The Millennium Development Goal of improving maternal health, as opposed to women's health, points to the significance of reproduction in the overall picture of women's health, as well as in the social and economic status of their families. A mother's health typically reflects the health of her entire family, just as a mother's education reflects that of her children (see section below). Of the link between poverty and maternal health, United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) executive director Thoraya Obaid stated in October 2005: "If women are healthy then they can jump start the life of their family and the economy" ("Women's Health Fuelling Poverty," BBC News, October 12, 2005, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4331996.stm).
Reproductive Health and Poverty
In State of World Population 2005. The Promise of Equality: Gender Equity, Reproductive Health, and the MDGs the UNFPA cites illnesses of the reproductive system as the leading cause of death and disability of women globally and the second most common cause of poor health in the world after communicable diseases. According to an estimate by the Alan Guttmacher Institute, women's reproductive health issues result in the loss of as much as 250 million years' worth of productive time each year and a 20% reduction of women's overall productivity ("The Benefits of Investing in Sexual and Reproductive Health," Issues in Brief, 2004). The UNFPA reported in 2005 that complications of pregnancy and childbirth kill one woman every minute and injure twenty others—99% of them in developing countries. Figure 7.4 provides a breakdown of the causes of maternal death as reported by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2005. According to the State of the World Population, several aspects of reproductive health have wide-reaching and long-term socioeconomic effects on families, communities, countries, and even entire regions.
Because most maternal deaths occur in already impoverished countries that are clustered together geographically, their regional impact is particularly acute. At the most personal level, children who lose their mothers tend to experience emotional problems that eventually may make them less productive as adults, and households lose valuable income without an adult female wage earner; many families, in fact, are pushed over the brink of poverty as a result of the
FIGURE 7.4 Causes of maternal death
TABLE 7.4 Economic effects of fatal illness in the household, 1992
| TABLE 7.4 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Economic effects of fatal illness in the household, 1992 | ||||
| Timing of Impact | ||||
| Type of effects | Before illness | During illness | Immediate effect of death | Long term effect of death |
| SOURCE: Margaret E. Greene and Thomas Merrick, "Table 1. Economic Effects of Fatal Illness in the Household," in Poverty Reduction: Does Reproductive Health Matter?, HNP Discussion Paper 33399, The World Bank, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, July 2005, http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/08/22/000012009_20050822094645/Rendered/PDF/333990HNP0Gree1tyReduction01public1.pdf (accessed April 10, 2006). Data based on Over et al., 1992. | ||||
| Effect on production and earnings | Organization of economic activity Residential location |
Reduced productivity of ill adult Reallocation of labor |
Lost output of deceased | Lost output of deceased Reallocation of land and labor |
| Effect on investment and consumption | Insurance Medical costs of prevention Precautionary savings Transfer to other households |
Medical cost of treatment Dissaving Changes in consumption and investment |
Funeral costs Transfers Legal fees |
Changes in type and quantity of investment and consumption |
| Effect on household health and composition | Extended family Fertility |
Reduced allocation of labor to health maintaining activities | Loss of deceased | Poor health of surviving household members Dissolution or reconstitution of household |
| Psychic costs | Disutility of ill person | Disutility to person Grief of loved ones |
||
high cost of health care when a mother becomes sick. (See Table 7.4.) Communities feel the loss because women in developing countries perform so many essential unpaid tasks, such as caring for children and elders, growing and harvesting food, and gathering fuel and water. High rates of maternal deaths affect the overall economic situation in a region in terms of lost productivity and lost potential for economic, cultural, and technological expansion.
WHO's World Health Report 2005: Make Every Mother and Child Count warns that if progress on improving maternal health continues at the slow rate it has seen since the 1990s, the Millennium Development Goals will not be met by 2015. Of the 136 million births every year, 529,000 result in the death of the mother; as of 2005, 300 million women were experiencing illnesses brought on by pregnancy or childbirth. WHO maintains that most of those deaths could be prevented with increased access to skilled care during and following childbirth. In 2005, 43% of mothers and newborns received some care at birth, but not enough to prevent the complications that often arise. Additionally, WHO reports that increased public expenditures on health care, higher wages for health care workers, and universal access to medical care are essential to reaching the MDGs, especially those that relate to women and children.
Table 7.5 illustrates the link between reproductive rights and the MDGs. Included in reproductive rights are issues such as violence against women and the rights to marry voluntarily, space children as desired, receive clear and accurate information about the reproductive process, and benefit from scientific progress. For women living in low-income countries, these rights cannot be
TABLE 7.5 Reproductive rights and the MDGs (Millennium Development Goals)
| TABLE 7.5 | ||
|---|---|---|
| Reproductive rights and the MDGs (Millennium Development Goals) | ||
| Elements of reproductive rights | Examples of rights-based actions | Relevance to specific Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) |
| SOURCE: "Reproductive Rights and the MDGs," in State of World Population 2005, United Nations Population Fund, 2005, http://www.unfpa.org/swp/2005/pdf/en_swp05.pdf (accessed April 8, 2006) | ||
| Right to life and survival | Prevent avoidable maternal and infant deaths End neglect of and discrimination against girls that can contribute to premature deaths Ensure access to information and methods to prevent sexually transmitted infections, including HIV |
Promote gender equality and empower women (MDG 3) Reduce child mortality (MDG 4) Improve maternal health (MDG 5) Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases (MDG 6) |
| Right to liberty and security of the person | Take measures to prevent, punish and eradicate all forms of gender-based violence Enable women, men and adolescents to make reproductive decisions free of coercion, violence and discrimination Eliminate female genital mutilation/cutting Stop sexual trafficking |
Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger (MDG 1) Promote gender equality and empower women (MDG 3) Reduce child mortality (MDG 4) Improve maternal health (MDG 5) Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases (MDG 6) |
| Right to seek, receive and impart information | Make information about reproductive health and rights issues and related policies and laws widely and freely available Provide full information for people to make informed reproductive health decisions Support reproductive health and family life education both in and out of schools |
Promote gender equality and empower women (MDG 3) Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases (MDG 6) |
| Right to decide the number, timing and spacing of children | Provide people with full information that enables them to choose and correctly use a family planning method Provide access to a full range of modern contraceptive methods Enable adolescent girls to delay pregnancy |
Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger (MDG 1) Achieve universal primary education (MDG 2) Promote gender equality and empower women (MDG 3) Ensure environmental stability (MDG 7) |
| Right to voluntarily marry and establish a family | Prevent and legislate against child and forced marriages Prevent and treat sexually transmitted infections that cause infertility Provide reproductive health services, including for HIV prevention, to married adolescent girls and their husbands |
Achieve universal primary education (MDG 2) Promote gender equality and empower women (MDG 3) Reduce child mortality (MDG 4) Improve maternal health (MDG 5) Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases (MDG 6) |
| Right to the highest attainable standard of health | Provide access to affordable, acceptable, comprehensive and quality reproductive health information and services Allocate available resources fairly, prioritizing those with least access to reproductive health education and services |
Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger (MDG 1) Promote gender equality and empower women (MDG 3) Reduce child mortality (MDG 4) Improve maternal health (MDG 5) Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases (MDG 6) |
| Right to the benefits of scientific progress | Fund contraceptive research, including female-controlled methods, microbicides and male methods Offer a variety of contraceptive options Provide access to emergency obstetric care that can prevent maternal deaths and obstetric fistula |
Promote gender equality and empower women (MDG 3) Reduce child mortality (MDG 4) Improve maternal health (MDG 5) Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases (MDG 6) |
| Right to non-discrimination and equality in education and employment | Prohibit discrimination in employment based on pregnancy, proof of contraceptive use or motherhood Establish programmes to keep girls in schools Ensure pregnant and married adolescent girls, and young mothers, are able to complete their education |
Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger (MDG 1) Achieve universal primary education (MDG 2) Promote gender equality and empower women (MDG 3) Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases (MDG 6) |
taken for granted. In fact, many are prohibited from using contraception—or from even receiving information about it—and must marry whomever their families choose for them. In some cultures, going against these conventions can place the woman in a position that results in physical and emotional violence. The inability to decide how many children to have or how many years apart to have them can easily overwhelm a family's finances, particularly a family that is already poor. There are also health considerations: a woman who can control her reproductive choices is more likely to receive adequate health care, and thus less likely to die in childbirth.
