With the exception of the sea turtles, many of the other imperiled reptiles are geographically clustered as follows: California (six species), Puerto Rico (six species), and Florida (four species). Sea turtles spend most of their lives at sea, only coming onto land to nest and lay young. Because there are many potential nesting sites along the U.S. coasts, the sea turtles are listed in numerous states.
Here is a breakdown of imperiled U.S. reptiles by taxonomic order:
- Squamata—twenty-one species
- Testudines—fourteen species (six sea turtles, two tortoises [land-dwelling turtles], and six other turtle species)
- Crocodilia—two species
According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, nearly $41.6 million was spent under the Endangered Species Act during fiscal year 2004 on threatened and endangered reptiles. Sea turtle species accounted for the vast majority of the expenditures. The ten entities with the highest expenditures are shown in Table 7.5.
Imperiled Sea Turtles in the United States
Sea (or marine) turtles are excellent swimmers and spend nearly their entire lives in water. They feed on a wide array of food items, including mollusks, vegetation, and crustaceans. Some sea turtles are migratory, swimming thousands of miles between feeding and nesting areas. Individuals are exposed to a variety of both natural and human threats. As a result, only an estimated one in 10,000 sea turtles survives to adulthood.
There are seven species of sea turtles that exist worldwide. One species, the flatback turtle, occurs near Australia. The other six species spend part or all of their lives in U.S. territorial waters. The green sea turtle, hawksbill sea turtle, leatherback sea turtle, and loggerhead sea turtle also nest on U.S. lands. (See Figure 7.4.) The Kemp's ridley sea turtle and olive ridley sea turtle nest in other countries.
Imperiled sea turtles fall under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service while they are on U.S.
TABLE 7.4 Endangered and threatened reptile species in the United States, March 2006
| TABLE 7.4 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Endangered and threatened reptile species in the United States, March 2006 | ||||
| Common name | Scientific name | Listinga | Recovery plan date | Recovery plan stageb |
| aE = endangered, T = threatened, T (S/A) = similarity of appearance to a threatened taxon | ||||
| bRecovery plan stages are F = final, D = draft, and RF = final revision | ||||
| SOURCE: Adapted from "Listed FWS/Joint FWS and NMFS Species and Populations with Recovery Plans (Sorted by Listed Entity)" and "Listed U.S. Species by Taxonomic Group," in Threatened and Endangered Species System (TESS), U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, March 6, 2006, http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/SpeciesRecovery.do?sort=1 and http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/SpeciesReport.do?kingdom=I&listingType=L (accessed March 6, 2006) | ||||
| Alligator, American | Alligator mississippiensis | T (S/A) | None | — |
| Anole, Culebra Island giant | Anolis roosevelti | E | 01/28/1983 | F |
| Boa, Mona | Epicrates monensis monensis | T | 04/19/1984 | F |
| Boa, Puerto Rican | Epicrates inornatus | E | 03/27/1986 | F |
| Boa, Virgin Islands tree | Epicrates monensis granti | E | 03/27/1986 | F |
| Crocodile, American | Crocodylus acutus | E | 05/18/1999 | F |
| Gecko, Monito | Sphaerodactylus micropithecus | E | 03/27/1986 | F |
| Iguana, Mona ground | Cyclura cornuta stejnegeri | T | 04/19/1984 | F |
| Lizard, blunt-nosed leopard | Gambelia silus | E | 09/30/1998 | F |
| Lizard, Coachella Valley fringe-toed | Uma inornata | T | 09/11/1985 | F |
| Lizard, island night | Xantusia riversiana | T | 01/26/1984 | F |
| Lizard, St. Croix ground | Ameiva polops | E | 03/29/1984 | F |
| Sea turtle, green (FL, Mexico nesting populations) | Chelonia mydas | E | 10/29/1991 | RF(1) |
| Sea turtle, green (U.S. East Pacific populations on the west coasts of the U.S., Central America and Mexico and U.S. Pacific populations in Hawaii Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, American Samoa and other unincorporated U.S. Pacific islands/atolls) | Chelonia mydas | T | 01/12/1998 | RF(1) |
