Habitat and Ecosystem Conservation - U.s. Land Conservation Efforts

The early American colonists were impressed by the abundance of natural resources they found in North America and by the vast expanses of land available for settlement. Settlers migrated to the West and South, building towns and developing land for agriculture and industry. New modes of transportation allowed access to areas previously undisturbed by humans. Widespread development and demand for food, water, lumber, and other goods began to stress some natural resources. Massive areas of forest were cleared of trees. Passenger pigeons and heath hens were driven to extinction. Buffalo, elk, and beaver stocks were nearly destroyed.

In the United States's first century as a nation, the federal government owned about 80% of the nation's land. The government started surveying and selling its land holdings to states, settlers, and railroad companies in about 1785. During the nineteenth century awareness began growing in the United States about the scarcity and value of natural resources. In 1892 John Muir (1838–1914) established the Sierra Club, an organization devoted to recreation, education, and conservation. President Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919) set aside millions of acres of land under federal government control for national refuges, forests, and parks.

By the end of the nineteenth century, the government had transferred most of its lands to private ownership. It also allowed private use of remaining federal lands. After several decades of rapid development and unrestricted use, much of the nation's land and natural resources were significantly degraded. Responding to mounting concerns, Congress slowly redefined the federal government's role in land management from temporary to permanent retention as well as active stewardship.

During the 1960s, increasing scientific and public concern about the declining condition of the country's natural resources led Congress to enact a number of laws to conserve both federal and nonfederal lands. These laws regulate activities that affect air, water, soil, plants, and animals. With increasing environmental legislation, the land management framework evolved into a complex collection of agencies, land units, and laws. Different agencies have different priorities, which are reflected in how they manage the resources under their care. The effects of these different missions are particularly evident in places where two agencies hold adjacent lands. For example, the National Park Service (Department of the Interior) oversees Yellowstone National Park, where timber harvesting is prohibited, whereas the U.S. Forest Service (Department of Agriculture) allows large areas to be clear-cut in the adjacent Targhee National Forest in Idaho.

The National Park System

In 1849 the U.S. Congress passed a bill creating the U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI). The DOI was responsible for a wide variety of matters, including constructing water systems, exploring wilderness areas in the West, and managing public lands and public parks. In 1872 Yellowstone National Park was created by an act of Congress and was the first national park established in the world. Over the next four decades more than a dozen national parks were established in the United States, along with twenty-one national monuments. In 1916 a FIGURE 3.3 The National Park System "The National Park System (in Red) Represents Ecosystem throughout the United States," in "Endangered Species and the National Park Service," Endangered Species Bulletin, vol. XXVII, no. 1, January/February 2002, U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, http://www.fws.gov/endangered/esb/2002/01-02/04-07.pdf (accessed January 31, 2006)new agency, the National Park Service (NPS), was created under the DOI to manage these federal lands.

As of 2006 there were 388 units in the National Park System covering nearly eighty million acres. The units include national parks, monuments, preserves, lake-shores, seashores, wild and scenic rivers, trails, historic sites, military parks, battlefields, historical parks, recreation areas, memorials, and parkways. The map in Figure 3.3 shows the location and ranges of National Parks in the United States. In addition to preserving habitats that range from Arctic tundra to tropical rain forest, the system protects many imperiled plant and animal species.

In late 2005 the NPS published a proposed revision of the National Park Service Management Policies (2005, http://parkplanning.nps.gov/document.cfm?projectId=13746&documentID=12825). Section 4.4.2.3 of the document discusses the management of endangered and threatened species on NPS lands. The agency notes that it engages in the following activities:

• Cooperates with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and National Marine Fisheries Service to ensure that National Park Service actions comply with the Endangered Species Act
• Operates programs to inventory, monitor, restore, and maintain the habitats of listed species
• Works to control invasive nonnative species
• Prevents visitors from damaging vital habitats
• Reestablishes depleted populations to maintain the species
• Manages critical habitat and recovery areas designated under the ESA

TABLE 3.2 Areas located within National Forest Service boundaries, September 30, 2005 "Table 1. National and Regional Areas Summary," in Land Areas Report as of September 30, 2005, U.S. Department of the Interior, 2005, http://www.fs.fed.us/land/staff/lar/LAR05/table1.htm (accessed March 8, 2006)

