Emerging concerns
Hawaii	Feral goats, sheep, pigs, deer	Endangered waterbirds, plants	The state is concerned about the time and expense involved in complying with the National Environmental Policy Act (conducting environmental analyses of Wildlife Services' actions performed for nonfederal cooperators), and the associated administrative requirements.
	Tree frogs	Horticulture, parrots, Axis deer
	Rats	Agricultural products, native plants, seabirds, turtles
Idaho	Coyotes, black bears, mountain lions, wolves, red foxes	Sheep, lambs ($1.5 million)	Efforts to control crop damage by the sandhill crane have been limited by the lack of resources. Populations of ravens and red foxes have increased, to the detriment of the sage grouse.
	Ravens, coyotes, badgers, red foxes	Sage grouse, endangered northern Idaho ground squirrels
Illinois	Canada geese, white-tailed deer	Private and municipal property	Bird predation at fish production facilities—an emerging agricultural industry in Illinois—is a concern, as is the transmission of wildlife-borne diseases such as West Nile virus.
	European starlings	Private and industrial property, risk of disease (histoplasmosis)
Indiana	Canada geese	Private and industrial property ($169,000 in property damage reported in fiscal year 2000)	Over 12,000 people used Indiana's toll-free wildlife conflictshotline during its first 2 years of service, preventing an estimated $100,000 in wildlife damage; now an additional person is needed to respond to calls.
	Starlings	Property damage (e.g., buildings and equipment), risk of disease (histoplasmosis)
Iowa	Coyotes	Sheep, cattle, hogs ($20,000 in confirmed losses to coyotes)	Requests for assistance continue to increase, especially in regard to livestock predators (especially coyotes) and beavers.
	Beavers	Roads, crops, bridges
Kansas	Blackbirds (grackles, starlings, cowbirds)	Livestock feed (more than $660,000 in damage at three feedlots during a recent winter)	Wildlife Services' success in addressing blackbird problems at feedlots has fueled demand for similar services statewide.
Kentucky	Starlings, Canada geese	Agriculture, residential and industrial property, aquaculture, golf courses, parks, utility structures	Increased urbanization and expansion into formerly rural areas, coupled with escalating wildlife populations, have led to a rise in wildlife-human conflicts.
Louisiana	Blackbirds, cowbirds, egrets, cormorants, white pelicans, herons	Sprouting rice ($5 million to $10 million a year in damage), strawberries, pecans, crawfish, catfish	Increased damage by birds is becoming more difficult to control, despite the more than $17 million spent annually by aquaculture facilities throughout the state. Beavers are another source of increasing wildlife damage in the state.
	Beavers	Threatened Louisiana pearlshell (a mussel), timber, roadways, bridges, public utilities. Nearly $5 million in beaver-caused losses was reported between 1998 and 2000.
Maine	Birds, deer, moose, raccoons, skunks, black bears	Blueberries, strawberries, vegetable crops, beehives, campsites, summer homes, fences	Increasing predation from a rising cormorant population is harming the commercial, pen-raised Atlantic salmon industry and is thought to be the primary cause of the dwindling wild Atlantic salmon population.
	Beavers	Commercial timberlands, municipal roads, highways
Maryland	Canada geese, vultures	Crops, waterfront properties	The state has an increased need to protect humans, their pets, and livestock from wildlife-borne diseases. Rabies and West Nile virus are two major health concerns on the East Coast.
Massachusetts	Canada geese, blackbirds	Cranberries, vegetables, dairy feed	Preventing the spread of wildlife-borne diseases to humans and livestock is a growing concern, given the recent outbreaks of rabies, West Nile virus, salmonella, Giardia, and E. coli.
	Eider ducks, swans, cormorants, gulls	Trout hatcheries, shellfish
Michigan	Starlings	Dairies, feedlots	Wolf populations will likely increase and expand from the Upper to the Lower Peninsula, causing increased demand for prompt and professional response in wolf management services. Also, demand for help in reducing damage by congregating starlings has grown significantly.
	Gray wolves (endangered)	Livestock
	Deer	Bovine tuberculosis in cattle (projected impact to the state's producers is $121 million over 10 years)
Minnesota	Gray wolves	Cattle, horses, sheep, poultry, dogs	As the wolf population continues to expand, the need for Wildlife Services' professional assistance is expected to increase. Nuisance bear complaints are also increasing.
	Beavers	Private property, roads, timber, fish habitat

The FFA suit alleged that killing the swans violated the Migratory Bird Treaty Act and the International Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds. The suit also claimed that the department did not allow the public to review and comment on the plan. The state agreed to postpone the swan TABLE 3.2
Examples of resources damaged by wildlife and related emerging concerns, by state, 2001 [CONTINUED]

State	Injurious wildlife	Resource damaged (annual damage estimate, if available)	Emerging concerns
Mississippi	Double-crested cormorants, American white pelicans	Aquaculture (about $5 million)	Feral hogs are causing more crop damage and posing a disease threat (pseudorabies) for the domestic hog industry. Canada geese and black bears are becoming a growing concern for property owners.
	Beavers	Roads, bridges, drainage structures, agricultural fields, private property, timber (several million dollars a year in damage)
	Black bears	Beehives, crops, private property
Missouri	Beavers, muskrats	Crops, roads, levees	The state's resident Canada goose population has quadrupled since 1993, causing increased damage; the feral hog population is also increasing, and the state needs Wildlife Services' help with this problem.
	Blackbirds, herons	Rice crops, aquaculture
	Canada geese	Crops, lawns, golf courses (more than $122,000 in turf and crop damage in fiscal year 2000)
Montana	Grizzly bears, Rocky Mountain gray wolves (threatened or endangered)	Livestock (predators caused a $1.1 million loss to state's sheep industry in 2000)	With the successful reintroduction and recovery of Rocky Mountain gray wolves in nearby states, Montana Wildlife Services expects a growing demand for its expertise in handling wolf-related livestock predation issues.
Nebraska	Coyotes, foxes, mountain lions, bobcats	Livestock	Areas requiring increased attention include wildlife management at airports, livestock predation, and public protection from wildlife-borne diseases. Increased public awareness of Wildlife Services' professional role in these issues has increased the demand for its services.
	Prairie dogs	Rangeland
	Blackbirds	Feedlots
Nevada	Rodents	Public health risk of sylvatic plague (wild form of bubonic plague)	Aviation safety is a growing concern. Population growth and city development around Nevada's major airports has created an ideal habitat for migratory birds such as Canada geese, mallard ducks, and American coots.
	Coyotes, mountain lions	Livestock; humans and pets in urban areas
New Hampshire	Black bears	Apiaries, row crops, livestock	Controlling the spread of West Nile virus is an emerging concern, along with rabies, Lyme disease, salmonella, and chronic wasting disease. Also, the 10-year trend of increasing conflicts associated with bears and bird feeding activities needs to be addressed.
	Deer	Apples, fruit crops, ornamental shrubbery
	Woodchucks	Earthen dams and levees, wild lupine (essential to the endangered Karner blue butterfly)
	Gulls	Roseate and common tern recolonization efforts
New Jersey	Canada geese	Human health effects of goose feces, human safety threats from aggressive geese, crops, turf	The state's large population of resident Canada geese will pose increasing challenges for the protection of human health and safety, as well as property, at schools, hospitals, airports, and urban and suburban areas. The spread of West Nile virus is another concern.
	Deer, blackbirds	Crops, fruit trees, vegetables
	Red foxes, raccoons, opossums	Threatened and endangered shorebirds (e.g., piping plovers, least terns, black skimmers)
New Mexico	Coyotes, cougars, bobcats, black bears	Livestock (losses in excess of $1.6 million in 1999)	Coyotes are becoming an increasing problem in urban and suburban areas, killing pets and other domestic animals and posing safety risks to humans. Wildlife Services' assistance will be needed to resolve conflicts between humans and the black-tailed prairie dog, a candidate threatened species.
	Prairie dogs, pocket gophers, ground squirrels	Agricultural crops, pasture land, turf, human health and safety (nearly $500,000 in rodent damage in fiscal year 2000)
	Sandhill cranes, snow geese	Crops (e.g., alfalfa, chile, wheat)
New York	Cormorants, gulls	Catfish, bait fish, crawfish, sport fish	Bat and raccoon rabies remain a health concern, and urban winter crow roosts are emerging as a unique problem to city residents, resulting in conflicts over droppings, noise, odor, and fear associated with zoonotic disease.
	Canada geese	Property, crops
North Carolina	Beavers	Timber, crops, roads, drainage systems, landscapes. In fiscal year 2000, Wildlife Services prevented about $8.5 million in damage to such resources: nearly $9 saved for every $1 spent.	Threats to public safety, not only by wildlife at airports, but also by the rapidly growing beaver population, must be addressed. A rabid beaver's recent attack on a human has increased public awareness of this issue.