In Poverty Reduction: Does Reproductive Health Matter? (World Bank Health, Nutrition and Population, July 2005), Margaret E. Greene and Thomas Merrick argue that controversy over reproductive rights—namely, abortion and birth control—has hit poor women particularly hard. According to Greene and Merrick, the issue has actually harmed poor women's health: governments have been pressured to cut funding for medical care and family planning, and the United Nations was forced to drop the goal of achieving universal reproductive health care from the Millennium Declaration. The United Nations Population Fund reports in State of the World Population 2005 that as of 2005 the world's women suffered disproportionately from sexual and reproductive health problems—nearly 35% of women globally versus less than 20% of men.
Figure 7.5 shows the percentages of the poorest and wealthiest women who give birth with the attendance of skilled medical personnel in selected low-income countries. Poor women are far less likely to have a skilled attendant present during the births of their children. In Vietnam, where 100% of the richest women have access to medical personnel during childbirth, only 58% of the poorest women do. In Ethiopia just 1% of the poorest
FIGURE 7.5 Births attended by skilled personnel among the poorest and richest women, selected countries, 2004
Lack of family planning options most strongly affects poor young women, who may not be prepared for pregnancy and parenthood physically, emotionally, or financially. Figure 7.6 shows the disparity of contraceptive use among the poorest and richest women in Ghana, Yemen, Guatemala, the Philippines, India, and Kazakhstan. In Guatemala, for example, only 5% of the nation's poorest women use contraceptives compared with 60% of wealthy women. Figure 7.7 compares childbearing among the poorest and richest women under age eighteen in Niger, Nicaragua, Nepal, Tanzania, Kenya, Bolivia, and Turkey. In Niger nearly three-quarters (72%) of poor women had given birth by age eighteen,
FIGURE 7.6 Contraceptive use according to wealth, selected countries, 2004
- Poor health outcomes for the young mother and her child: higher risk of obstetric complications, leading to higher maternal mortality and morbidity (illness or disease) if she survives; increased risk of abortion and abortion complications if the abortion is unsafe; and low birth weight and other problems for the newborn
- Poor educational outcomes for both the mother and her child, including dropping out of school and less schooling for the child
- Lower and/or altered investment and spending patterns in the mother's immediate and extended family (costs of medical care and child care, for example, can make it difficult or impossible to save money)
- Possibly lower labor force participation by the young mother, with less opportunity to contribute to household income
- Reduced community participation and greater chances of divorce or single parenthood
Early childbearing tends to occur more often in poor countries but even in wealthier countries the highest rates of fertility among adolescents are found among the
FIGURE 7.7 Childbearing among the poorest and richest adolescents, selected countries, 2004
According to Greene and Merrick, studies have shown that poor women of all ages experience more difficulties with pregnancy and childbearing, but adolescent mothers have more extreme problems because their bodies may not be developed enough to sustain the physical challenges of giving birth. In developing countries women aged fifteen to nineteen are twice as likely to die from complications of childbirth than women in their twenties. Women in poor countries tend to marry and begin having children earlier than women in wealthier countries. This is partly the cause of the significantly higher number of maternal deaths in underdeveloped and developing regions. (See Table 7.6.) In fact, as Table 7.6 illustrates, the total number of maternal deaths increased annually from 515,000 in 1995 to 529,000 in 2000. Developing regions overall saw an increase from 512,000 in 1995 to 527,000 in 2000, with Asia experiencing the greatest increase. Figure 7.8 shows the various factors that link early pregnancy with poverty. Factors such as a lack of education, childhood and adult illness and malnutrition, a lack of access to natural resources and involvement in the global economy, and high mortality rates can all be linked to higher fertility rates, which in turn lead to lower per capita income.
OBSTETRIC FISTULA
One of the most serious health and social consequences of childbirth in poor countries—particularly in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia—is the development of obstetric fistula. This childbirth-related injury is caused by exceptionally long labor, often as long as five to seven days, that cuts off blood flow to the vagina, bladder, and/or rectum. The resulting holes in the tissue leave women unable to control the flow of
TABLE 7.6 Comparison of 1995 and 2000 regional and global totals of maternal mortality
| TABLE 7.6 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Comparison of 1995 and 2000 regional and global totals of maternal mortality | ||||
| Region | 2000 | 1995 | ||
| Maternal mortality ratio | Maternal deaths (in thousands) | Maternal mortality ratio | Maternal deaths (in thousands) | |
| *Developed regions include Canada, United States of America, Japan, Australia and New Zealand, which are excluded from the regional averages. | ||||
| SOURCE: Margaret E. Greene and Thomas Merrick, "Table 5. Comparison of 1995 and 2000 Regional and Global Totals," in Poverty Reduction: Does Reproductive Health Matter?, HNP Discussion Paper 33399, The World Bank, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, July 2005, http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/08/22/000012009_20050822094645/Rendered/PDF/333990HNP0Gree1tyReduction01public1.pdf (accessed April 10, 2006). Data from AbouZahr and Wardlaw, 2004. | ||||
| World total | 400 | 529,000 | 400 | 515,000 |
| Developed regions* | 20 | 2,500 | 21 | 2,800 |
| Europe | 28 | 2.2 | 36 | 3.2 |
| Developing regions | 440 | 527,000 | 440 | 512,000 |
| Africa | 830 | 251,000 | 1,000 | 273,000 |
| Northern Africa | 130 | 4,600 | 200 | 7,200 |
| Sub-Saharan Africa | 920 | 247,000 | 1,100 | 265,000 |
| Asia | 330 | 253,000 | 280 | 217,000 |
| Eastern Asia | 55 | 11,000 | 60 | 13,000 |
| South-central Asia | 520 | 207,000 | 410 | 158,000 |
| South-eastern Asia | 210 | 25,000 | 300 | 35,000 |
| Western Asia | 190 | 9,800 | 230 | 11,000 |
| Latin America & the Caribbean | 190 | 22,000 | 190 | 22,000 |
| Oceania | 240 | 530 | 260 | 560 |
FIGURE 7.8 Channels linking early pregnancy and childbearing to poverty
According to the Fistula Foundation (www.fistulafoundation.org/) and the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), more than two million women in the developing world are known to suffer from obstetric fistula, which was virtually eradicated in wealthier countries when caesarian sections became commonplace in the late nineteenth century. The actual number of women who live with the condition is believed to be much higher, since it is rarely discussed and most women who suffer from it never get medical help. WHO estimates that in Nigeria alone, for example, as many as 800,000 women have fistulas, with 20,000 more developing the condition every year ("545 Women Operated on during 'Fistula Fortnight,'" March 7, 2005). Globally, obstetric fistula is believed to occur in 50,000 to 100,000 women per year, most of them under the age of twenty.