TABLE 3.2
Areas located within National Forest Service boundaries, September 30, 2005
Area kind	Number of units	Gross acreage	Non forest service acreage	Other acreage
Note: Other acreage refers to areas located within National Forest System boundaries that are not federally owned or administered by the U.S. Forest Service.
SOURCE: "Table 1. National and Regional Areas Summary," in Land Areas Report as of September 30, 2005, U.S. Department of the Interior, 2005, http://www.fs.fed.us/land/staff/lar/LAR05/table1.htm (accessed March 8, 2006)
National totals
National forests	155	225,316,632	188,009,261	37,307,371
Purchase units	63	2,316,288	370,546	1,945,742
National grasslands	20	4,264,663	3,838,166	426,497
Land utilization projects	6	1,876	1,876	0
Research and experimental areas	20	73,154	64,871	8,283
Other areas	35	361,967	357,716	4,057
National preserves	1	89,716	89,716	0
Totals	300	232,424,296	192,732,346	39,691,950
Western regional totals (regions 1 through 6)
National forests	101	156,025,042	141,226,878	14,798,164
Purchase units	19	164,239	12,244	151,995
National grasslands	18	4,080,564	3,799,984	280,580
Land utilization projects	4	1,834	1,834	0
Research and experimental areas	6	60,598	60,598	0
Other areas	29	171,717	167,660	4,057
National preserves	1	89,716	89,716	0
Total	178	160,593,710	145,358,914	15,234,796
Eastern regional totals (regions 8 and 9)
National forests	52	44,932,472	24,809,244	20,123,228
Purchase units	44	2,152,049	358,302	1,793,747
National grasslands	2	184,099	38,182	145,917
Land utilization projects	2	42	42	0
Research and experimental areas	14	12,556	4,273	8,283
Other areas	6	190,250	190,250	0
Totals	120	47,471,468	25,400,293	22,071,175
Alaska region totals (region 10)
National forests	2	24,359,118	21,973,139	2,385,979
Totals	2	24,359,118	21,973,139	2,385,979

• Cooperates with other agencies involved in setting critical habitat and recovery areas and participates in the recovery planning process
• Works with federal and state agencies and nongovernmental organizations to promote conservation agreements for candidate species
• Conducts activities and allocates funds to address endangered, threatened, proposed, and candidate species.

The National Parks have played a significant role in the return of several species, including red wolves and peregrine falcons. National Parks also contain designated critical habitat for numerous listed species. However, not all of these are publicly disclosed, in order to protect rare species from collectors, vandals, or curiosity seekers.

The National Forests

In 1905 the U.S. Forest Service was established as an agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. As of February 2006 the Forest Service managed nearly 193 million acres of public lands in 155 national forests and twenty national grasslands. (See Table 3.2.) A map of the locations of U.S. national forests and grasslands is shown in Figure 3.4. National forest lands also include numerous lakes and ponds. National forest land is, in general, not conserved to the same degree as National Park lands. For example, much logging occurs within these forests.

Within the Forest Service, the Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive Species Program focuses on wildlife conservation. The Secretary of Agriculture's Policy on Fish and Wildlife directs the Forest Service to "manage habitats for all native and desired nonnative plants, fish and wildlife species to maintain viable populations of each species; identify and recover threatened and endangered plant and animal species" and to avoid actions "which may cause species to become threatened or endangered." In addition, the Forest Service has another designation called "sensitive species" for species considered unique, rare, endemic or meeting other criteria.

FIGURE 3.4 A map of the National Forests "The National Forests," in Land Areas of the National Forest System, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, 2006, http://www.fs.fed.us/land/staff/lar/nfsmap.htm (accessed April 4, 2006)

Endangered, threatened and sensitive species on national forest lands are subjected to biological evaluations to determine the effects on them of management activities. Conservation measures are also incorporated to preserve these species.

The National Wildlife Refuge System

In 1903 President Theodore Roosevelt established the National Wildlife Refuge System (NWRS) and designated the first refuge at Pelican Island, Florida. The refuge was home to a population of brown pelicans, which were being slaughtered for their popular feathers. Over the next century hundreds of additional refuges were designated throughout the country.

The NWRS is the only network of federal lands and waters managed principally for the protection of fish and wildlife. As of March 2006 it covered ninety-six million acres and included 545 refuges and thousands of small wetlands around the country. Yukon Delta, the largest of the Alaskan refuges, comprises twenty million acres. Approximately one-third of the total refuge acreage is wetland habitat, reflecting the importance of wetlands for wildlife survival.