kill until an environmental review could be conducted. As of January 2005 the review had not been performed.

Mute swans are not native to the United States but were introduced in the nineteenth century from Europe and Asia. In December 2004 the U.S. Congress passed a TABLE 3.2
Examples of resources damaged by wildlife and related emerging concerns, by state, 2001 [CONTINUED]

State	Injurious wildlife	Resource damaged (annual damage estimate, if available)	Emerging concerns
North Dakota/South Dakota	Coyotes, foxes	Cattle, sheep, poultry	More work at airports is needed, and the threat of rabies transferring from skunks to humans or domestic animals continues to be a concern.
	Blackbirds	Sunflowers and other grain crops (over $5 million in losses annually in the upper Great Plains), feedlots
	Canada geese and other waterfowl	Grain crops (damage increased by 80 percent in 2000, resulting in $162,000 in losses)
Ohio	Coyotes, vultures	Cattle, sheep, poultry	Increasing populations of gulls, vultures, and starlings are causing significant human health and safety issues and crop and property damage.
	Raccoons	Human health and safety
	Rooftop nesting gulls	Property
	Blackbirds, Canada geese	Crops, property
Oklahoma	Beavers	Dams, timber, crops, roads, private property	Feral hogs cause many problems (livestock predation, crop destruction); Canada geese are growing in number and are damaging crops.
	Coyotes	Cattle, sheep, goats, poultry
	Canada geese	Crops (especially winter wheat)
Oregon	Canada geese	Turf grass seed, other crops	Successful wolf reintroduction in Idaho means future wolf conflicts with livestock in Oregon. Wolves will hamper present predator control efforts because control tools and methods will be restricted around wolves.
	Cougars	Human safety (Wildlife Services addressed 386 cougar complaints in 2000; 118 involved threats to humans)
	Black bears, beavers	Timber
Pennsylvania	Deer	Human safety (automobile collisions)	The state's large population of resident Canada geese will pose increasing challenges over time, as will increasing populations of deer, vultures, and gulls. Emerging public health issues (e.g., West Nile virus) will also be a challenge.
	Canada geese	Landscape, crops (program annually assists over 300 residents with goose-related problems)
	Starlings	Livestock facilities
Rhode Island	Canada geese, gulls, crows, turkey vultures	Property, turf, vegetable crops	The needs of some citizens are currently unmet. Increasingly, the program is able to respond to requests for assistance only from entities that can fully fund it. Preventing wildlife-borne diseases is a growing concern.
	Mute swans	Pond water quality
	Monk parakeets, ospreys	Landscaping, utilities
South Carolina	Beavers	Timber, crops, roads, levees, dams	The demand for beaver management has overwhelmed the program, yet some counties cannot afford to share the costs. At the same time, the vulture population and related complaints have increased.
	White-tailed deer	Landscaping, human safety (automobile collisions), human health (tick-borne diseases)
Tennessee	Canada geese	Turf (at golf courses, parks, etc.)	The growing number and variety of wildlife-human conflicts pose a challenge to the program, especially in terms of wildlife control at airports and urban damage by large birds.
	Beavers	Roads, bridges, timber, wildlife management areas
	Vultures	Municipal utility structures, residential property
Texas	Coyotes, foxes	Human health (rabies)	The feral hog population in the state exceeds 1 million. Hogs damage many crops (e.g., corn, rice, peanuts, hay), and they prey on lambs, kids, fawns, and ground nesting birds. Also, damage by migratory birds (e.g., cattle egrets, vultures, cormorants) has increased, taxing the program's response abilities.
	Coyotes	Sheep and goats
	Beavers	Dams, dikes, railroad track beds, timber, roads, pastures, crops
	Blackbirds	Citrus crops, rice, feedlot operations
	Feral hogs	Agricultural crops, livestock

massive omnibus spending bill that included a rider directing the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to issue regulations designating wild birds as native or non-native. Non-native birds would then be excluded from protection under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act. Animal protection groups fear that thousands of mute swans across the Atlantic seaboard will be subject to elimination once that happens.

