Large doses can produce paranoia and auditory and visual hallucinations. Overdoses can also produce dizziness, tremors, agitation, hostility, panic, headaches, flushed skin, chest pain with palpitations, excessive sweating, vomiting, and abdominal cramps. Chronic high-dose users exhibit profound depression, apathy, fatigue, and disturbed sleep for up to twenty hours when going through withdrawal, which may last for several days.
Cocaine
Cocaine, the most potent stimulant of natural origin, is extracted from the leaves of the coca plant (Erythroxylon coca), which has been cultivated in the Andean highlands of South America since prehistoric times. The coca leaves are frequently chewed for refreshment and relief from fatigue—in much the same way some North Americans chew tobacco.
According to the Office of National Drug Control Policy (http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/drugfact/cocaine/), pure cocaine was first isolated in the 1880s and used as a local anesthetic in eye surgery. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries it became popular in this country as an anesthetic for nose and throat surgery. Since then, other drugs, such as lidocaine and novocaine, have replaced it as an anesthetic.
FIGURE 2.2
Refined cocaine.
Illicit cocaine is distributed as a white crystalline powder, often contaminated, or "cut," with sugars or local anesthetics. (See Figure 2.2.) The drug is commonly sniffed, or "snorted," through the nasal passages. Less commonly, it is mixed with water and injected, which brings a more intense high because the drug reaches the brain more rapidly.
For some time, people thought cocaine was relatively safe from undesirable side effects—not true for those who become heavy users. Cocaine produces a very short but extremely powerful rush of energy and confidence. Because the pleasurable effects are so intense, cocaine can lead to severe mental dependency, destroying a person's life as the need for the drug supersedes any other considerations. Physically, cocaine users risk permanent damage to their noses by exposing the cartilage and dissolving the nasal septum (membrane), resulting in a collapsed nose. Cocaine significantly increases the risk of heart attack in the first hour after use. Heavy use (two grams or more a week) impairs memory, decision making, and manual dexterity.
In the 1970s cocaine was popularly accepted as a recreational drug—particularly by the wealthy, who were among the few who could afford to use it. The coming years, however, would see a development that would bring cocaine to the masses: "crack."
Freebasing is a process in which dissolved cocaine is mixed with ether or rum and sodium hydroxide, or baking powder. The salt base dissolves, leaving granules of pure cocaine. These are next heated in a pipe until they vaporize. The vapor is inhaled directly into the lungs, causing an immediate high that lasts about ten minutes.
There is a danger of being badly burned if the open flame gets too close to the ether or the rum, causing them to flare up as they burn. When actor-comedian Richard Pryor set himself on fire while freebasing in 1980, many users started to search for a safer way to achieve the same high. The dangers inherent in freebasing may have been the catalyst for the development of crack cocaine.
Crack
Cocaine hydrochloride, the powdered form of cocaine, is soluble in water, can be injected, and is fairly insensitive to heat. When cocaine hydrochloride is converted to cocaine base, it yields a substance that becomes volatile when heated. "Crack" (as described by several government Web sites, including that of NIDA [http://www.nida.nih.gov/Infofacts/cocaine.html]) is processed by mixing cocaine with baking soda and heating it to remove the hydrochloride rather than by the more volatile method of using ether. The resultant chips, or "rocks," of pure cocaine are usually smoked in a pipe or added to a cigarette or marijuana joint. (See Figure 2.3 and Figure 2.4.) The name comes from the crackling sound made when the mixture is smoked.
Inhaling the cocaine fumes produces a rapid, intense, and short-lived effect. This incredible intensity is followed within minutes by an abnormally disconcerting and anxious "crash," which leads almost inevitably to the need for more of the drug—and a great likelihood of addiction.
MARKETING CRACK.
The mass marketing of crack began in the mid-1980s. A glut of powdered cocaine had saturated the market, driving down prices and cutting into dealers' profits. This coincided with the discovery of crack, which could "hook" users after just a few tries.
Experimenters in the Caribbean developed the first prototypes of crack by mixing cocaine with baking soda, water, and rum. At that time, most cocaine was being shipped to the United States through the extensive islands and bays of the Bahamas, and a sizable portion of it was being diverted to the local population.
When dealers saw the attraction that this new product had for Bahamian users, they were quick to realize the potential profits that could be made by
FIGURE 2.3
Crack pipe. (Corbis Corporation [Bellevue].)
FIGURE 2.4
Crack granules.
Once introduced in the mid-1980s, crack spread rapidly. The most convenient distribution method was to use inner-city street gangs; they were located in areas with the heaviest concentration of drug users. Crack sold for only $5 to $10 a hit and could more easily be sold to poor people living in these areas. Expanding from Miami, Los Angeles, and New York, crack spread across the nation through interstate and intrastate transport.
Although crack spread rapidly in the mid-1980s and received a lot of attention from the media and government, it faded from view somewhat in the 1990s. Crack use dropped throughout the 1990s as its devastating effects on users became widely known; users switched to other drugs, and new users were difficult for pushers to attract—they had been scared away. News stories stopped appearing, and the government began to focus its attention on other drugs, such as methamphetamine and Ecstasy.
Amphetamines
Amphetamines are synthetic drugs similar to the hormone adrenaline and the stimulant ephedrine. The history of the illicit use of amphetamines is very much like that of cocaine. As documented by the DEA, amphetamines were first marketed in the 1930s, under the name Benzedrine, in an over-the-counter inhaler to treat nasal congestion. Abuse of these inhalers soon became popular among teenagers and prisoners. In 1937 Benzedrine became available in pill form, and the number of abusers quickly increased.