Fifty-nine of the refuges were established specifically for endangered species, as shown in Table 3.3. These refuges cover more than 360,000 acres and are located in twenty states and the U.S. Virgin Islands. California is home to fourteen of the refuges, followed by Florida with

TABLE 3.3 National Wildlife Refuges established for endangered species

TABLE 3.3
National Wildlife Refuges established for endangered species
State	Unit name	Species of concern	Unite acreage
Alabama	Sauta Cave NWR	Indiana bat, gray bat	264
	Fern Cave NER	Indiana bat, gray bat	199
	Key Cave NWR	Alabama cavefish, gray bat	1,060
	Watercress Darter NWR	Watercress darter	7
Arkansas	Logan Cave NWR	Cave crayfish, gray bat, Indiana bat, Ozark cavefish	124
Arizona	Buenos Aires NWR	Masked bobwhite quail	116,585
	Leslie Canyon	Gila topminnow, yaqui chub, peregrine falcon	2,765
	San Bernardino NWR	Gila topminnow, yaqui chub, yaqui catfish, beautiful shiner, Huachuca water umbel	2,369
California	Antioch Dunes NWR	Lange's metalmark butterfly, Antioch Dunes evening-primrose, Contra costa wallflower	55
	Bitter Creek NWR	California condor	14,054
	Blue Ridge NWR	California condor	897
	Castle Rock NWR	Aleution Canada goose	14
	Coachella Valley NWR	Coachello Valley fringe-toed lizard	3,592
	Don Edwards San Francisco Bay NWR	California clapper rail, California least tern, salt marsh harvest mouse	21,524
	Ellicott Slough NWR	Santa Cruz long-toed salamander	139
	Hopper Mountain NWR	California condor	2,471
	Sacramento River NWR	Valley elderberry longhorn beetle, bald eagle, Least Bell's vireo	7,884
	San Diego NWR	San Diego fairy shrimp, San Diego mesa mint, Otay Mesa mint, California orcutt grass, San Diego button-celery	1,840
	San Joaquin River NWR	Aleutian Canada goose	1,638
	Seal Beach NWR	Light-footed clapper rail, California least tern	911
	Sweetwater Marsh NWR	Light-footed clapper rail	316
	Tijuana Slough NWR	Light-footed clapper rail	1,023
Florida	Archie Carr NWR	Loggerhead sea turtle, green sea turtle	29
	Crocodile Lake NWR	American crocodile	6,686
	Crystal River NWR	West Indian manatee	80
	Florida Panther NWR	Florida panther	23,379
	Hobe Sound NWR	Loggerhead sea turtle, green sea turtle	980
	Lake Wales Ridge NWR	Florida scrub jay, snakeroot, scrub blazing star, Carter's mustard, papery whitlow-wort, Florida bonamia, scrub lupine highlands scrub hypericum, Garett's mint, scrub mint, pygmy gringe-tree, wireweed, florida ziziphus, scrub plum, eastern indigo snake, bluetail mole skink, sand skink	659
	National Key Deer Refuge	Key deer	8,542
	St. Johns NWR	Dusky seaside sparrow	6,255
Hawaii	Hakalau Forest NWR	Akepa, akiapolaau, ˋoˋu, Hawaiian hawk, Hawaiian creeper	32,730
	Hanalei NWR	Hawaiian stilt, Hawaiian coot, Hawaiian moorhen. Hawaiian duck	917
	Haleia NWR	Hawaiian stilt, Hawaiian coot, Hawaiian moorhen, Hawaiian duck	241
	James C. Campbell NWR	Hawaiian stilt, Hawaiian coot, hawaiian moorhen, Hawaiian, duck	164
	Kakahaia NWR	Hawaiian stilt, Hawaiian coot	45
	Kealia Pond NWR	Hawaiian stilt, Hawaiian coot	691
	Pearl Harbor NWR	Hawaiian stilt	61
Iowa	Driftless Area NWR	Iowa pleistocene turtle	521
Massachusetts	Massasoit NWR	Plymouth red-bellied turtle	184
Michigan	Kirtland's Warbler WMA	Kirtland's warbler	6,535
Mississippi	Sandhill Crane NWR	Mississippi sandhill crane	19,713
Missouri	Ozark Cavefish NWR	Ozark cavefish	42
	Pilot Knob NWR	Indiana bat	90
Nebraska	Karl E. Mundt NWR	Bald eagle	19
Nevada	Ash Meadows NWR	Devil's Hole pupfish, Warm Springs pupfish, Ash Meadows Amargosa pupfish, Ash Meadows speckled dace, Ash Meadows naucorid, Ash Madows blazing star, Amargosa niterwort, Ash Meadows milk-vetch, Ash Meadows sunray, Spring-loving centaury, Ash Meadows gumplant, Ash Meadows invesia	13,268
	Moapa Valley NWR	Moapa dace	32
Oklahoma	Ozark Plateau NWR	Ozark big-eared bat, gray bat	2,208