According to UNFPA's Campaign to End Fistula (www.endfistula.org/):
Poverty, malnutrition, poor health services, early marriage, and gender discrimination are interlinked root causes of obstetric fistula. Poverty is the main social risk factor because it is associated with early marriage and malnutrition and because poverty reduces a woman's chances of getting timely obstetric care.
Obstetric fistula is a cause of poverty among women as well as a consequence. Sufferers are often abandoned by their husbands and families and ostracized by their communities because of the stigma attached to their condition. Many are driven from their homes and left to survive or die on their own. The condition can, however, be repaired with surgery, which has about a 93% cure rate, according to the Fistula Foundation. However, few women in affected regions either know about the surgery, which costs from $100 to $400, or have access to it, and most cannot afford it.
In 2003 the first major report on fistula—Obstetric Fistula Needs Assessment Report: Findings from Nine African Countries—was published jointly by the UNFPA and the nonprofit organization EngenderHealth. Focusing on the countries most affected by obstetric fistula, the report identified seven critical needs of regions with the highest numbers of fistula sufferers, including education about the physical dangers of early marriage and pregnancy, family planning and maternal health; increased medical care in the form of prevention and treatment; social support services to address the physical and psychological needs of fistula sufferers.
EDUCATION: A TOOL TO LIFT WOMEN OUT OF POVERTY
The Beijing Platform declared that education is an essential human right that contributes to economic development at all levels of society—a declaration that has been supported by the UN, UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the World Bank, and most nongovernmental organizations. However, according to the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2006: Literacy for Life (2005, http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.php-URL_ID1/443283&URL_DO1/4DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION1/4201.html), at least 771 million adults over the age of fifteen—one-fifth of the world's adult population—cannot read or write at a functional level; at least two-thirds of them are women.
In its State of the World Population 2002: People, Poverty, and Possibilities (2002, http://www.unfpa.org/swp/2002/english/ch1/), the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) reports that 31% of women had no formal education in 2000, versus 18% of men. There are many reasons for this disparity, and poverty is chief among them: although women are almost universally less likely to attain high levels of education, being female and poor is, according to the UNFPA report, a "double disadvantage." In rural areas the long walking distances to schools discourage families from sending girls because they fear girls will be sexually assaulted on the way. Fees for attendance, books, and uniforms can also affect whether girls are sent to school. Again, girls in some regions are vulnerable to sexual exploitation from wealthier men who offer to pay for girls' schooling in exchange for sex. Early marriage and pregnancy also cause millions of girls to drop out of school every year. Many families decide to keep daughters at home to help tend and harvest crops, do housework, and care for elders and young siblings. The costs associated with educating girls are generally not seen as worthwhile because girls are not expected to continue their education or earn a living when they grow up. More simply, in many cultures girls are not valued in the same way that boys are, so to many impoverished families educating them seems like a waste of time and money—and in some places it is altogether forbidden.
Barbara Herz and Gene B. Sperling report in What Works in Girls' Education: Evidence and Policies from the Developing World (2004, http://www.cfr.org/content/publications/attachments/Girls_Education_full.pdf) that education for girls in developing countries is essential for economic success at all levels of society. The benefits of educating girls are seen from families to nations, in the forms of higher wages, faster economic growth, and more productive farming. This in turn results in decreased levels of malnutrition; women having smaller, healthier, more educated families; reducing the spread of HIV/AIDS; reducing rates of violence against women; and fostering democratic participation in society.
According to Herz and Sperling, when girls attend school just one year beyond the average, they eventually earn 10% to 20% more than average as adults. On the macroeconomic level, even modest increases in the number of women receiving a secondary education can lead to an increase in annual per capita income of 0.3%; likewise, as per capita growth continues, more girls achieve higher levels of education—a cycle that is beneficial, ultimately, for everyone. Similarly, the more education women have, the lower their rates of fertility will be. In Brazil, for example, illiterate women have an average of six children each, whereas literate women average 2.5 children each. Lower overall fertility rates lead to healthier, better-educated children. In fact, infant mortality rates are between 5% and 10% lower among girls who stay in school just one year longer than average. In countries where girls receive as many years of schooling as boys, infant mortality rates are 25% lower than in countries that do not have educational gender parity (equality).
Herz and Sperling conclude that governments of low-income countries can encourage families to educate their daughters and increase overall educational gender parity by eliminating school fees, providing local schools with flexible schedules that are safe for girls, and focusing on providing a quality education that realistically takes into account the needs of girls and their families.
Table 7.7 shows which countries achieved the Millennium Development Goal of gender parity in education as of 2002, those that are likely to achieve the goal by 2005, those that are likely to achieve the goal by 2015, and those countries that are in danger of not achieving the goal by 2015.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN
Violence against women happens in every economic class of every culture around the world. While it is a
TABLE 7.7 Country prospects for the achievement of gender parity in primary and secondary education by 2005 and 2015
In Addressing Violence against Women and Achieving the Millennium Development Goals (2005, http://www.who.int/gender/documents/MDGs&VAWSept05.pdf), the WHO cites two main reasons poor women are more vulnerable to violence than their nonpoor counterparts: fewer resources—in terms of both money and support services—to help women avoid or escape violence; and the stressors of poverty, such as hunger, unemployment, and lack of education, that may lead some men to become violent or exacerbate an already violent situation. In addition, women who work in unregulated, informal employment are often subject to physical, sexual, or psychological abuse by their employers. In both developing and developed countries, social standards and enforced gender roles contribute to the incidence of violence.