| Sea turtle, hawksbill (Atlantic populations) | Eretmochelys imbricata | E | 12/15/1993 | RF(1) |
| Sea turtle, hawksbill (U.S. Pacific populations) | Eretmochelys imbricata | E | 01/12/1998 | RF(1) |
| Sea turtle, Kemp's ridley | Lepidochelys kempii | E | 08/21/1992 | RF(1) |
| Sea turtle, leatherback | Dermochelys coriacea | E | 04/06/1992 | RF(1) |
| Sea turtle, leatherback (U.S. Pacific populations) | Dermochelys coriacea | E | 01/12/1998 | RF(1) |
| Sea turtle, loggerhead | Caretta caretta | T | 12/26/1991 | RF(1) |
| Sea turtle, loggerhead (U.S. Pacific populations) | Caretta caretta | T | 01/12/1998 | RF(1) |
| Sea turtle, olive ridley (U.S. Pacific populations) | Lepidochelys olivacea | E | 01/12/1998 | RF(1) |
| Skink, bluetail mole | Eumeces egregius lividus | T | 05/18/1999 | F |
| Skink, sand | Neoseps reynoldsi | T | 05/18/1999 | F |
| Snake, Alameda whip (= striped racer) | Masticophis lateralis euryxanthus | T | 04/07/2003 | D |
| Snake, Atlantic salt marsh | Nerodia clarkii taeniata | T | 12/15/1993 | F |
| Snake, concho water | Nerodia paucimaculata | T | 09/27/1993 | F |
| Snake, copperbelly water | Nerodia erythrogaster neglecta | T | None | — |
| Snake, eastern indigo | Drymarchon corais couperi | T | 04/22/1982 | F |
| Snake, giant garter | Thamnophis gigas | T | 07/02/1999 | D |
| Snake, Lake Erie water (subspecies range clarified) | Nerodia sipedon insularum | T | 09/25/2003 | F |
| Snake, New Mexican ridge-nosed rattle | Crotalus willardi obscurus | T | 03/22/1985 | F |
| Snake, San Francisco garter | Thamnophis sirtalis tetrataenia | E | 09/11/1985 | F |
| Tortoise, desert (U.S.A., except in Sonoran Desert) | Gopherus agassizii | T | 06/28/1994 | F |
| Tortoise, gopher (west of Mobile/Tombigbee Rivers) | Gopherus polyphemus | T | 12/26/1990 | F |
| Turtle, Alabama red-belly | Pseudemys alabamensis | E | 01/08/1990 | F |
| Turtle, bog (= Muhlenberg) (northern) | Clemmys muhlenbergii | T | 05/15/2001 | F |
| Turtle, flattened musk (species range clarified) | Sternotherus depressus | T | 02/26/1990 | F |
| Turtle, northern red bellied (= Plymouth) cooter | Pseudemys rubriventris bangsi | E | 05/06/1994 | RF(2) |
| Turtle, ringed map | Graptemys oculifera | T | 04/08/1988 | F |
| Turtle, yellow-blotched map | Graptemys flavimaculata | T | 03/15/1993 | F |
Information on the distribution of each imperiled sea turtle species is provided below:
- Green sea turtles—found in U.S. waters around Hawaii, U.S. Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, along the mainland coast from Texas to Massachusetts and from Southern California to Alaska. Key feeding grounds are in Florida coastal waters. Primary nesting sites are the Florida east coast, U.S. Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, and a remote atoll in Hawaii.
- Hawksbill sea turtles—found in U.S. waters primarily around Hawaii, U.S. Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, and along the Gulf and southeast Florida coasts. Key nesting sites are in Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Hawaii, and the southeast coast and keys of Florida.
- Kemp's ridley sea turtles—found in U.S. waters along the Gulf Coast and New England coast. Primary nesting sites are in Mexico and Texas along the Gulf coast.
- Leatherback sea turtles—found in U.S. waters around Hawaii, U.S. Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico,
TABLE 7.5 The ten listed reptile entities with the highest expenditures under the Endangered Species Act, fiscal year 2004
Adapted from "Table 1. Reported FY 2004 Expenditures for Endangered and Threatened Species, Not Including Land Acquisition Costs," in Federal and State Endangered and Threatened Species Expenditures: Fiscal Year 2004, U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, January 2005, http://www.fws.gov/endangered/expenditures/reports/FWS%20Endangered%20Species%202004%20Expenditures%20Report.pdf (accessed February 11, 2006) and along the entire Atlantic Coast. Major nesting locations are in the U.S. Virgin Islands and Georgia. - Loggerhead sea turtles—found in U.S. waters along the entire Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Primary nesting sites occur on the Gulf and east coast of Florida and in Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina.