TABLE 3.3 National Wildlife Refuges established for endangered species [CONTINUED] "National Wildlife Refuges Established for Endangered Species," in America's National Wildlife Refuge System, U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2006, http://www.fws.gov/refuges/habitats/endSpRefuges.html (accessed February 28, 2006)

TABLE 3.3
National Wildlife Refuges established for endangered species [CONTINUED]
State	Unit name	Species of concern	Unite acreage
Note: NWR=National Wildlife Refuge, WMA=Wildlife Management Area.
SOURCE: "National Wildlife Refuges Established for Endangered Species," in America's National Wildlife Refuge System, U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2006, http://www.fws.gov/refuges/habitats/endSpRefuges.html (accessed February 28, 2006)
Oregon	Bear Valley NWR	Bald eagle	4,200
	Julia Butler Hansen Refuge for Columbian White-tail Deer	Columbian white-tailed deer	2,750
	Nestucca Bay NWR	Aleutian Canada goose	457
South Dakota	Karl E. Mundt NWR	Bald eagle	1,044
Texas	Attwater Prairie Chicken NWR	Attwater's greater prairie chicken	8,007
	Balcones Canyonlands NWR	Black-capped vreo, golden-cheeked warber	14,144
Virgin Islands	Green Cay NWR	St. Croix ground lizard	14
	Sandy Point NWR	Leatherback sea turtle	327
Virginia	James River NWR	Bald eagle	4,147
	Mason Neck NWR	Bald eagle	2,276
Washington	Julia Butler Hansen Refuge for Columbian White-tail Deer	Columbian white-tailed deer	2,777
Wyoming	Mortenson Lake NWR	Wyoming toad	1,776

eight refuges and Hawaii with seven refuges. The refuges range in size from the seven-acre Watercress Darter refuge in Alabama to the 116,585—acre Buenos Aires refuge in Arizona. Protected species include a variety of plants and animals.

Table 3.4 shows all federally listed threatened and endangered animal species known to occur on units of the NWRS. The list comprises 185 species in total, including fifty-five species of birds, forty-five species of mammals, and thirty-three species of fish. In addition, ninety-eight threatened and endangered plant species are found in the NWRS system, as shown in Table 3.5.

Many other listed animal species use refuge lands on a temporary basis for breeding or migratory rest stops. Virtually every species of bird in North America has been recorded in the refuge system.

Wilderness Preservation System Areas

In 1964 the U.S. Congress passed the Wilderness Act. Its purpose was to designate certain areas of undeveloped federal land as the National Wilderness Preservation System. The act noted that these areas were to be "where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain."

As of 2006 nearly 700 of these so-called wilderness areas have been designated across the country covering more than 105 million acres. (See Figure 3.5.) The lands are owned or administered by the USFWS, the USDA Forest Service, the National Park Service, or the Bureau of Land Management. All of the wilderness areas occur within national wildlife refuges, expect for one—the Mount Massive Wilderness Area located at the Leadville National Fish Hatchery in Colorado. Alaska, California, and other western states are home to most of the wilderness areas.

Unlike National Parks, which are intended for use by large numbers of visitors, wilderness areas are intended to be pristine, with limited access and no amenities. True wilderness remains, for most humans, a place to visit only rarely. Nonetheless, the number of people using wilderness areas has increased steadily. Many visitors, as well as park managers, have complained about the intrusions of civilization—cell phones, snowmobiles, and aircraft—into wilderness areas.

The Debate over Use of Federally Protected Lands

Since federal conservation lands were first set aside, a national debate has raged over how they should be used. Many of these lands contain natural resources of great value in commercial markets, including timber, oil, gas, and minerals. Political and business interests that wish to harvest these resources are pitted against environmentalists who want to preserve the lands in as pristine condition as possible. During the 1990s such a battle raged over the issue of logging in old-growth forests of the Pacific Northwest—the same forests that provided habitat for endangered northern spotted owls. A similar controversy has been brewing for decades over the drilling of oil and gas in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR).