The WHO report recommends several global economic actions that can affect women who are routine victims of violence:
- Promote increased access to postprimary, vocational and technical education for women
- Address gender gaps in earnings as well as barriers to accessing credit for women
- Extend and upgrade childcare benefits to enable women's full participation in the paid labor market
- Address issues of occupational segregation that often translate into inferior conditions of employment for women
FIGURE 7.9 Women who believe wife beating is justified for at least one reason, selected countries, 2004
- Ensure social protection and benefits for women in precarious employment situations—often those involved in informal employment
The WHO report notes, however, that increasing women's economic and social opportunities can actually put them at greater risk of violence, as such opportunities can breed resentment from the men in their lives. The WHO emphasizes that a well-funded and developed social support system is essential if poor women are to permanently escape violence. Educational programs are particularly important, for both women and men, if perceived gender roles are to be expanded to include advancement for women without the danger of violence.
Exact figures for incidences of violence are almost impossible to obtain, because most violent acts committed against women—especially in developing countries—go unreported. However, it is estimated that 10% to 50% of women around the world have been assaulted by their husbands or male partners at some point. The numbers rise when brothers and other male relatives who perpetrate the violence are counted. In fact, physical and sexual assaults committed by male family members are the most common type of violence against women. In developing countries this type of violence is largely the result of traditional gender norms, most of which have evolved out of men's social and economic dominance over women.
The connection between poverty and violence against women lies primarily in that dominance. In many cultures women are completely dependent on their husbands and male relatives for survival. Amnesty International cites laws that prohibit women from owning or inheriting property and from divorcing abusive husbands; hierarchies that allow fathers, brothers, and husbands to withhold access to food, clothing, and shelter; and customs, such as "wife inheritance" and honor crimes, that force women to obey male relatives or risk exile or death.
In addition, violent conflicts at the village, tribal, and national level reduce millions of women and children to refugee status, leaving them vulnerable to unemployment, disease, starvation, rape, and kidnapping. Millions more women and children (the UN estimates thirty million worldwide) end up as victims of international sex trafficking; the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services' Administration for Children and Families reports that poor women may be lured into the sex trade by promises of a good job in another country, or they may be sold into the trade by their parents, brothers, husbands, or male partners. Others are abducted and forced into the trade. Taken together, these factors leave poor women especially vulnerable to physical, sexual, and psychological violence.
Furthermore, a woman who has suffered domestic violence is more likely to become impoverished. Globally, with as many as one in three women being violently assaulted in her lifetime, the chances of severe, debilitating injury to a large number of abused women are high. In a November 2005 address before the U.S. Congressional Human Rights Caucus, S. K. Guha of UNIFEM noted that violence against women is increasingly acknowledged to be both a consequence and a cause of poverty among women and children. Severely abused women are generally unable to work, especially if they are also responsible for performing the physical labor of harvesting food and gathering fuel and water for their families.
Violence against Women in the United States
In the United States domestic violence is conclusively linked to homelessness among women and children. The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) reports that domestic violence was cited by 50% of U.S cities surveyed in 2005 as a primary cause of homelessness (http://www.aclu.org/pdfs/dvhomelessness032106.pdf). Further, the ACLU notes that 50% of homeless women in San Diego, California, reported being the victims of domestic violence, and that in Minnesota, one-third of homeless women indicated that they left their homes to escape domestic violence. Overall, according to the National Network to End Domestic Violence, Domestic Violence (September 2004; http://www.nnedv.org/pdf/Homelessness.pdf), 92% of homeless women in the United States have at some point been the victims of severe physical and/or sexual abuse.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN ACT 2005
In December 2005 both the U.S. Senate and House of Representatives passed the Violence against Women Act 2005 (VAWA), which was part of the larger Department of Justice authorization bill. The VAWA 2005 is a reauthorization of an earlier act passed in 1994. The 2005 version of VAWA enhanced the provisions of its earlier version, with increased funding for violence-prevention programs, emergency shelter for women and children, and long-term housing solutions for low-income women and their children. The act also mandates that abused women be allowed to take ten days off from work each year to attend court or to look for housing, and it provides greater access to law enforcement and the justice system for abused immigrant woman who would otherwise have no legal recourse and might have to leave the country with abusive partners. Because violent relationships tend to affect poor women disproportionately in the United States, the provisions of the VAWA that allow time off from work and help for immigrant women mean that more poor women will be able to keep their jobs and remain in the country while they make arrangements to leave and/or prosecute their abusers.
POVERTY'S YOUNGEST VICTIMS
According to the report State of the World's Children 2006: Excluded and Invisible (2005, http://www.unicef.org/egypt/sowc06_fullreport.pdf) by the United Nations Children's Fund's (UNICEF), the least developed
FIGURE 7.10 The least developed countries are the richest in children, 2004
Children are more vulnerable to the effects of poverty than any other demographic group, and because their numbers in poor countries are so high, they suffer disproportionately from the disease, hunger, abuse, and exploitation that so often go hand in hand with poverty. UNICEF reports that "more than one billion children suffer from one or more extreme forms of deprivation in adequate nutrition, safe drinking water, decent sanitation facilities, health-care services, shelter, education and information." As Figure 7.11 shows, 30.7% of children in developing countries have no access to a toilet, while 33.9% live in homes with more than five people per room. For 21.1%, there is access only to untreated, potentially hazardous, water sources. Furthermore, 13.1% have never been to school. Underdeveloped and developing countries overall have the highest rates of children not attending school, as shown in Figure 7.12. Whereas 96% of girls and 95% of boys in developed countries are enrolled in primary school, just 65% of girls and 71% of boys in underdeveloped ("least developed") countries are enrolled in primary school. Even fewer poor children are enrolled in secondary school: 26% of girls and 30% of boys in underdeveloped countries, versus 92% of girls and 91% of boys in developed countries.
FIGURE 7.11 Severe deprivation among children in the developing world, by different deprivations, 2003
FIGURE 7.12 Children living in the poorest countries are most at risk of missing out on primary and secondary school, 2000–04
Table 7.8 lists each country's rank according to its under-five mortality rate, as well as each country's infant and under-five mortality rates, life expectancy, literacy and education rates, and gross national per capita income. In general, life expectancy at birth increases as gross national income per capita increases. Infant and under-five mortality rates improved overall between 1990 and 2004 in least developed, developing, and industrialized countries.
Table 7.9 shows the status of child protection in countries around the world. Western and Central African countries have the overall highest percentage of children involved in child labor (41% of both girls and boys). At 46%, South Asia has the highest rate of child marriage of any geographic region, followed closely by Western and Central Africa, at 45%.