TABLE 3.2
Examples of resources damaged by wildlife and related emerging concerns, by state, 2001 [CONTINUED]
SOURCE: "Table 6. Examples of Resources Damaged by Injurious Wildlife, and Related Emerging Concerns, by State," in Wildlife Services Program: Information on Activities to Manage Wildlife Damage, GAO-02-138, U.S. General Accounting Office, November 2001

State	Injurious wildlife	Resource damaged (annual damage estimate, if available)	Emerging concerns
Utah	Coyotes, mountain lions, black bears	Sheep and lambs (nearly $2 million in losses in 1999, even with controls in place), endangered black-footed ferrets, sage grouse, mule deer fawns	Demands for wildlife damage management are increasing, yet the program already has more requests than it can address. Protection of native wildlife continues to be of importance.
	Skunks, raccoons, feral and urban waterfowl, pigeons	Human health and safety (threat of rabies, raccoon roundworm, salmonella, plague)
Vermont	Raccoons	Human health (rabies), threatened Eastern spiney softshell turtle	Wildlife diseases like West Nile virus, Lyme disease, salmonella, andchronic wasting syndrome continue to emerge and need to be addressed.
	Starlings	Cattle feed at dairies
Virginia	Coyotes, black vultures	Livestock	Challenges include finding a way to provide damage management services to low- and middle-income people and protecting Virginia's rare natural resources (e.g., the threatened piping plover program already has more requests than it can address.
	Beavers	Roads, railroads
	Canada geese, crows, vultures, starlings, muskrats	Urban and suburban property, water quality, human health and safety. (Canada geese are involved in 26 percent of all requests for program assistance in Virginia.)
Washington	Northern pikeminnows, gulls	Threatened and endangered salmon and steelhead	Increasing problems are caused by urban Canada geese and by predators (damage to livestock, agriculture, and forestry resources), but program resources are already strained.
	Starlings, feral pigeons, Canada geese, gulls	Bridges, buildings (bird feces are corrosive to paint and metal), fruit crops, public and private property, human health (over $6 million a year in damage to the fruit industry)
	Coyotes	Livestock, endangered Columbian white-tailed deer, pygmy rabbits
West Virginia	Coyotes, vultures	Sheep, cattle, goats	With its limited resources, the program concentrates on the highest priorities (human health and safety). As a result, though, program staff cannot make much-needed on-site evaluations of wildlife damage to property; rather, they make recommendations based on telephone interviews. Also, problems caused by starlings and roosting birds need attention.
Raccoons	Human health (rabies)
Muskrats, beavers	Levees and dams
Wisconsin	Deer	Crops (over $1 million a year in damage)	The endangered gray wolf population has grown from 34 wolves in 1990 to about 250 in 2000, and the wolves recovery is considered a success. But problems such as depredation on livestock and pets, have come with the wolf's recovery. Also problematic is the damage done by the burgeoning population of resident Canada geese, which now numbers over 70,000.
	Black bears	Crops, property, human safety
	Beavers	Trout streams
	Gray wolves	Livestock, pets
	Canada geese	Municipal and private property
Wyoming	Coyotes, black bears, red foxes, mountain lions, grizzly bears, wolves	Livestock (losses of over $5.6 million to predators in 2000)	As wolf and grizzly bear populations expand, new or different control methods will be needed to prevent unnecessary conflicts with them. Also, skunk rabies seems to be spreading westward across the state, and a program is needed to contain it.
	Skunks	Human health (rabies risk)
	Coyotes	Black-footed ferrets
Guam	Brown tree snakes	Power transmission lines, poultry and small animals, endangered species (e.g., Vanikoro swiftlets, Mariana crows, Guam fruit bats, Guam rails, Micronesian kingfishers), human health and safety	The magnitude and complexity of the work to control the brown tree snake pose significant challenges, and the administrative burden is increasing.
U.S. Virgin Islands	Black rats	Endangered sea turtles, migratory birds, native vegetation	Invasive species' impacts on native plants and animals is a major and growing problem.
	Roosting birds	Human health concerns

TABLE 3.3
Number of animals dispersed, killed, or freed by the Wildlife Services program, fiscal year 2003
SOURCE:Adaptedfrom"Table 6.Number of Animals Dispersed andMethods Used by the WS Program, FY 2003," and "Table 10T. Number of Animals Killed and Methods Used by the WS Program, FY 2003," in Wildlife Services' 2003 Annual Tables, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, June 17, 2004, http://www.aphis.usda.gov/(accessed March 17, 2005)

Methods	Number	Percentage	Target species summary	Number	Percentage
Animals dispersed
Barriers	851	0.001%	Intentional take	68,513,056	99.99%
Environmental manipulation	6,100	0.009%	Unintentional take	1,743	0.003%
BMNChem	68,352,865	99.76%	Non-target species	2,238	0.003%
BMChem	126,099	0.18%
PMNChem	22,053	0.03%
PMChem	9,064	0.01%
Total	68,517,032
Animals killed
Cage	178,878	10.6%	Intentional take	1,684,064	99.64%
Lethal trap	27,433	1.6%	Unintentional take	1,162	0.07%
Leghold trap	18,317	1.1%	Non-target species	5,001	0.30%
Aerial operations	32,476	1.9%
Leg/foot snare	598	0.04%
Neck snare	23,024	1.4%
Spotlighting	14,232	0.8%
Calling	7,380	0.4%
Shot	166,062	9.8%
Denning	1,799	0.1%
Non-chemical other	43,439	2.6%
M-44 device with sodium Cyanide	15,050	0.9%
DRC-1339, avian toxicant	1,153,043	68.2%
Zinc phosphide (rodenticide)	520	0.03%
Avitrol (avian toxicant/repellent)	1,192	0.07%
Livestock protection collar with sodium fluoroacetate	35	0.002%
Alpha chloralose (avian chemical immobilizer)	1,034	0.06%
Other chemical methods	5,715	0.3%
Total	1,690,227
Animals freed
Cage	18,703	69.0%
Lethal trap	837	3.1%	Intentional take	22,185	81.8%
Leghold trap	773	2.9%	Unintentional take	1,292	4.8%
Leg/foot snare	57	0.2%	Non-target species	3,644	13.4%
Neck snare	284	1.0%
Non-chemical other	5,543	20.4%
Alpha chloralose (avian chemical immobilizer)	912	3.4%
Other chemical methods	12	0.04%
Total	27,121

Wildlife agencies in many northern states are dealing with problems caused by large Canada geese populations. The geese are fond of manicured grassy areas located near water, making city parks and golf courses favored habitats. The problem is that each goose can deposit up to three pounds of droppings per day. The resulting mess has resulted in massive control efforts in some areas. In 2000 the City of Seattle launched a controversial program in which geese in city parks were captured and gassed by wildlife officers.

According to the Seattle Post-Intelligencer, more than 5,600 geese were killed in the Seattle area between 2000 and 2003 (Matthew Craft, Moratorium on Goose Kill Is Possible—Next Year, June 12, 2003). In addition, thousands of geese eggs were addled (rubbed with oil to suffocate the embryos or shaken vigorously). City officials credited the program with decreasing the geese population by 75%.