OIL DRILLING IN THE ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE?

The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is located in northern Alaska as shown in Figure 3.6. Covering nineteen million acres, it is the largest national wildlife refuge in the United States. ANWR was established in 1980 by passage of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (http://alaska.fws.gov/asm/anilca/toc.html). In Section 1002 of the act, the U.S. Congress deferred a decision on the future management of 1.5 million acres of ANWR, because of conflicting interests between potential oil and gas resources thought to be located there and the area's importance as a wildlife habitat. This disputed area of coastal plain came to be known as the 1002 area. It is shown in detail in Figure 3.7.

TABLE 3.4 Threatened and endangered animal species known to occur on units of the National Wildlife Refuge system "Threatened and Endangered Animal Species Found on the National Wildlife Refuge System," in America's National Wildlife Refuge System, U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2006, http://www.fws.gov/refuges/habitats/endSpAnimals.html (accessed March 8, 2006)

TABLE 3.4
Threatened and endangered animal species known to occur on units of the National Wildlife Refuge system
SOURCE: "Threatened and Endangered Animal Species Found on the National Wildlife Refuge System," in America's National Wildlife Refuge System, U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2006, http://www.fws.gov/refuges/habitats/endSpAnimals.html (accessed March 8, 2006)
Amphibians Frog, California red-legged Salamander, Cheat Mountain Salamander, Santa Cruz long-toed Toad, Arroyo Toad, Wyoming Birds Akepa, Hawaii Akiapolaau Albatross, short-tailed Blackbird, yellow-shouldered Bobwhite, masked (quail) Broadbill, Guam Caracara, Audubon's crested Condor, California Coot, Hawaiian Crane, Mississippi sandhill Crane, whooping Creeper, Hawaii Crow, Mariana Curlew, Eskimo Duck, Hawaiian Duck, Laysan Eider, spectacled Eider, Stellar's Elepaio, Ohau Falcon, northern Aplomado Finch, Laysan Finch, Nihoa Flycatcher, southwestern willow Gnatcatcher, coastal California Goose, Hawaiian (=nene) Hawk, Hawaiian Jay, Florida scrub Kingfisher, Guam Micronesian Kite, Everglade snail Millerbird, Nihoa Moorhen (=gallilnule), Hawaiian common Moorhen, Mariana common Murrelet, marbled ˋOˋu (honeycreeper) Owl, northern spotted Pelican, brown Plover, piping Plover, western snowy (Pacific coastal) Prairie-chicken, Attwater's greater Pygmy-owl, cactus ferruginous Rail, California clapper Rail, light-footed clapper Rail, Yuma clapper Stilt, Hawaiian Stork, wood Swiftlet, Vanikoro Tern, California least Tern, least (interior) Tern, roseate Vireo, black-capped Vireo, least Bell's Warbler, Bachman's Warbler, golden-cheeked Warbler, Kirtland's White-eye, bridled Woodpecker, red-cockaded Clams Clubshell Fanshell	Mussel, ring pink (=golf stick pearly) Mussel, winged mapleleaf Pearlymussel, Higgin's eye Pearlymussel, orange-footed pimple back Pearlymussel, pink mucket Pigtoe, rough Pocketbook, fat Riffleshell, northern Crustaceans Cambarus aculabrum (crayfish with no common name) Fairy shrimp, riverside Fairy shrimp, San Diego Tadpole shrimp, vernal pool Fishes Catfish, Yaqui Cavefish, Alabama Cavefish, Ozark Chub, bonytail Chub, humpback Chub, Oregon Chub, Yaqui Dace, Ash Meadows speckled Dace, Moapa Darter, watercress Gambusia, Pecos Goby, Tidewater Madtom, Neosho Madtom, pygmy Minnow, Rio Grande silvery Poolfish (=killifish), Pahrump Pupfish, Ash Meadows Amargosa Pupfish, desert Pupfish, Devils Hole Pupfish, Warm Springs Salmon, Chinook Shiner, beautiful Shiner, Pecos bluntnose Shiner, Topeka Squawfish, Colorado Sturgeon, Gulf Sturgeon, pallid Sturgeon, shortnose Sturgeon, white, Kootenai River population Sucker, Lost River Sucker, razorback Sucker, short-nose Topminnow, gila (includes Yaqui) Insects Beetle, American burying Beetle, valley elderberry longhorn Butterfly, Karner blue Butterfly, Lange's metalmark Butterfly, Quino checkerspot Butterfly, Schaus swallowtail Butterfly, Smith's blue Dragonfly, Hine's emerald Naucorid, Ash Meadows Mammals Bat, gray Bat, Hawaiian goary Bat, Indiana Bat, lesser (=Sanborn's) long-nosed Bat, little Mariana fruit	Bat, Mariana fruit Bat, Ozark big-eared Bear, grizzly Bear, Louisiana black Deer, Columbian white-tailed Deer, key Ferret, black-footed Fox, San Joaquin kit Jaguar Jaguarundi Manatee, West Indian (Florida) Mouse, Alabama Beach Mouse, Key Largo cotton Mouse, salt marsh harvest Mouse, Southeastern Beach Ocelot Panther, Florida Pronghorn, Sonoran Puma, eastern Rabbit, Lower Keys Rabbit, riparian brush Rat, Morro Bay kangaroo Rat, rice (=silver rice) Rat, Tipton kangaroo Sea-lion, steller (=northern) Seal, Hawaiian monk Squirrel, Delmarva Peninsula fox Squirrel, Virginia northern flying Whale, blue Whale, bowhead Whale, finback Whale, gray Whale, humpback Whale, right Whale, sei Whale, sperm Wolf, gray Wolf, Mexican Wolf, red Wood rat, Key Largo Reptiles Anole, Culebra Island giant Crocodile, American Lizard, Blunt-nosed leopard Lizard, Coachella Valley fringe-toed Lizard, St. Croix ground Skink, Blue-tailed mole Skink, dand Snake, Atlantic dalt marsh Snake, rastern indigo Snake, giant garter Snake, northern copperbelly water Tortoise, desert Tortoise, gopher Turtle, green sea Turtle, hawksbill sea Turtle, Kemp's (=Atlantic) ridley sea Turtle, leatherback sea Turtle, loggerhead sea Turtle, Plymouth redbelly Turtle, ringed map (=sawback) Snails Snail, Iowa pleistocence Snail, Oahu tree Snail, Stock Island tree