- Olive ridley sea turtles—found occasionally in southwestern U.S. waters. Major nesting sites are in Mexico along the Pacific coast and in other tropical locations.
| TABLE 7.5 | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| The ten listed reptile entities with the highest expenditures under the Endangered Species Act, fiscal year 2004 | |||
| Ranking | Common name | Listing* | Expenditure |
| *E = endangered; T = threatened | |||
| SOURCE: Adapted from "Table 1. Reported FY 2004 Expenditures for Endangered and Threatened Species, Not Including Land Acquisition Costs," in Federal and State Endangered and Threatened Species Expenditures: Fiscal Year 2004, U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, January 2005, http://www.fws.gov/endangered/expenditures/reports/FWS%20Endangered%20Species%202004%20Expenditures%20Report.pdf (accessed February 11, 2006) | |||
| 1 | Loggerhead sea turtle | T | $7,474,119 |
| 2 | Leatherback sea turtle | E | $7,223,215 |
| 3 | Desert tortoise (USA, except in Sonoran Desert) | T | $5,413,663 |
| 4 | Kemps-ridley sea turtle | E | $4,295,166 |
| 5 | Hawksbill sea turtle | E | $2,949,634 |
| 6 | Green sea turtle | E | $2,502,218 |
| 7 | Olive ridley sea turtle (except where endangered) | T | $2,214,790 |
| 8 | Green sea turtle (Florida, Mexico nesting populations) | E | $2,211,504 |
| 9 | Gopher tortoise (West of Mobile/Tombigbee Rivers) | T | $2,102,100 |
| 10 | Giant garter snake | T | $1,514,823 |
THREATS TO NESTING TURTLES
Sea turtles bury their eggs in nests on sandy beaches. The building of beachfront resorts and homes has destroyed a large proportion of nesting habitat. Artificial lighting associated with coastal development also poses a problem—lights discourage females from nesting and also cause hatchlings to become disoriented and wander inland instead of out to sea. Finally, beach nourishment—the human practice of rebuilding eroded beach soil—creates unusually compacted sand on which turtles are unable to nest.
SHRIMP-NET CASUALTIES
Shrimp trawling is recognized as one of the most deadly human activities for sea turtles in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean. During the late 1970s the National Marine Fisheries Service began developing turtle excluder devices (TEDs), which allow sea turtles to escape from shrimp nets. By the early 1980s the agency had developed a TED (see Figure 7.5) estimated to exclude 97% of turtles from shrimp nets, while allowing no shrimp to escape. At that time the
FIGURE 7.4 Sea turtles that nest on U.S. coast
The chronology reports that during the early 1980s the NMFS asked for voluntary use of the devices by the shrimping industry, but this request was widely ignored. By 1986 less than 2% of the U.S. shrimp fleet was using TEDs. In 1987 federal regulations were published requiring TED usage in certain fisheries during specified seasons. The regulations were challenged in court by the states of North Carolina and Louisiana and by shrimp industry groups. Numerous lawsuits and administrative problems delayed federal enforcement of TED usage until July 20, 1989. Enforcement implementation set off a two-day revolt among Gulf Coast shrimpers. They reportedly "blockaded harbors, impeded navigation, and engaged in other forms of violence to protest against the TED regulations." On July 24, 1989, the federal government backed down, issuing a forty-five-day reprieve in TED enforcement while other options for turtle
FIGURE 7.5 A bycatch reduction device designed to protect sea turtles
On November 21, 1989, Public Law 101-162, Section 609 was enacted in the United States banning the import of shrimp from countries that use harvesting methods deemed harmful to sea turtles. The law was challenged by India, Malaysia, Pakistan, and Thailand as violating commerce agreements under the World Trade Organization (WTO). In 1998 a WTO commission found that the United States was not implementing the law consistently with all countries. In return the United States agreed to change its implementation procedures and offer technical assistance to those countries that requested it.