The program to gas the geese was strongly opposed by animal protection groups. Activists from the group Give Geese a Chance harassed wildlife officers and erected a large banner listing the home phone number of the Seattle Park Director. In June 2003 representatives from the Progressive Animal Welfare Society (PAWS) and the Humane Society of the United States (HSUS) met with city officials to discuss more humane alternatives for controlling the geese. During 2004 volunteers using dogs and laser pointing devices TABLE 3.4
Types and numbers of animals killed by the Wildlife Services program, fiscal year 2003
SOURCE: Adapted from "Table 10T. Number of Animals Killed and Methods Used by the WS Program, FY 2003," in Wildlife Services' 2003 Annual Tables, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, June 17, 2004, http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ws/tables/03table10t.pdf (accessed March 17, 2005)

Coyotes	75,724
Beavers	32,395
Pikeminnow	19,739
Raccoons	10,954
Hogs, feral	10,050
Brown tree snakes (Guam)	8,753
Rats	7,888
Skunks	7,594
Chicken, feral/free-ranging	7,061
Nutria	5,682
Foxes	4,762
Squirrels	4,488
Opossums	3,487
Bobcats	2,503
Muskrats	2,324
Deer	2,256
Mongoose, Indian	1,723
Cats, feral/free ranging	1,480
Marmots/woodchucks (all)	1,288
Turtles	957
Hares	712
Mice	578
Otters, river	495
Badgers	494
Dogs, feral/free ranging and hybrids	489
Lions, mountain (Cougar)	462
Gophers, pocket (all)	433
Voles	377
Porcupines	341
Bears, black	326
Rabbits	298
Wolves	187
Armadillos, nine-banded	157
Fish	155
Sheep, bighorn/feral	77
Frogs/toads	64
Turkeys	53
Prairie dogs, black-tailed	52
Chipmunks (all)	47
Goats, feral	41
Shrews	39
Bats (all)	26
Cattle, feral	24
Ringtails	22
Minks	21
Snakes	18
Alligators, American	13
Lizards, monitor	9
Elk (wapiti)	5
Weasels	5
Pronghorn (antelope)	4
Bears, grizzly	3
Moose	1
Toads	1
Total	217,137
Birds
Starlings, European	1,191,557
Pigeons, feral (Rock Dove)	60,002
Grackles, great-tailed	50,675
Blackbirds	43,157
Total birds	1,473,090
Grand total	1,690,227

patrolled the city's parks chasing geese away from manicured grassy areas. No geese were gassed during 2004. Animal protection groups insisted that humane methods could have been employed all along instead of gassing. However, city officials said that humane control methods were only effective once the geese population was reduced to a manageable level by gassing.

PROBLEM HORSES.

Wild horse and burro populations on public lands are managed by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM). As Table 3.5 shows, there were more than 37,000 of these animals scattered across the western states as of February 2004. They were maintained on approximately eighty-eight million acres. Table 3.5 also lists the Appropriate Management Level (AML) established by the federal government as the maximum number of wild horses or burros appropriate for a particular area. In 2004 populations in Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, and Wyoming exceeded their AMLs.

BLM policy is to remove wild horses and burros from overpopulated areas to "prevent damage to the rangelands and threats to watershed health." The animals are gathered and held in holding pens. Some are adopted out to private citizens or organizations.

In 2000 the groups Fund for Animals and Animal Legal Defense Fund filed a lawsuit against the BLM challenging the agency's wild horse management policy. The lawsuit claimed that the policy violated the Wild Free-Roaming Horse and Burro Act, the Administrative Procedure Act, and the National Environmental Policy Act. In September 2004 a federal court dismissed the lawsuit, saying that the groups had no standing in the case.

In December 2004 Congress passed the Fiscal Year 2005 Omnibus Appropriations Bill, which included an amendment allowing some "excess" wild horses and burros to be sold at auction "without limitation." The bill applies to animals greater than ten years old and those that have unsuccessfully been offered for adoption at least three times. The amendment was added by a Montana senator who argued that the animals damage valuable grazing land and that maintaining them in holding pens is too expensive for the federal government. The amendment was condemned by animal protection groups and even drew criticism from mainline media sources not ordinarily sympathetic to animal causes. Critics say that the wording "without limitation" means that the animals will be slaughtered for horse meat for the lucrative European market.

In May 2005 ninety-three wild horses were sold according to the conditions of the Burns Amendment to the Wild and Free-Roaming Horse and Burro Act, ending up at a slaughterhouse in Illinois. Forty-one of them were slaughtered. Concerned with this practice, Ford Motor TABLE 3.5
Bureau of Land Management statistics for wild horse and burro herds, fiscal year 2004
SOURCE: "Herd Area Statistics," in Herd Area Statistics, U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Land Management, 2004,http://www.wildhorseandburro.blm.gov/statistics/2004/HA_Acreages.pdf (accessed March 17, 2005)

	Herd area acres			Herd management area acres			Populations			Total
	BLM	Other	Total	BLM	Other	Total	Horses	Burros	Total	AML
AZ	2,053,527	1,673,368	3,726,895	1,727,669	1,516,675	3,244,344	270	1,863	2,133	1,570
CA	3,487,755	2,794,924	6,282,679	2,330,943	688,232	3,019,175	2,608	1,521	4,129	2,159
CO	657,270	77,398	734,668	364,467	40,294	404,761	767	0	767	812
ID	439,910	49,194	489,104	397,190	42,798	439,988	634	0	634	799
MT	100,237	122,767	223,004	28,255	13,152	41,407	161	0	161	105
NV	18,384,196	3,733,597	22,117,793	15,827,077	1,065,601	16,892,678	17,679	1,306	18,985	14,556
NM	93,474	76,188	169,662	32,701	3,113	35,814	115	0	115	83
OR	3,571,659	757,146	4,328,805	2,712,172	267,309	2,979,481	3,070	15	3,085	2,675
UT	3,074,182	674,666	3,748,848	2,413,952	388,442	2,802,394	2,605	140	2,745	2,136
WY	7,891,058	3,789,502	11,680,560	3,664,002	1,025,526	4,689,528	4,381	0	4,381	3,725
Total	39,753,268	13,748,750	53,502,018	29,498,428	5,051,142	34,549,570	32,290	4,845	37,135	28,620
Notes:
Herd management areas and herd areas have been placed in separate tables by state. Herd area statistics are a reflection of each state's current population information as of February 29, 2004. Populations do not reflect any changes after February, 2004. (i.e. foal crops or gathers). Bureau of Land Management (BLM) policy is to establish Appropriate Management Level (AML) as a range with upper and lower levels, the numbers displayed represent the upper limit. Gather month/year is based on 10 or more animals removed during the month.

Company stepped in, pledging $19,000 to cover the transport and care of the remaining fifty-two horses.

A December 6, 2004, editorial entitled "Save the Wild Horses," in the conservative newspaper the Washington Times was harshly critical of the amendment. The editorial argued that wild horses have symbolic prestige in American history and the federal government should not allow their slaughter as a population control method. The editorial questioned the validity of claims that wild horses damage grazing land, citing a federal government study that found that overgrazing of cattle is a much more serious threat. The editor noted that the newspaper normally does not side with animal-rights groups, but was making an exception in this case.