TABLE 3.5 Threatened and endangered animal species known to occur on units of the National Wildlife Refuge system "Threatened and Endangered Plant Species Found on the National Wildlife Refuge System," in America's National Wildlife Refuge System, U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2006, http://www.fws.gov/refuges/habitats/endSpPlant.html (accessed March 8, 2006)

TABLE 3.5
Threatened and endangered animal species known to occur on units of the National Wildlife Refuge system
SOURCE: "Threatened and Endangered Plant Species Found on the National Wildlife Refuge System," in America's National Wildlife Refuge System, U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2006, http://www.fws.gov/refuges/habitats/endSpPlant.html (accessed March 8, 2006)
Aconitum noveboracense—northern wild monkshood Aeschynomene virginica—sensitive Joint-vetch Agalinis acuta—sandplain gerardia Amaranthus brownii—Brown's pigweed Amaranthus pumilus—seabeach Amaranth Apios priceana—Price's potato-bean Arenaria paludicola—marsh sandwort Aristida chasae—no common name Asclepias meadii—Mead's milkweed Asimina tetramera—four-petal pawpaw Asplenium scolopendrium var. Americana—American Hart's-tongue fern Astragalus phoenix—Ash Meadows milk-vetch Boltonia decurrens—decurrent false aster Bonamia grandiflora—Florida bonamia Calyptranthes thomasiana—Thomas' lidflower Centaurium namophilum—spring-loving centaury Cereus eriophorus var. fragrans—fragrant prickly-apple Cereus robinii—key tree-cactus Chamaesyce garberi (=euphorbia garberi) Garber's spurge Chamaesyce rockii—àkoko Chionanthus pygmaeus—pygmy fringe-tree Chorizante pungens var pungens—monterey spineflower Cirsium pitcheri—Pitcher's thistle Clermontia pyrularia—òhawai Clitoria fragrans—pigeon wings Cordylanthus maritimus ssp. maritimus—salt marsh bird's-beak Cordylanthus palmatus—palmate-bracted bird's-beak Coryphantha sneedii var. robustispina—pima pineapple cactus Coryphantha sneedii var. sneedii—sneed pincushion cactus Cyanea acuminata—haha Cyanea humboldtiana—haha Cyanea koolauensis—haha Cyanea schipmanii—haha Cyrtandra subumbellata—haìwale Cyrtandra viridiflora—haìwale Dicerandra christmaii—Garett's mint Echinocereus fendleri var. kuenzleri—Kuenzler hedgehog cactus Enceliopsis nudicaulis var. corrugata—Ash Meadows sunray Eriogonum longifolium var. gnaphalifolium—scrub buckwheat Eryngium aristulatum var. parishii—San Diego button-celery Erysimum capitatum var. angustatum—Contra Costa wallflower Eugenia woodburyana—no common name Frankenia johnstonii—Johnston's frankenia Gardenia manii—nanu, naˋu Goetzea elegans—beautiful goetzea Grindelia fraxino—pratensis—Ash Meadows gumplant Harrisia portorricensis—Higo chumbo Helianthus pardoxius—Pecos sunflower Helonias bullata—swamp pink	Hesperomanni arborescens—no common name Howellia aquatilus—water howellia Hymenoxys aculis var. glabra—lakeside daisy Iris lacustris—Dwarf Lake iris Isodendrion laurifolium—aupaka Ivesia kingii var. eremica—Ash Meadows ivesia Lespedeza leptosyachya—prairie bush-clover Liatris ohlingerae—scrub blazingstar Lilaeopsis schaffneriana var. recurva—Huachuca water umbel