Each year by May 1 the U.S. Department of State issues a list of nations certified to import shrimp into the United States. Certification is based, in part, on the results of inspections conducted by the Department of State and the National Marine Fisheries Service. On April 28, 2006, the Department of State released a list of thirty-eight nations and one economy (Hong Kong) certified for shrimp imports under Section 609. Certification means that the shrimp were obtained using TEDs, from cold-water regions not populated by sea turtles, from aqua-culture (shrimp farming), or by specialized techniques that do not endanger sea turtles. Shrimp imports are allowed from non-certified countries on a shipment-by-shipment basis if the respective governments can show that the shrimp were harvested in a manner not harmful to sea turtles (http://georgetown.usembassy.gov/guyana/pr_shrimp_08may2006.html).
KEMP'S RIDLEY TURTLE
Kemp's ridley turtle is the smallest sea turtle, with individuals measuring about three feet in length and weighing less than 100 pounds. Kemp's ridley is also the most endangered of the sea turtle species. It has two major nesting sites—Rancho Nuevo, Mexico (the primary nesting location) and the Texas Gulf Coast.
The decline of the Kemp's ridley sea turtle is due primarily to human activities such as egg collecting, fishing for juveniles and adults, and killing of adults for meat or other products. In addition, the turtles have historically been subject to high levels of incidental take by shrimp trawlers. They are also affected by pollution from oil wells, and by floating debris in the Gulf of Mexico, which can choke or entangle turtles. Now under strict protection, the population appears to be in the earliest stages of recovery. In 2001 the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department (TPWD) enacted restrictions on shrimp trawling within Gulf waters near nesting sea turtle populations. In May 2006 the TPWD reported that more than two dozen Kemp's ridley nests had been found along the Texas coast, most at Padre Island National Seashore. Further, the TPWD indicated that nesting activity in Texas is increasing each year and characterized the outlook for the turtles as "mostly good" (http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/newsmedia/releases/?req=20060508e).
The Desert Tortoise
The desert tortoise (see Figure 7.6) was listed in 1990 as threatened in most of its range in the Mojave and Sonoran Deserts in California, Arizona, Nevada, and Utah. Decline of this species has resulted from collection by humans, predation of young turtles by ravens, off-road vehicles, invasive plant species, and habitat destruction due to development for agriculture, mining, and livestock grazing. Livestock grazing is particularly harmful to tortoises because it results in competition for food, as well as the trampling of young tortoises, eggs, or tortoise burrows. Invasive plant species have caused declines in the native plants that serve as food for tortoises. Off-road vehicles destroy vegetation and sometimes hit tortoises.
Desert tortoise populations are constrained by the fact that females do not reproduce until they are fifteen to twenty years of age (individuals can live eighty to 100 years), and by small clutch sizes, with only three to fourteen eggs per clutch. Juvenile mortality is also extremely high, with only 2% to 3% surviving to adulthood. About half this mortality is due to predation by ravens, whose populations in the desert tortoise's habitat have increased with increasing urbanization of desert
FLGURE 7.6 The desert tortoise is threatened due to habitat destruction, livestock grazing, invasion of nonnative plant species, collection, and predation by ravens.
Protected habitat for the desert tortoise includes areas within Joshua Tree National Park and Lake Mead National Recreation Area in Nevada and Arizona. There is also a desert tortoise research natural area on a Bureau of Land Management habitat in California. A habitat conservation plan for the area around Las Vegas requires developers to pay fees for tortoise conservation.
Snakes and Lizards
SAN FRANCISCO GARTER SNAKE
The San Francisco garter snake is one of the most endangered reptiles in the United States. It was one of the first species to be listed under the Endangered Species Act. The decline of this species can be attributed primarily to habitat loss resulting from urbanization. Most of the snake's habitat was lost when the Skyline Ponds, located along Skyline Boulevard south of San Francisco County along the San Andreas Fault, were drained in 1966 for development. In addition, the building of the San Francisco International Airport and the Bay Area Rapid Transit regional commuter network destroyed additional snake habitat. Pollution and illegal collection have also contributed to the species' decline. Most San Francisco garter snakes today inhabit areas in San Mateo County, south of San Francisco. The species lives close to streams or ponds and feeds mainly on frogs, including Pacific tree frogs, small bullfrogs, and California red-legged frogs, which are also endangered.
LAKE ERIE WATERSNAKE
The Lake Erie watersnake inhabits portions of the Ohio mainland, as well as several small islands in Lake Erie. Its population has declined due primarily to habitat loss and human persecution, among other factors. The Lake Erie watersnake is now extinct on three islands that it previously inhabited. The species was listed as threatened in 1999, and a recovery plan was completed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in September 2003.