Protecting Endangered and Threatened Species

The federal Endangered Species Act was passed in 1973. It built upon protection measures first laid out in the 1966 Endangered Species Preservation Act. The purpose of the Endangered Species Act is to conserve the ecosystems upon which endangered and threatened species depend and to conserve and recover listed species. An endangered species is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range. A threatened species is considered likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future. Some species are listed as endangered in some areas of the country and only threatened in other areas.

As of February 1, 2005, there were 518 native species on the federal list of endangered and threatened animals—389 endangered species and 129 threatened species. (See Table 3.6.) Another 556 foreign animal species were listed as endangered or threatened. Animals are placed on the list based on their biological status and the threats to their existence. Some species are put on the list because they closely resemble endangered or threatened species.

The USFWS and the National Marine Fisheries Service share responsibility for administering the Endangered Species Act. They work in partnership with state agencies to enforce the act and develop and maintain conservation programs. The USFWS operates fifty-nine National Wildlife Refuges around the country that were established specifically to protect endangered species. (See Table 3.7.)

TABLE 3.6
List of endangered and threatened animal species, as of February 1, 2005
SOURCE: Adapted from "Summary of Listed Species, Species and Recovery Plans as of 02/01/2005," in Threatened and Endangered Species System (TESS) Summary of Listed Species as of 02/01/05, U.S.Department of Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, February 1, 2005, http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/TESSBoxscore (accessed February 1, 2005)

	Endangered		Threatened
Group	U.S.	Foreign	U.S.	Foreign	Total species
Mammals	68	251	10	17	346
Birds	77	175	13	6	271
Reptiles	14	64	22	15	115
Amphibians	11	8	10	1	30
Fishes	71	11	43	1	126
Clams	62	2	8	0	72
Snails	21	1	11	0	33
Insects	35	4	9	0	48
Arachnids	12	0	0	0	12
Crustaceans	18	0	3	0	21
Animal total	389	516	129	40	1074
Total U.S. endangered—988 (389 animals, 599 plants)
Total U.S. threatened—276 (129 animals, 147 plants)
Total U.S. species—1264 (518 animals, 746 plants)

TABLE 3.7
National Wildlife Refuges (NWR) established for endangered species, 2005
SOURCE: "National Wildlife Refuges Established for Endangered Species," in America's National Wildlife Refuge System, U.S. Department of Interior, U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service, 2005, http://refuges.fws.gov/habitats/endSpRefuges.html (accessed January 29, 2005)

State	Unit name	Species of concern	Unit acreage
Alabama	Sauta Cave NWR	Indiana Bat, Gray Bat	264
	Fern Cave NWR	Indiana Bat, Gray Bat	199
	Key Cave NWR	Alabama Cavefish, Gray Bat	1,060
	Watercress Darter NWR	Watercress Darter	7
Arkansas	Logan Cave NWR	Cave Crayfish, Gray Bat, Indiana Bat, Ozark Cavefish	124
Arizona	Buenos Aires NWR	Masked Bobwhite Quail	116,585
	Leslie Canyon	Gila Topminnow, Yaqui Chub, Peregrine Falcon	2,765
	San Bernardino NWR	Gila Topminnow, Yaqui Chub, Yaqui Catfish, Beautiful Shiner, Huachuca Water Umbel	2,369
California	Antioch Dunes NWR	Lange's Metalmark Butterfly, Antioch Dunes Evening-primrose, Contra Costa Wallflower	55
	Bitter Creek NWR	California Condor	14,054
	Blue Ridge NWR	California Condor	897
	Castle Rock NWR	Aleutian Canada Goose	14
	Coachella Valley NWR	Coachello Valley Fringe-toed Lizard	3,592
	Don Edwards San Francisco Bay NWR	California Clapper Rail, California Least Tern, Salt Marsh Harvest Mouse	21,524
	Ellicott Slough NWR	Santa Cruz Long-toed Salamander	139
	Hopper Mountain NWR	California Condor	2,471
	Sacramento River NWR	Valley Elderberry Longhorn Beetle, Bald Eagle, Least Bell's Vireo	7,884
	San Diego NWR	San Diego Fairy Shrimp, San Diego Mesa Mint, Otay Mesa Mint, California Orcutt Grass, San Diego Button-celery	1,840
	San Joaquin River NWR	Aleutian Canada Goose	1,638
	Seal Beach NWR	Light-footed Clapper Rail, California Least Tern	911
	Sweetwater Marsh NWR	Light-footed Clapper Rail	316
	Tijuana Slough NWR	Light-footed Clapper Rail	1,023
Florida	Archie Carr NWR	Loggerhead Sea Turtle, Green Sea Turtle	29
	Crocodile Lake NWR	American Crocodile	6,686
	Crystal River NWR	West Indian Manatee	80
	Florida Panther NWR	Florida Panther	23,379
	Hobe Sound NWR	Loggerhead Sea Turtle, Green Sea Turtle	980
	Lake Wales Ridge NWR	Florida Scrub Jay, Snakeroot, Scrub Blazing Star, Carter's Mustard, Papery Whitlow-wort, Florida Bonamia, Scrub Lupine, Highlands Scrub Hyopericum, Garett's Mint, Scrub Mint, Pygmy Gringe-tree, Wireweed, Florida Ziziphus, Scrub Plum, Eastern Indigo Snake, Bluetail Mole Skink, Sand Skink	659
	National Key Deer Refuge	Key Deer	8,542
	St. Johns NWR	Dusky Seaside Sparrow	6,255
Hawaii	Hakalau Forest NWR	Akepa, Akiapolaau, 'O'u, Hawaiian Hawk, Hawaiian Creeper	32,730
	Hanalei NWR	Hawaiian Stilt, Hawaiian Coot, Hawaiian Moorhen, Hawaiian Duck	917
	Huleia NWR	Hawaiian Stilt, Hawaiian Coot, Hawaiian Moorhen, Hawaiian Duck	241
	James C. Campbell NWR	Hawaiian Stilt, Hawaiian Coot, Hawaiian Moorhen, Hawaiian Duck	164
	Kakahaia NWR	Hawaiian Stilt, Hawaiian Coot	45
	Kealia Pond NWR	Hawaiian Stilt, Hawaiian Coot	691
	Pearl Harbor NWR	Hawaiian Stilt	61
Iowa	Driftless Area NWR	Iowa Pleistocene Snail	521
Massachusetts	Massasoit NWR	Plymouth Red-bellied Turtle	184
Michigan	Kirtland's Warbler WMA	Kirtland's Warbler	6,535
Mississippi	Mississippi Sandhill Crane NWR	Mississippi Sandhill Crane	19,713
Missouri	Ozark Cavefish NWR	Ozark Cavefish	42
	Pilot Knob NWR	Indiana Bat	90
Nebraska	Karl E. Mundt NWR	Bald Eagle	19
Nevada	Ash Meadows NWR	Devil's Hole Pupfish, Warm Springs Pupfish, Ash Meadows Amargosa Pupfish, Ash Meadows Speckled Dace, Ash Meadows Naucorid, Ash Meadows Blazing Star, Amargosa Niterwort, Ash Meadows Milk-Vetch, Ash Meadows Sunray, Spring-loving Centaury, Ash Meadows Gumplant, Ash Meadows Invesia	13,268
	Moapa Valley NWR	Moapa Dace	32
Oklahoma	Ozark Plateau NWR	Ozark Big-eared Bat, Gray Bat	2,208
Oregon	Bear Valley NWR	Bald Eagle	4,200
	Julia Butler Hansen Refuge for Columbian White-tail Deer	Columbian White-tailed Deer	2,750
	Nestucca Bay NWR	Aleutian Canada Goose	457
South Dakota	Karl E. Mundt NWR	Bald Eagle	1,044
Texas	Attwater Prairie Chicken NWR	Attwater's Greater Prairie Chicken	8,007
	Balcones Canyonlands NWR	Black-capped Vireo, Golden-cheeked Warbler	14,144
Virgin Islands	Green Cay NWR	St. Croix Ground Lizard	14
	Sandy Point NWR	Leatherback Sea Turtle	327
Virginia	James River NWR	Bald Eagle	4,147
	Mason Neck NWR	Bald Eagle	2,276
Washington	Julia Butler Hansen Refuge for Columbian White-tail Deer	Columbian White-tailed Deer	2,777
Wyoming	Mortenson Lake NWR	Wyoming Toad	1,776