Lobelia gaudichaudii spp. koolauensis—no common name Lobelia oahuensis—no common name Lomatium bradshawii—Bradshaw's desert-parsley Manihot walkerae—Walker's manioc Mariscus pennatiformis ssp. bryanii—no common name Mentzelia leucophylla—Ash Meadows blazing-star Nitrophila mohavensis—Amargosa niterwort Oenothera deltoides—ssp. howellii—Antioch Dunes Evening-primose Orcuttia californica—California orcutt grass Oxypolis canbyi—Canby's dropwort Oxytropis campestris var. chartacea—Fassett's locoweed Paronychia chartacea (=nyachia pulvinata)—papery whitlow-wort Penstemon haydenii—blowout penstemon Peperomia wheeleri—Wheeler's peperomia Phlegmariurus nutans—wawaeˋiole Phyllostegia hirsuta—no common name Phyllostegia racemosa—kiponapona Platanthera leucophaea—Eastern Prairie fringed orchid Platanthera praeclara—Western Prairie fringed orchid Pogogyne abramsii—San Diego Mesa mint Pogogyne nudiuscula—Otay Mesa mint Polygonella basiramia (=p. ciliata var. b.)—wireweed Polystichum aleuticum—Aleutian shield-fern Pritchardia remota—loulu Prunus geniculata—scrub plum Pteris lydgatei—no common name Sanicula purpurea—no common name Sarracenia oreophila—green pitcher-plant Schiedea verticillata—whorled schiedea Schwalbea americana—American chaffseed Sclerocactus glaucus—Unita Basin hookless cactus Sedum integrifolium leedyi—Leedy's roseroot Serianthes nelsonii—hayun lagu Sesbania tomentosa—ˋohai Sidalcea nelsoniana—Nelson's checker-mallow Stahlia monosperma—cobana negra Tetraplasandra gymnocarpa—no common name Thymophylla tephroleuca—ashy dogweed Trifolium stoloniferum—running buffalo clover Viola oahuensis—no common name

There has been interest in tapping the oil deposits in northern Alaska since the early 1900s. The area was first explored for oil and gas resources in the 1940s and 1950s. It was also in the 1950s, however, that people became aware of the ecological value of these lands, and a compromise was reached in which the northeastern part of the state was set aside as a wildlife range (later refuge), while drilling began—and continues—in the northwestern part of the state. Production of oil and gas in the refuge area—the 5% of Alaska's North Slope not already open to drilling—was also prohibited at that time unless specifically authorized by Congress.

In 1987 the Department of the Interior (DOI) submitted a report to Congress on the resources of the 1002 area. At that time only a few oil accumulations had been found near ANWR. Over the next decade, much larger oil fields were discovered as shown by the shaded areas in Figure 3.7. In 1998 the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) performed a petroleum assessment of the 1002 area and the adjacent state waters. An updated assessment performed in 2001 found that there was a 95% probability of 5.7 billion barrels of oil being recoverable from the assessed area, with most of the oil coming from the undeformed part of the 1002 area. The undeformed area has a geologic structure composed of rock layers that are mostly horizontal. This makes for more successful drilling than in the deformed area where rock layers are folded and faulted.