Medically, amphetamines are used mainly to treat depression, narcolepsy (a rare disorder that causes people to fall asleep involuntarily), hyperactive disorders in children (now called attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, or ADHD), and certain cases of obesity. During World War II pilots took Benzedrine to stay awake.
"Speed freaks," who injected amphetamines, became famous in the drug culture for their strange and often violent behavior. In 1965 federal food and drug laws were amended to curb the growing black market in amphetamines. Many legal drugs using amphetamines were removed from the market, and doctors began prescribing them less frequently. As a result, clandestine laboratories increased their production to meet the growing black market demand. Today, most amphetamines are produced in these clandestine laboratories.
Extended amphetamine use can lead to a number of health problems. Short-term effects include sleeplessness, which can lead to and compound psychotic episodes brought on by heavy use. Long-term effects are unknown, although some research has suggested that chronic amphetamine use may contribute to neurological damage, such as the development of Parkinson's disease.
Methamphetamines
Methamphetamines are synthetic stimulants similar to amphetamines. As documented by NIDA, they were first developed by a Japanese pharmacologist in 1919. They came to market during the 1930s as a treatment for narcolepsy, attention deficit disorder, and obesity. A form of the drug often referred to as "speed" became popular during the 1960s and led to government control over the manufacture of the drug. Methamphetamine abuse fell off in the 1970s as cocaine became increasingly available. In the 1990s, however, its use increased dramatically, though use began to taper off somewhat again around the turn of the millennium.
Methamphetamines have traditionally been distributed by outlaw motorcycle gangs and other independent producers. While these groups still play a role in the drug's sale, traffickers operating out of Mexico have taken over major distribution. Using money raised from the sale of other drugs, they have built sophisticated new laboratories that produce large quantities of the drug. At first, these traffickers limited distribution to the western United States, but they have since expanded their distribution channels well into the Midwest.
Methamphetamines can be either injected or inhaled. To make the drug more attractive, Mexican traffickers have increased its purity. This has made it easier to inhale and, therefore, more attractive to potential users who might be concerned about the dangers of using syringes.
The effects of methamphetamines are similar to those of cocaine, but their onset is slower and they last longer. Methamphetamines cause increased activity, decreased appetite, and a sense of euphoria in the user. Abusers frequently become paranoid, pick at their skin, and suffer from auditory and/or visual hallucinations. Chronic abusers may exhibit violent and erratic behavior. Metham-phetamines are associated with such health conditions as memory loss and heart and brain damage. Crystallized methamphetamine hydrochloride, or "ice," is a smokable form of methamphetamine.
One of the key ingredients often used in the manufacture of methamphetamones is pseudoephedrine, a drug found in many common nasal decongestants, such as Sudafed. In 2005 this led some government officials to consider outlawing sale of these decongestants, which are currently available over the counter under many brand names.
Methcathinone—"Cat"
"Cat," or methcathinone, a more recent drug of abuse in the United States, was placed into Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act in 1993. "Cat" is produced in clandestine laboratories and is usually snorted, although it can be mixed in a beverage and taken orally or diluted in water and injected intravenously.
Methcathinone has about the same abuse potential as methamphetamines and produces similar results: excessive energy, hyperactivity, extended wakefulness, and loss of appetite. The user feels both euphoric and invincible. At the same time, use of "cat" can lead to anxiety, tremors, insomnia, weight loss, sweating, stomach pains, a pounding heart, nose bleeds, and body aches. Excessive use can lead to convulsions, paranoia, hallucinations, and depression.
Phenmetrazine (Preludin) and
Methylphenidate (Ritalin)
Abuse patterns of these drugs are similar to those of other stimulants. Preludin is used medically as an appetite suppressant, and Ritalin, frequently prescribed by physicians, is used mainly to treat children with attention deficit disorders. These drugs are most subject to abuse in countries where they are easily available, such as in the United States.
Debates have arisen regarding the overprescription of Ritalin. The American Medical Association has estimated that as of 2003, four to eight million children in the United States were being treated with Ritalin for attention deficit disorders. Opponents of Ritalin prescription argue that the diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is simply a way of labeling children who make classroom management difficult and medicating them so they will stop acting out. Proponents argue that ADHD is a very serious medical condition and that stimulant drugs are necessary in helping children with the condition develop correctly. Experts on both sides agree that the ADHD diagnosis is sometimes applied—and medication prescribed—in cases where it is unnecessary.
Anorectic Drugs
These drugs are relatively recent attempts to replace amphetamines as appetite suppressants. They produce many of the same effects but are generally less potent. Abuse patterns have not been determined, but all drugs in this group are classified as controlled substances because of their similarity to amphetamines. They include Didrex, Pre-Sate, Tenuate, Tepanil, Pondimin, Mazanor, Ionamin, Adipex-P, and Sanorex.
Khat
Khat is a natural substance derived from the fresh young leaves of the Catha edulis shrub, native to East Africa and the Arabian peninsula. People in these areas have been chewing khat for centuries, often in communal social situations—the same way Americans drink coffee or tea. Chewed in moderation, khat alleviates fatigue and reduces appetite. Excessive use may result in paranoia and hallucinations. Khat contains many chemicals that are controlled substances, including cathinone (Schedule I) and cathine (Schedule IV).
User Comments Add a comment…