Child poverty is not limited to low-income countries. In eleven out of the fifteen countries belonging to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), child poverty increased from the period of the late 1980s–early 1990s through the late 1990s–early 2000s. In this group, Mexico had the highest rate of child poverty, rising from 24.7% in the earlier period to 27.7% in the later period. The United States had the second highest rate; even with a drop from 24.3% to 21.9%, the U.S. child poverty rate far exceeded the rate of all other OECD countries except Mexico. In the United Kingdom the drop from 18.5% to 15.4% was due in large part to the commitment
TABLE 7.8 Under-five mortality rank and other development indicators, by country, 1990–2004
| TABLE 7.8 | ||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Under-five mortality rank and other development indicators, by country, 1990–2004 | ||||||||||||||
| Countries and territories | Under-5 mortality rank | Under-5 mortality rate | Infant mortality rate (under 1)a | Total population (thousands) 2004 | Annual number of births (thousands) 2004 | Annual number of under-5 deaths (thousands) 2004 | Gross national income per capita (US$)b 2004 | Life expectancy at birth (years)c 2004 | Total adult literacy rated 2000–2004g | Net primary school enrolment/attendance (percent)e 1996–2004g | Percent share of household Incomef 1993–2003g | |||
| 1990 | 2004 | 1990 | 2004 | Lowest 40% | Highest 20% | |||||||||
| Afghanistan | 4 | 260 | 257 | 168 | 165 | 28,574 | 1,395 | 359 | 250m | 46 | — | 53l | — | — |
| Albania | 125 | 45 | 19 | 37 | 17 | 3,112 | 53 | 1 | 2,080 | 74 | 99 | 95 | 23 | 37 |
| Algeria | 79 | 69 | 40 | 54 | 35 | 32,358 | 671 | 27 | 2,280 | 71 | 70 | 94l | 19 | 43 |
| Andorra | 159 | — | 7 | — | 6 | 67 | 1 | 0 | k | — | — | 89 | — | — |
| Angola | 2 | 260 | 260 | 154 | 154 | 15,490 | 749 | 195 | 1,030 | 41 | 67 | 58l | — | — |
| Antigua and Barbuda | 143 | — | 12 | — | 11 | 81 | 2 | 0 | 10,000 | — | — | — | — | — |
| Argentina | 127 | 29 | 18 | 26 | 16 | 38,372 | 685 | 12 | 3,720 | 75 | 97 | — | 10 | 56 |
| Armenia | 90 | 60 | 32 | 52 | 29 | 3,026 | 34 | 1 | 1,120 | 72 | 99 | 97l | 18 | 45 |
| Australia | 162 | 10 | 6 | 8 | 5 | 19,942 | 249 | 1 | 26,900 | 81 | — | 97 | 18 | 41 |
| Austria | 172 | 10 | 5 | 8 | 5 | 8,171 | 75 | 0 | 32,300 | 79 | — | 90 | 21 | 39 |
| Azerbaijan | 51 | 105 | 90 | 84 | 75 | 8,355 | 132 | 12 | 950 | 67 | 99 | 91l | 19 | 45 |
| Bahamas | 140 | 29 | 13 | 24 | 10 | 319 | 6 | 0 | 14,920m | 70 | — | 86 | — | — |
| Bahrain | 148 | 19 | 11 | 15 | 9 | 716 | 13 | 0 | 10,840m | 75 | 88 | 86l | — | — |
| Bangladesh | 58 | 149 | 77 | 100 | 56 | 139,215 | 3,738 | 288 | 440 | 63 | 41 | 79l | 22 | 41 |
| Barbados | 143 | 16 | 12 | 14 | 10 | 269 | 3 | 0 | 9,270m | 75 | 100 | 100 | — | — |
| Belarus | 148 | 17 | 11 | 13 | 9 | 9,811 | 91 | 1 | 2,120 | 68 | 100 | 94 | 21 | 39 |
| Belgium | 172 | 10 | 5 | 8 | 4 | 10,400 | 111 | 1 | 31,030 | 79 | — | 100 | 22 | 37 |
| Belize | 81 | 49 | 39 | 39 | 32 | 264 | 7 | 0 | 3,940 | 72 | 77 | 99 | — | — |
| Benin | 23 | 185 | 152 | 111 | 90 | 8,177 | 341 | 52 | 530 | 54 | 34 | 54l | — | — |
| Bhutan | 56 | 166 | 80 | 107 | 67 | 2,116 | 64 | 5 | 760 | 63 | — | — | — | — |
| Bolivia | 62 | 125 | 69 | 89 | 54 | 9,009 | 265 | 18 | 960 | 64 | 87 | 78l | 13 | 49 |
| Bosnia and Herzegovina | 131 | 22 | 15 | 18 | 13 | 3,909 | 37 | 1 | 2,040 | 74 | 95 | 86l | 24 | 36 |
| Botswana | 41 | 58 | 116 | 45 | 84 | 1,769 | 46 | 5 | 4,340 | 35 | 79 | 84l | 7 | 70 |
| Brazil | 88 | 60 | 34 | 50 | 32 | 183,913 | 3,728 | 127 | 3,090 | 71 | 88 | 95l | 8 | 63 |
| Brunei Darussalam | 150 | 11 | 9 | 10 | 8 | 366 | 8 | 0 | 24,100m | 77 | 93 | — | — | — |
| Bulgaria | 131 | 18 | 15 | 15 | 12 | 7,780 | 67 | 1 | 2,740 | 72 | 98 | 90 | 20 | 39 |
| Burkina Faso | 16 | 210 | 192 | 113 | 97 | 12,822 | 601 | 115 | 360 | 48 | 13 | 321 | 12 | 61 |
| Burundi | 17 | 190 | 190 | 114 | 114 | 7,282 | 330 | 63 | 90 | 44 | 59 | 47l | 15 | 48 |
| Cambodia | 26 | 115 | 141 | 80 | 97 | 13,798 | 422 | 60 | 320 | 57 | 74 | 65l | 18 | 48 |
| Cameroon | 25 | 139 | 149 | 85 | 87 | 16,038 | 562 | 84 | 800 | 46 | 68 | 75l | 15 | 51 |
| Canada | 162 | 8 | 6 | 7 | 5 | 31,958 | 328 | 2 | 28,390 | 80 | — | 100 | 20 | 40 |
| Cape Verde | 86 | 60 | 36 | 45 | 27 | 495 | 15 | 1 | 1,770 | 71 | 76 | 99 | — | — |
| Central African Republic | 15 | 168 | 193 | 102 | 115 | 3,986 | 149 | 29 | 310 | 39 | 49 | 43l | 7 | 65 |