FIGURE 3.5 National Wilderness Preservation System areas Adapted from "National Wilderness Preservation System Areas," in National Atlas of the United States U.S. Department of the Interior, 2006, http://www.nationalatlas.gov (accessed March 10, 2006)

The protected status of ANWR has been challenged by large oil companies and their political supporters. When Republicans took control of Congress in 1995, they passed legislation to allow for drilling in ANWR, but President Clinton vetoed the bill. The succeeding administration under President George W. Bush has been much more supportive of drilling in the refuge.

Environmentalists argue that studies by the Fish and Wildlife Service suggest that oil drilling in the refuge FIGURE 3.6 Map of northern Alaska showing the National Petroleum Reserve—Alaska (NPRA) and Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) "Figure 1. Map of Northern Alaska and Nearby Parts of Canada Showing Locations of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR), the 1002 Area, and the National Petroleum Reserve—Alaska (NPRA). Locations of Known Petroleum Accumulations and the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS) Are Shown, as Well as Summaries of Known Petroleum Volumes in Northern Alaska and the Mackenzie River Delta of Canada. BBO, Billion Barrels of Oil (Includes Cumulative Production Plus Recoverable Resources), TCFS, Trillion Cubic Feet of Gas Recoverable Resources," in Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, 1002 Area, Petroleum Assessment, 1998, Including Economic Analysis, U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, April 2001, http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs-0028-01/fs-0028-01.pdf (accessed March 2, 2006)will harm many Arctic species, by taking over habitat, damaging habitats through pollution, interfering with species activities directly, or increasing opportunities for invasive species. ANWR harbors the greatest number of plant and animal species of any park or refuge in the Arctic, including a multitude of unique species such as caribou, musk oxen, polar bears, arctic foxes, and snow geese. Because of the harsh climate, Arctic habitats are generally characterized by short food chains and extreme vulnerability to habitat disturbance. The majority of Arctic species already live "on the edge." Consequently, the decline of even a single species is likely to have dramatic effects on the entire community.

Some environmentalists consider the 1002 area to be one of the most ecologically diverse and valuable parts of the refuge. Among the species that would be affected if drilling is permitted are polar bears, whose preferred sites for building dens are in the 1002 area (see Figure 3.8) and caribou, which use this area for calving—giving birth to young (see Figure 3.9.)

In 2001 the House of Representatives again passed a bill allowing for drilling within the refuge. However, the Senate rejected this proposal in 2002. The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and heightened tensions in the Middle East have encouraged some politicians to emphasize the national security aspects of oil development in ANWR. They argue that the United States cannot be truly secure until it reduces its dependence on foreign oil. The Bush administration has continued to press for oil drilling in ANWR. During 2005 ANWR drilling measures were added to bills related to energy, the fiscal year 2006 budget, and defense appropriations. Various versions of these bills were approved by either the Congress or the Senate at one time or another; however, the drilling measures were ultimately dropped from the final bills.

FIGURE 3.7 Map of Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) E.D. Attanasi, "Figure 1. Map Showing the Entire Study Area That Included the Federal Part of the 1002 Area of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Native Lands within the 1002 Area, and Lands Underlying Adjacent Alaska State Waters and the Undeformed and Deformed Areas of the 1002 Area. Also Shown Are Oil Accumulations Discovered Near the Entire Study Area during the Past Three Decades," in Economics of 1998 U.S.Geological Survey's 1002 Area Regional Assessment: An Economic Update, U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2005, http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2005/1359/OF2005-1359.pdf (accessed March 1, 2006)

Private Lands Conservation

Federal and state governments are not the only entities involved in land conservation. Increasingly environment-minded private organizations and citizens are purchasing land with the intent of preserving it for wild life. Such national environmental groups as the Nature Conservancy participate in these endeavors. The Nature Conservancy Web site states that the organization helps to protect approximately fifteen million acres in the United States. Other major groups engaged in private land conservation include the Conservation Fund, the Trust for Public Land, the Land Trust Alliance, Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests, and the Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation.

Every three years the Land Trust Alliance conducts a census on lands held for private conservation. The latest census was completed in 2003 and found that more than 9.3 million acres of land were held in local and regional land trusts, up from 4.7 million acres in 1998. Land trusts either purchase land outright or develop private, voluntary agreements called conservation easements or restrictions that limit future development of the land. The census estimated that an additional twenty-five million acres in land were protected by national land trusts.