FIGURE 3.6
A gray wolf. AP/Wide World Photos/National Park Service. Reproduced by permission.

The Endangered Species Act prohibits any person from "taking" a listed species. Taking includes actions that "harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect" listed species or attempt to do so. Harm is defined as an action that kills or injures the animal and includes actions that significantly modify or degrade habitats or significantly impair essential behavior patterns such as breeding, feeding, and sheltering. These measures are designed to allow endangered and threatened species to repopulate. However, once a species does repopulate, it can be removed from the list of endangered species, and the "taking" prohibition no longer applies. In addition, endangered species that pose a threat to humans and livestock can be killed under certain circumstances. Both of these provisions apply to populations of wolves.

WOLVES.

Some historians believe that the decline in bison and other large game during the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries put wolf populations in grave danger. Wolves that began preying on livestock instead of wild game were subjected to massive kill-offs. These campaigns were encouraged by the federal government well into the twentieth century. The last known wild gray wolf in Yellowstone National Park was killed in the 1920s. (See Figure 3.6.) By the 1930s virtually the entire wolf population had been eliminated in the western continental United States. In 1967 gray and red wolves were listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Preservation Act of 1966. Protection continued under the Endangered Species Act of 1973.

In the 1990s wolves were "reintroduced" to Yellowstone National Park and parts of Idaho. They were designated "nonessential experimental populations." This designation allowed government agencies and private citizens flexibility in controlling wolf populations. For example, wolves could be killed, moved, or harassed to protect domestic livestock and guard dogs. The killing of wolves by private citizens on public lands required a written take authorization from the USFWS.

By 2002 wolf populations in some western states had reached the government's recovery goals. However, before the species can be "delisted" from the Endangered Species Act, the USFWS requires that the state and tribal governments involved have approved wolf management plans in place. In March 2004 the USFWS published a proposed rule, known as a 10(j) rule under the Endangered Species Act for wolf management in the Northern Rockies. The agency received more than 23,000 comments on the proposed rule. In January 2005 the final 10(j) rule was published. It lays out the conditions under which wolves can be controlled in states with approved wolf management plans. At that time, only Montana and Idaho had approved plans in place. The 10(j) rule includes the following provisions:

• Wolves attacking livestock, dogs, or other herding and guarding animals on private land can be taken by landowners without prior written authorization.
• Wolves attacking livestock, dogs, or other herding and guarding animals on public grazing land can be taken by grazing permittees, guides and outfitters, and Native American tribal members without written authorization.
• Wolves determined by scientific process to be causing unacceptable impacts to other wildlife populations (like deer and elk) can be taken by state or tribal agencies.

In 2003 gray wolves in the eastern United States were removed from the Endangered Species list. As of February 2005 the official status of red and gray wolves (endangered, threatened, or nonessential experimental population) in the western United States varied by area.

MANATEES.

West Indian manatees were originally listed as endangered in 1967 and were still listed as of January 2005. These large gray mammals inhabit shallow calm waters along the southeastern coast, mainly in Florida. Manatees are gentle creatures that swim slowly just beneath the water surface and eat mostly aquatic vegetation. They can grow to nearly ten feet long and weigh up to 1,000 pounds. Although their natural life span is about sixty years, manatees are endangered by their close proximity to humans. Many are killed by collisions with speedboats, by ingesting fish hooks and trash, and by crushing or drowning in flood-control structures.

Manatees are also protected under the Marine Mammal Protection Act and the Florida Manatee Sanctuary Act of 1978. Each year the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Agency conducts an aerial count of the state's manatee population. In February 2004 the agency estimated the population to be about 2,548. In January 2005 the agency announced that sixty-nine manatees were killed by boat collisions in 2004. Another seven manatees died from other human-related causes.

THE AMERICAN BISON.

The American bison (commonly called buffalo) is not presently listed as endangered or threatened, but was nearly extinct a century ago. In the early 1800s there were more than fifty million bison in the United States. By the end of the century, fewer than 1,000 remained. The animals had been hunted to the verge of extinction. In 1894 President Grover Cleveland outlawed the killing of bison. The remaining herds were moved to protected habitats and slowly repopulated.

In February 2003 the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) estimated that there were approximately 250,000 bison in the United States. Most were in private hands. At that time the USDA estimated that 20,000 bison were slaughtered annually by ranchers to provide approximately twelve million tons of meat per year to American consumers.

Dozens of bison ranches have sprung up across the West due to growing demand for bison meat. Conservationists and environmentalists are also excited about the potentials of this market, in large part because bison graze much differently than cattle. Cattle tend to eat all the good grass in an area and then move on to another area, whereas bison graze lightly and move around more. This is less harmful to natural vegetation and naturally reseeds grazed areas.

As of January 2005 there were approximately 4,000 bison under government control on Yellowstone National Park. Their management has proven to be an enormous problem for federal and state officials. Some of the bison are known to be infected with the bacteria Brucella abortus, which causes the disease brucellosis. Although brucellosis is a mild disease in bison, it is a very serious illness in cattle. Brucellosis can cause miscarriage in pregnant cows. Ranchers grazing cattle near Yellowstone fear the disease will be transmitted to their animals from bison that wander off of park property. The federal government's response has been to round up bison that leave the park and kill those testing positive for brucellosis. The bison herd has harbored brucellosis for decades. The result has been many years of conflict among ranchers, animal protection groups, park officials, and state and federal agencies.