| Chad | 12 | 203 | 200 | 117 | 117 | 9,448 | 456 | 91 | 260 | 44 | 26 | 391 | — | — |
| Chile | 152 | 21 | 8 | 17 | 8 | 16,124 | 249 | 2 | 4,910 | 78 | 96 | 85 | 10 | 62 |
| China | 93 | 49 | 31 | 38 | 26 | 1,307,989 | 17,372 | 539 | 1,290 | 72 | 91 | 99 | 14 | 50 |
| Colombia | 113 | 36 | 21 | 30 | 18 | 44,915 | 970 | 20 | 2,000 | 73 | 94 | 931 | 9 | 62 |
| Comoros | 61 | 120 | 70 | 88 | 52 | 777 | 28 | 2 | 530 | 64 | 56 | 31l | — | — |
| Congo | 44 | 110 | 108 | 83 | 81 | 3,883 | 172 | 19 | 770 | 52 | 83 | 54 | — | — |
| Congo, Democratic Republic of the | 8 | 205 | 205 | 129 | 129 | 55,853 | 2,788 | 572 | 120 | 44 | 65 | 52l | — | — |
TABLE 7.8 Under-five mortality rank and other development indicators, by country, 1990–2004 [CONTINUED]
| TABLE 7.8 | ||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Under-five mortality rank and other development indicators, by country, 1990–2004 [CONTINUED] | ||||||||||||||
| Countries and territories | Under-5 mortality rank | Under-5 mortality rate | Infant mortality rate (under 1)a | Total population (thousands) 2004 | Annual number of births (thousands) 2004 | Annual number of under-5 deaths (thousands) 2004 | Gross national income per capita (US$)b 2004 | Life expectancy at birth (years)c 2004 | Total adult literacy rated 2000–2004g | Net primary school enrolment/attendance (percent)e 1996–2004g | Percent share of household Incomef 1993–2003g | |||
| 1990 | 2004 | 1990 | 2004 | Lowest 40% | Highest 20% | |||||||||
| Cook Islands | 113 | 32 | 21 | 26 | 18 | 18 | 0 | 0 | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| Costa Rica | 140 | 18 | 13 | 16 | 11 | 4,253 | 79 | 1 | 4,670 | 78 | 96 | 90 | 13 | 52 |
| Côte d'Ivoire | 14 | 157 | 194 | 103 | 117 | 17,872 | 661 | 128 | 770 | 46 | 48 | 58l | 14 | 51 |
| Croatia | 159 | 12 | 7 | 11 | 6 | 4,540 | 41 | 0 | 6,590 | 75 | 98 | 89 | 21 | 40 |
| Cuba | 159 | 13 | 7 | 11 | 6 | 11,245 | 136 | 1 | 1,170m | 78 | 100 | 93 | — | — |
| Cyprus | 172 | 12 | 5 | 10 | 5 | 826 | 10 | 0 | 17,580 | 79 | 97 | 96 | — | — |
| Czech Republic | 185 | 13 | 4 | 11 | 4 | 10,229 | 91 | 0 | 9,150 | 76 | — | 87 | 25 | 36 |
| Denmark | 172 | 9 | 5 | 8 | 4 | 5,414 | 63 | 0 | 40,650 | 77 | — | 100 | 23 | 36 |
| Djibouti | 31 | 163 | 126 | 122 | 101 | 779 | 27 | 3 | 1,030 | 53 | — | 36 | — | — |
| Dominica | 135 | 17 | 14 | 15 | 13 | 79 | 2 | 0 | 3,650 | — | — | 81 | — | — |
| Dominican Republic | 90 | 65 | 32 | 50 | 27 | 8,768 | 211 | 7 | 2,080 | 68 | 88 | 92l | 14 | 53 |
| Ecuador | 104 | 57 | 26 | 43 | 23 | 13,040 | 296 | 8 | 2,180 | 75 | 91 | 100 | 11 | 58 |
| Egypt | 86 | 104 | 36 | 76 | 26 | 72,642 | 1,890 | 68 | 1,310 | 70 | 56 | 83l | 21 | 44 |
| El Salvador | 98 | 60 | 28 | 47 | 24 | 6,762 | 166 | 5 | 2,350 | 71 | 80 | 90 | 10 | 57 |
| Equatorial Guinea | 9 | 170 | 204 | 103 | 122 | 492 | 21 | 4 | j | 43 | 84 | 62l | — | — |
| Eritrea | 54 | 147 | 82 | 88 | 52 | 4,232 | 166 | 14 | 180 | 54 | — | 63l | — | — |
| Estonia | 152 | 16 | 8 | 12 | 6 | 1,335 | 13 | 0 | 7,010 | 72 | 100 | 95 | 18 | 44 |
| Ethiopia | 20 | 204 | 166 | 131 | 110 | 75,600 | 3,064 | 509 | 110 | 48 | 42 | 31l | 22 | 39 |
| Fiji | 120 | 31 | 20 | 25 | 16 | 841 | 19 | 0 | 2,690 | 68 | 93 | 100 | — | — |
| Finland | 185 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 3 | 5,235 | 55 | 0 | 32,790 | 79 | — | 100 | 24 | 37 |
| France | 172 | 9 | 5 | 7 | 4 | 60,257 | 744 | 4 | 30,090 | 80 | — | 99 | 20 | 40 |
| Gabon | 49 | 92 | 91 | 60 | 60 | 1,362 | 42 | 4 | 3,940 | 54 | — | 94l | — | — |
| Gambia | 36 | 154 | 122 | 103 | 89 | 1,478 | 52 | 6 | 290 | 56 | — | 53l | 14 | 53 |
| Georgia | 75 | 47 | 45 | 43 | 41 | 4,518 | 50 | 2 | 1,040 | 71 | — | 89 | 18 | 44 |
| Germany | 172 | 9 | 5 | 7 | 4 | 82,645 | 687 | 3 | 30,120 | 79 | — | 83 | 22 | 37 |
| Ghana | 42 | 122 | 112 | 75 | 68 | 21,664 | 679 | 76 | 380 | 57 | 54 | 61l | 16 | 47 |
| Greece | 172 | 11 | 5 | 10 | 4 | 11,098 | 102 | 1 | 16,610 | 78 | 91 | 99 | 19 | 44 |
| Grenada | 113 | 37 | 21 | 30 | 18 | 102 | 2 | 0 | 3,760 | — | — | 84 | — | — |
| Guatemala | 75 | 82 | 45 | 60 | 33 | 12,295 | 433 | 19 | 2,130 | 68 | 69 | 78l | 9 | 64 |
| Guinea | 22 | 240 | 155 | 145 | 101 | 9,202 | 383 | 59 | 460 | 54 | — | 57l | 17 | 47 |
| Guinea-Bissau | 10 | 253 | 203 | 153 | 126 | 1,540 | 77 | 16 | 160 | 45 | — | 41l | 14 | 53 |
| Guyana | 67 | 88 | 64 | 64 | 48 | 750 | 16 | 1 | 990 | 64 | — | 97l | — | — |