In the 1990s numerous lawsuits were filed by and among all of these parties. The State of Montana insisted that the brucellosis threat to cattle must be completely eliminated. Animal protection groups criticized the use of killing as a control measure and pointed out that there was no documented case of brucellosis being passed from a wild bison to domestic cattle. Conservationists argued that park officials should not allow humans to conduct winter activities in the heart of the park. These activities created roads and trails that made it easier for the bison to leave their usual winter feeding grounds and make their way to the park boundaries.

After years of legal battles a final plan was worked out in 2000 called the Interagency Bison Management Plan. Under the plan, bison that wander from the park property are "hazed" (chased) back into Yellowstone. Those that cannot be hazed are rounded up (if possible) and tested for brucellosis. Animals that test positive are destroyed. Healthy animals are released back into the park. Wayward bison that cannot be hazed can be killed. In addition, animals that have been hazed several times but still try to leave the park can be killed. According to the Montana Department of Livestock, 1,843 bison were hazed in 2004, and 280 were slaughtered for meat. Two bison were shot and left for scavengers.

In January 2005 newly elected Governor Brian Schweitzer of Montana announced a plan he believes will completely eradicate brucellosis in the Yellowstone herd (Jennifer McKee, "Schweitzer Plans to End Brucellosis in Park Herd," Billings Gazette, January 18, 2005). The new plan involves capturing and testing every single bison in the herd at a new quarantine facility. Infected animals would be killed. Healthy animals would be temporarily placed off-site with Native American tribes or private landowners. These bison would have to be closely monitored during their detention to maintain their health and prevent interbreeding outside the herd. Once the entire herd had been tested, the bison would be returned to Yellowstone. The Park herd would be certified brucellosis-free.

THE INTERESTS OF HUMANS VERSUS THOSE OF ENDAN
GERED SPECIES.

Protecting endangered and threatened species becomes extremely controversial when it threatens human economic interests. One example is the northern spotted owl. Its primary habitat is among old-growth trees (100–200 years old) in the coniferous forests of the Pacific Northwest. These forests were heavily logged in the 1960s. In 1972 researchers at Oregon State University estimated that 85 to 90% of the owl's suitable habitat had already been eliminated (John Weier, Spotting the Spotted Owl, NASA Earth Observatory, June 15, 1999). They assessed the future harvest plans of major logging companies and learned that most of the remaining old-growth trees in these forests were also to be cut down. The resulting publicity caused a major showdown between environmental conservation groups and the logging industry.

Environmental activists chained themselves to trees and damaged logging equipment to protest removal of the old-growth forests. Protest marches captured national headlines. There was tremendous political pressure to protect the owl's remaining habitat, particularly since approximately half of it was on federal lands. In the mid-1980s the USDA Forest Service (USFS) tried to develop plans for managing federal forests in the Pacific Northwest that balanced timber harvesting with habitat protection. Neither side was happy with the proposals. The timber industry complained that protecting owls would put loggers out of work. Environmentalists insisted that all old-growth forest be saved. In 1990 the USFWS added the northern spotted owl to the federal list of threatened species. The decision followed years of study and lawsuits filed by environmental groups and representatives of the timber industry.

The legal battles continued throughout the 1990s. In 1994 the Clinton administration formulated the Northwest Forest Plan as an attempt to satisfy both sides. The plan requires completion of biological surveys on dozens of plants and animals before logging is allowed on federal timberlands in the Northwest. It also includes other measures designed to protect owl habitat. Critics contend that this protection has a high human cost. According to the Oregonian, more than 10,000 jobs in the forest products industry were lost in Oregon and Washington between 1991 and 1998, as mills dependent on federal timber closed down (Hal Bernton, "Forest Service Halts Timber Sales in Northwest Spotted Owl Regions," August 12, 1999).

In 2002 the Western Council of Industrial Workers and the American Resource Forest Council sued the USFWS over its spotted owl management policy. The groups claimed that the agency had undercounted the number of spotted owls in old growth forests and that limits on timber harvesting in these areas were not needed. In response the USFWS agreed to conduct a listing status review. All studies performed since 1990 on spotted owl habitats and populations were reviewed again and summarized. In November 2004 the USFWS announced that the status review had reinforced the necessity of keeping northern spotted owls listed as a threatened species under the Endangered Species Act.

Similar conflicts between conservation and economic interests have raged in the United States over the protection of other animal species. These include the snail darter (a fish inhabiting the Tennessee River valley), Florida's gopher tortoises, and Coho salmon and sucker fish in Oregon's Klamath River Basin.

A tragedy that killed four young firefighters in 2001 has also raised controversy over the protection of endangered species. The four died in a forest fire raging near the Chewuch River in the state of Washington. The Chewuch River is home to populations of endangered salmon and trout. According to news reports, government officials delayed firefighting helicopters from scooping up water from the river to fight the fire because of concerns over violating the Endangered Species Act (Robin Wallace, "Investigation into Fire-Fighting Deaths Yields Disturbing Results," August 4, 2001). Although the USFS downplayed the delay as a major cause of the deaths, the incident is often cited by critics who believe the Endangered Species Act places animal interests above human interests.

INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS.

On the international front, endangered wild animals are protected by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Under the Endangered Species Act, the United States participates in CITES to prohibit TABLE 3.8
CITES list of party countries, as of February 7, 2005
[Number of parties 167 (date of entry). Those countries with a date of entry within the last year appear in bold and italics.]
SOURCE: "CITES List of Party Countries (Effective2/7/05)," in List of Party Countries, U.S. Department of Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, February 7, 2005, http://international.fws.gov/cites/citeslop.html (accessed February 7, 2005)

Afghanistan (1/28/86)	Dominica (11/2/95)	Liberia (6/9/81)	Saint Lucia (3/15/83)
Albania (9/25/03)	Dominican Republic (3/17/87)	Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (4/28/03)	Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (2/28/89)
Algeria (2/21/84)	Ecuador (7/1/75)	Liechtenstein (2/28/80)	Samoa (2/7/05)
Antigua and Barbuda (10/6/97)	Egypt (4/4/78)	Lithuania (3/9/02)	Sao Tome and Principe (11/7/01)
Argentina (4/8/81)	El Salvador (7/29/87)	Luxembourg (3/12/84)	Saudi Arabia (6/10/96)
Australia (10/27/76)	Equatorial Guinea (6/8/92)	Macedonia (4/19/00)	Senegal (11/3/77)
Austria (4/27/82)	Eritrea (1/22/95)	Madagascar (11/18/75)	Serbia and Montenegro (5/28/02)
Azerbaijan (2/21/99)	Estonia (10/20/92)	Malawi (5/6/82)	Seychelles (5/9/77)
Bahamas (9/18/79)	Ethiopia (7/4/89)	Malaysia (1/18/78)	Sierra Leone (1/26/95)
Bangladesh (2/18/82)	Fiji (12/29/97)	Mali (10/16/94)	Singapore (2/28/87)
Barbados (3/9/93)	Finland (8/8/76)	Malta (7/16/89)	Slovakia (1/1/93)
Belarus (11/8/95)	France (8/9/78)	Mauritania (6/11/98)	Slovenia (4/23/00)
Belgium (1/1/84)	Gabon (5/15/89)	Mauritius (7/27/75)	Somalia (3/2/86)
Belize (9/21/81)	Gambia (11/24/77)	Mexico (9/30/91)	South Africa (10/13/75)
Benin (5/28/84)	Georgia (12/12/96)	Moldova (6/27/01)	Spain (8/28/86)
Bhutan (11/13/02)	Germany (6/20/76)	Monaco (7/18/78)	Sri Lanka (8/2/79)
Bolivia (10/4/79)	Ghana (2/12/76)	Mongolia (4/4/96)	Sudan (1/24/83)
Botswana (2/12/78)	Greece (1/6/93)	Morocco (1/14/76)	Suriname (2/15/81)
Brazil (11/14/75)	Grenada (11/28/99)	Mozambique (6/23/81)	Swaziland (5/27/97)
Brunei Darussalem (8/2/90)	Guatemala (2/5/80)	Myanmar (9/11/97)	Sweden (7/1/75)
Bulgaria (4/16/91)	Guinea (12/20/81)	Namibia (3/18/91)	Switzerland (7/1/75)
Burkina Faso (1/11/90)	Guinea-Bissau (8/14/90)	Nepal (9/16/75)	Syria (7/29/03)
Burundi (11/6/88)	Guyana (8/25/77)	Netherlands (7/18/84)	Tanzania (2/27/80)
Cambodia (10/2/97)	Honduras (6/13/85)	New Zealand (8/8/89)	Thailand (4/21/83)
Cameroon (9/3/81)	Hungary (8/27/85)	Nicaragua (11/4/77)	Togo (1/21/79)
Canada (7/9/75)	Iceland (4/2/00)	Niger (12/7/75)	Trinidad and Tobago (4/19/84)
Central African Republic (11/25/80)	India (10/18/76)	Nigeria (7/1/75)	Tunisia (7/1/75)
Chad (5/3/89)	Indonesia (3/28/79)	Norway (10/25/76)	Turkey (12/22/96)
Chile (7/1/75)	Iran (11/1/76)	Pakistan (7/19/76)	Uganda (10/16/91)
China, People's Republic of (4/8/81)	Ireland (4/8/02)	Palau (7/15/04)	Ukraine (3/29/00)
Colombia (11/29/81)	Israel (3/17/80)	Panama (11/15/78)	United Arab Emirates (5/9/90)
Comoros (2/21/95)	Italy (12/31/79)	Papua New Guinea (3/11/76)	United Kingdom (10/31/76)
Congo (5/1/83)	Jamaica (6/22/97)	Paraguay (2/13/77)	United States (7/1/75)
Congo, Democratic Republic of (10/18/76)	Japan (11/4/80)	Peru (9/25/75)	Uruguay (7/1/75)
Costa Rica (9/28/75)	Jordan (3/14/79)	Philippines (11/16/81)	Uzbekistan (10/8/97)
Cote d'Ivoire (2/19/95)	Kazakhstan (4/19/00)	Poland (3/12/90)	Vanuatu (10/15/89)
Croatia (6/12/00)	Kenya (3/13/79)	Portugal (3/11/81)	Venezuela (1/22/78)
Cuba (7/19/90)	Korea, Republic of (10/7/93)	Qatar (8/6/01)	Viet Nam (4/20/94)
Cyprus (7/1/75)	Kuwait (11/10/02)	Romania (11/16/94)	Yemen (8/3/97)
Czech Republic (1/1/93)	Laos (5/30/04)	Russian Federation (12/8/76)	Yugoslavia (5/28/02)
Denmark (10/24/77)	Latvia (5/12/97)	Rwandese Republic (1/18/81)	Zambia (2/22/81)
Djibouti (5/7/92)	Lesotho (12/30/03)	Saint Kitts and Nevis (5/15/94)	Zimbabwe (8/17/81)

trade in listed species. As of January 2005, 167 nations adhered to CITES. (See Table 3.8.)

The convention includes three lists:

• Appendix I—Species for which no commercial trade is allowed. Noncommercial trade is permitted if it does not jeopardize species survival in the wild. Importers and exporters of Appendix I species must obtain permits.
• Appendix II—Species for which commercial trade is tightly regulated and managed with permits.
• Appendix III—Species that may be negatively impacted by commercial trade. Permits are used to monitor trade in these species.

Listing of any species in Appendix I or Appendix II requires approval by a two-thirds majority of CITES nations. The CITES appendices list thousands of animals from all over the world.

Animals of major concern internationally include Asian and African elephants and primates. In April 2003 the journal Nature reported that gorillas and chimpanzees in western Africa were on the verge of extinction because of poaching (illegal hunting) and the Ebola virus. Researchers estimated that approximately 80% of all wild gorillas and the majority of wild chimpanzees lived in the area. Their populations had dropped by more than half since the 1980s and are expected to continue to decrease rapidly unless drastic action is taken.

Logging roads associated with deforestation allow poachers easy access to areas that were previously inaccessible. They supply the growing trade in bushmeat (meat from wild animals such as elephants, primates, TABLE 3.9
Hunters and days of hunting, by type of game, 2001
[Population 16 years old and older; numbers in thousands]
SOURCE: "Table 7. Hunters and Days of Hunting by Type of Game: 2001," in 2001 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-Associated Recreation FHW/01-NAT, U.S. Department of Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, October 2002

Type of game	Hunters		Days of hunting		Average days per hunter
	Number	Percent	Number	Percent
Total, all big game	10,911	100	153,191	100	14
Deer	10,272	94	133,457	87	13
Elk	910	8	6,402	4	7
Bear	360	3	3,334	2	9
Wild turkey	2,504	23	23,165	15	9
Other big game	527	5	5,010	3	10
Total, all small game	5,434	100	60,142	100	11
Rabbit, hare	2,099	39	22,768	38	11
Quail	991	18	7,926	13	8
Grouse/prairie chicken	1,010	19	9,169	15	9
Squirrel	2,119	39	22,333	37	11
Pheasant	1,723	32	12,769	21	7
Other small game	505	9	5,200	9	10
Total, all migratory birds	2,956	100	29,310	100	10
Geese	1,000	34	10,508	36	11
Ducks	1,589	54	18,290	62	12
Doves	1,450	49	9,041	31	6
Other migratory bird	210	7	1,523	5	7
Total, all other animals (fox, raccoon, groundhog, etc.)	1,047	100	19,207	100	18
Note: Detail does not add to total because of multiple responses.

antelope, and crocodiles). Although ape meat makes up only a tiny percentage of bushmeat, wild chimpanzees are in great danger from the trade. Scientists say that consumption of contaminated bushmeat has passed the Ebola virus from animals to people.