| Haiti | 40 | 150 | 117 | 102 | 74 | 8,407 | 253 | 30 | 390 | 52 | 52 | 54l | — | — |
| Holy See | — | — | — | — | 1 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| Honduras | 78 | 59 | 41 | 44 | 31 | 7,048 | 206 | 8 | 1,030 | 68 | 80 | 87 | 9 | 59 |
| Hungary | 152 | 17 | 8 | 15 | 7 | 10,124 | 95 | 1 | 8,270 | 73 | 99 | 91 | 23 | 37 |
| Iceland | 192 | 7 | 3 | 6 | 2 | 292 | 4 | 0 | 38,620 | 81 | — | 100 | — | — |
| India | 52 | 123 | 85 | 84 | 62 | 1,087,124 | 26,000 | 2,210 | 620 | 64 | 61 | 77l | 21 | 43 |
| Indonesia | 83 | 91 | 38 | 60 | 30 | 220,077 | 4,513 | 171 | 1,140 | 67 | 88 | 94l | 20 | 43 |
TABLE 7.8 Under-five mortality rank and other development indicators, by country, 1990–2004 [CONTINUED]
| TABLE 7.8 | ||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Under-five mortality rank and other development indicators, by country, 1990–2004 [CONTINUED] | ||||||||||||||
| Countries and territories | Under-5 mortality rank | Under-5 mortality rate | Infant mortality rate (under 1)a | Total population (thousands) 2004 | Annual number of births (thousands) 2004 | Annual number of under-5 deaths (thousands) 2004 | Gross national income per capita (US$)b 2004 | Life expectancy at birth (years)c 2004 | Total adult literacy rated 2000–2004g | Net primary school enrolment/attendance (percent)e 1996–2004g | Percent share of household Incomef 1993–2003g | |||
| 1990 | 2004 | 1990 | 2004 | Lowest 40% | Highest 20% | |||||||||
| Iran (Islamic Republic of) | 83 | 72 | 38 | 54 | 32 | 68,803 | 1,308 | 50 | 2,300 | 71 | 77 | 86 | 15 | 50 |
| Iraq | 33 | 50 | 125 | 40 | 102 | 28,057 | 972 | 122 | 2,170m | 59 | — | 78l | — | — |
| Ireland | 162 | 10 | 6 | 8 | 5 | 4,080 | 63 | 0 | 34,280 | 78 | — | 96 | 19 | 43 |
| Israel | 162 | 12 | 6 | 10 | 5 | 6,601 | 134 | 1 | 17,380 | 80 | 97 | 99 | 18 | 44 |
| Italy | 172 | 9 | 5 | 9 | 4 | 58,033 | 531 | 3 | 26,120 | 80 | — | 99 | 19 | 42 |
| Jamaica | 120 | 20 | 20 | 17 | 17 | 2,639 | 52 | 1 | 2,900 | 71 | 88 | 95 | 17 | 46 |
| Japan | 185 | 6 | 4 | 5 | 3 | 127,923 | 1,169 | 5 | 37,180 | 82 | — | 100 | 25 | 36 |
| Jordan | 101 | 40 | 27 | 33 | 23 | 5,561 | 150 | 4 | 2,140 | 72 | 90 | 99l | 19 | 44 |
| Kazakhstan | 60 | 63 | 73 | 53 | 63 | 14,839 | 237 | 17 | 2,260 | 63 | 100 | 91l | 20 | 40 |
| Kenya | 37 | 97 | 120 | 64 | 79 | 33,467 | 1,322 | 159 | 460 | 48 | 74 | 78l | 16 | 49 |
| Kiribati | 66 | 88 | 65 | 65 | 49 | 97 | 2 | 0 | 970 | — | — | — | — | — |
| Korea, Democratic People's Republic of | 71 | 55 | 55 | 42 | 42 | 22,384 | 349 | 19 | h | 63 | — | — | — | — |
| Korea, Republic of | 162 | 9 | 6 | 8 | 5 | 47,645 | 467 | 3 | 13,980 | 77 | — | 100 | 22 | 38 |
| Kuwait | 143 | 16 | 12 | 14 | 10 | 2,606 | 50 | 1 | 16,340m | 77 | 83 | 83 | — | — |
| Kyrgyzstan | 64 | 80 | 68 | 68 | 58 | 5,204 | 116 | 8 | 400 | 67 | 99 | 89l | 20 | 43 |
| Lao People's Democratic Republic | 53 | 163 | 83 | 120 | 65 | 5,792 | 204 | 17 | 390 | 55 | 69 | 62l | 19 | 45 |
| Latvia | 143 | 18 | 12 | 14 | 10 | 2,318 | 21 | 0 | 5,460 | 72 | 100 | 86 | 20 | 41 |
| Lebanon | 93 | 37 | 31 | 32 | 27 | 3,540 | 66 | 2 | 4,980 | 72 | — | 97l | — | — |
| Lesotho | 54 | 120 | 82 | 84 | 61 | 1,798 | 50 | 4 | 740 | 35 | 81 | 65l | 6 | 67 |
| Liberia | 5 | 235 | 235 | 157 | 157 | 3,241 | 164 | 39 | 110 | 42 | 56 | 70 | — | — |
| Libyan Arab Jamahiriya | 120 | 41 | 20 | 35 | 18 | 5,740 | 133 | 3 | 4,450 | 74 | 82 | — | — | — |
| Liechtenstein | 172 | 10 | 5 | 9 | 4 | 34 | 0 | 0 | k | — | — | — | — | — |
| Lithuania | 152 | 13 | 8 | 10 | 8 | 3,443 | 31 | 0 | 5,740 | 73 | 100 | 91 | 21 | 40 |
| Luxembourg | 162 | 10 | 6 | 7 | 5 | 459 | 6 | 0 | 56,230 | 79 | — | 90 | — | — |
| Madagascar | 35 | 168 | 123 | 103 | 76 | 18,113 | 704 | 87 | 300 | 56 | 71 | 76l | 13 | 54 |
| Malawi | 19 | 241 | 175 | 146 | 110 | 12,608 | 550 | 96 | 170 | 40 | 64 | 76l | 13 | 56 |
| Malaysia | 143 | 22 | 12 | 16 | 10 | 24,894 | 549 | 7 | 4,650 | 73 | 89 | 93 | 13 | 54 |
| Maldives | 74 | 111 | 46 | 79 | 35 | 321 | 10 | 0 | 2,510 | 67 | 96 | 92 | — | — |
| Mali | 7 | 250 | 219 | 140 | 121 | 13,124 | 647 | 142 | 360 | 48 | 19 | 39l | 13 | 56 |
| Malta | 162 | 11 | 6 | 9 | 5 | 400 | 4 | 0 | 12,250 | 79 | 88 | 96 | — | — |
| Marshall lslands | 69 | 92 | 59 | 63 | 52 | 60 | 0 | 0 | 2,370 | — | — | 84 | — | — |
| Mauritania | 33 | 133 | 125 | 85 | 78 | 2,980 | 123 | 15 | 420 | 53 | 51 | 44l | 17 | 46 |
| Mauritius | 131 | 23 | 15 | 21 | 14 | 1,233 | 20 | 0 | 4,640 | 72 | 84 | 97 | — | — |
| Mexico | 98 | 46 | 28 | 37 | 23 | 105,699 | 2,201 | 62 | 6,770 | 75 | 90 | 99 | 10 | 59 |
| Micronesia (Federated States of) | 110 | 31 | 23 | 26 | 19 | 110 | 3 | 0 | 1,990 | 68 | — | — | — | — |
| Moldova, Republic of | 98 | 40 | 28 | 30 | 23 | 4,218 | 43 | 1 | 710 | 68 | 96 | 98l | 18 | 44 |
| Monaco | 172 | 9 | 5 | 7 | 4 | 35 | 0 | 0 | k | — | — | — | — | — |
TABLE 7.8 Under-five mortality rank and other development indicators, by country, 1990–2004 [CONTINUED]
| TABLE 7.8 | ||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Under-five mortality rank and other development indicators, by country, 1990–2004 [CONTINUED] | ||||||||||||||
| Countries and territories | Under-5 mortality rank | Under-5 mortality rate | Infant mortality rate (under 1)a | Total population (thousands) 2004 | Annual number of births (thousands) 2004 | Annual number of under-5 deaths (thousands) 2004 | Gross national income per capita (US$)b 2004 | Life expectancy at birth (years)c 2004 | Total adult literacy rated 2000–2004g | Net primary school enrolment/attendance (percent)e 1996–2004g | Percent share of household Incomef 1993–2003g | |||
| 1990 | 2004 | 1990 | 2004 | Lowest 40% | Highest 20% | |||||||||
| Mongolia | 72 | 108 | 52 | 78 | 41 | 2,614 | 58 | 3 | 590 | 65 | 98 | 79l | 16 | 51 |
| Morocco | 77 | 89 | 43 | 69 | 38 | 31,020 | 713 | 31 | 1,520 | 70 | 51 | 89l | 17 | 47 |
| Mozambique | 23 | 235 | 152 | 158 | 104 | 19,424 | 769 | 117 | 250 | 42 | 46 | 60l | 17 | 47 |
| Myanmar | 45 | 130 | 106 | 91 | 76 | 50,004 | 992 | 105 | 220m | 61 | 90 | 80l | — | — |
| Namibia | 68 | 86 | 63 | 60 | 47 | 2,009 | 56 | 4 | 2,370 | 47 | 85 | 78l | 4 | 79 |
| Nauru | 95 | — | 30 | — | 25 | 13 | 0 | 0 | — | — | — | 81 | — | — |
| Nepal | 59 | 145 | 76 | 100 | 59 | 26,591 | 786 | 60 | 260 | 62 | 49 | 74l | 19 | 45 |
| Netherlands | 162 | 9 | 6 | 7 | 5 | 16,226 | 190 | 1 | 31,700 | 79 | — | 99 | 21 | 39 |
| New Zealand | 162 | 11 | 6 | 8 | 5 | 3,989 | 55 | 0 | 20,310 | 79 | — | 100 | 18 | 44 |
| Nicaragua | 83 | 68 | 38 | 52 | 31 | 5,376 | 153 | 6 | 790 | 70 | 77 | 80l | 15 | 49 |
| Niger | 3 | 320 | 259 | 191 | 152 | 13,499 | 734 | 190 | 230 | 45 | 14 | 30l | 10 | 53 |
| Nigeria | 13 | 230 | 197 | 120 | 101 | 128,709 | 5,323 | 1,049 | 390 | 43 | 67 | 62l | 13 | 56 |
| Niue | — | — | — | — | — | 1 | 0 | — | — | — | — | 99 | — | — |
| Norway | 185 | 9 | 4 | 7 | 4 | 4,598 | 55 | 0 | 52,030 | 80 | — | 100 | 24 | 37 |
| Occupied Palestinian territory | 107 | 40 | 24 | 34 | 22 | 3,587 | 136 | 3 | 1,110m | 73 | 92 | 91 | — | — |
| Oman | 140 | 32 | 13 | 25 | 10 | 2,534 | 64 | 1 | 7,830m | 74 | 74 | 72 | — | — |
| Pakistan | 47 | 130 | 101 | 100 | 80 | 154,794 | 4,729 | 478 | 600 | 63 | 49 | 56l | 21 | 42 |
| Palau | 101 | 34 | 27 | 28 | 22 | 20 | 0 | 0 | 6,870 | — | — | 96 | — | — |
| Panama | 107 | 34 | 24 | 27 | 19 | 3,175 | 70 | 2 | 4,450 | 75 | 92 | 100 | 9 | 60 |
| Papua New Guinea | 48 | 101 | 93 | 74 | 68 | 5,772 | 176 | 16 | 580 | 56 | 57 | 74 | 12 | 57 |
| Paraguay | 107 | 41 | 24 | 33 | 21 | 6,017 | 175 | 4 | 1,170 | 71 | 92 | 89 | 9 | 61 |
| Peru | 97 | 80 | 29 | 60 | 24 | 27,562 | 627 | 18 | 2,360 | 70 | 88 | 96l | 11 | 53 |
| Philippines | 88 | 62 | 34 | 41 | 26 | 81,617 | 2,026 | 69 | 1,170 | 71 | 93 | 88l | 14 | 52 |
| Poland | 152 | 18 | 8 | 19 | 7 | 38,559 | 365 | 3 | 6,090 | 75 | — | 98 | 20 | 41 |
| Portugal | 172 | 14 | 5 | 11 | 4 | 10,441 | 112 | 1 | 14,350 | 78 | — | 100 | 17 | 46 |
| Qatar | 113 | 26 | 21 | 21 | 18 | 777 | 14 | 0 | 12,000m | 73 | 89 | 94 | — | — |
| Romania | 120 | 31 | 20 | 27 | 17 | 21,790 | 213 | 4 | 2,920 | 72 | 97 | 89 | 20 | 41 |
| Russian Federation | 113 | 29 | 21 | 23 | 17 | 143,899 | 1,511 | 32 | 3,410 | 65 | 99 | 90 | 21 | 39 |
| Rwanda | 10 | 173 | 203 | 103 | 118 | 8,882 | 365 | 74 | 220 | 44 | 64 | 75l | 23m | 39m |
| Saint Kitts and Nevis | 113 | 36 | 21 | 30 | 18 | 42 | 1 | 0 | 7,600 | — | — | 95 | — | — |
| Saint Lucia | 135 | 21 | 14 | 20 | 13 | 159 | 3 | 0 | 4,310 | 73 | 90 | 99 | — | — |
| Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | 112 | 25 | 22 | 22 | 18 | 118 | 2 | 0 | 3,650 | 71 | — | 90 | — | — |
| Samoa | 95 | 50 | 30 | 40 | 25 | 184 | 5 | 0 | 1,860 | 71 | 99 | 98 | — | — |
| San Marino | 185 | 14 | 4 | 13 | 3 | 28 | 0 | 0 | k | — | — | — | — | — |
| Sao Tome and Principe | 38 | 118 | 118 | 75 | 75 | 153 | 5 | 1 | 370 | 63 | — | 78l | ||