MONITO GECKO
The endangered Monito gecko is a small lizard less than two inches long. This species exists only on the thirty-eight-acre Monito Island off the Puerto Rican coast. Endangerment of the Monito gecko has resulted from human activity and habitat destruction. After World War II the U.S. military used Monito Island as a site for bombing exercises, causing large-scale habitat destruction. The military also introduced predatory rats, which eat gecko eggs. In 1982 the FWS observed only twenty-four Monito geckos on Monito Island. In 1985 Monito Island was designated critical habitat for the species. The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico is now managing the island for the gecko and as a refuge for seabirds; unauthorized human visitation is prohibited.
ORNED LIZARDS (HORNY TOADS)
Horned lizards are native to the deserts of North America. There are fourteen species of horned lizards. All species have flat, broad torsos and spiny scales and feed largely on ants. Although all horned lizards are reptiles, they are often referred to as horny toads because they bear some resemblance to toads in size and shape.
The Texas horned lizard was once abundant in the state of Texas and was designated the official state reptile in 1992. It has declined largely as a result of pesticide pollution, the spread of invasive fire ants across the state, and habitat loss. It is protected by state law in Texas.
In addition to habitat loss, California coastal horned lizards have been negatively affected by the proliferation of tiny black and dark brown Argentine ants, which have displaced the larger native ants on which the horned lizards depend for much of their food. Because the smaller, faster Argentine ants are more difficult to catch, coastal horned lizards from the Mexican border up to Los Angeles have experienced a sharp decline, according to a 2002 study by researchers at the University of California, San Diego (http://ucsdnews.ucsd.edu/newsrel/science/mclizard.htm).
CROCODILIANS
Crocodilians play a crucial role in their habitats. They control fish populations and also dig water holes, which are important to many species in times of drought. The disappearance of alligators and crocodiles has a profound effect on the biological communities these animals occupy. There are two imperiled crocodilian species in the United States—the American alligator and the American crocodile. They are very similar in appearance with only slight differences. The crocodile has a narrower, more pointed snout and an indentation in its upper jaw that allows a tooth to be seen when its mouth is closed.
The American alligator has a unique history under the Endangered Species Act. It was on the first list of endangered species published in 1967. During the 1970s and 1980s populations of the species in many states rebounded in abundance and could have been delisted. Instead they were reclassified as threatened. This measure was taken, in part, because federal officials acknowledged a certain amount of "public hostility" toward the creatures and feared that delisting would open the populations to excessive hunting. Also, it was feared that the American alligator was so similar in appearance to the highly endangered American crocodile that delisting the alligator might lead to accidental "taking" of the crocodile species. By 1987 the alligator was considered fully recovered in the United States. As of March 2006 the
TABLE 7.6 Foreign endangered and threatened reptile species, March 2006
| TABLE 7.6 | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Foreign endangered and threatened reptile species, March 2006 | |||
| Status* | Species name | Status* | Species name |
| *E = endangered; T = threatened; T (S/A)=similarity of appearance to a threatened taxon | |||
| SOURCE: Adapted from "Foreign Listed Species Report as of 03/06/2006," in Threatened and Endangered Species System (TESS), U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, March 6, 2006, http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/servlet/gov.doi.tess_public.servlets.ForeignListing?listings=0#A (accessed March 6, 2006) | |||
| E | Alligator, Chinese (Alligator sinensis) | T | Iguana, Turks and Caicos (Cyclura carinata carinata) |
| E | Boa, Jamaican (Epicrates subflavus) | E | Iguana, Watling Island ground (Cyclura rileyi rileyi) |
| E | Boa, Round Island bolyeria (Bolyeria multocarinata) | T | Iguana, White Cay ground (Cyclura rileyi cristata) |
| E | Boa, Round Island casarea (Casarea dussumieri) | E | Lizard, Hierro giant (Gallotia simonyi simonyi) |
| E | Caiman, Apaporis River (Caiman crocodilus apaporiensis) | T | Lizard, Ibiza wall (Podarcis pityusensis) |
| E | Caiman, black (Melanosuchus niger) | E | Lizard, Maria Island ground (Cnemidophorus vanzoi) |
| E | Caiman, broad-snouted (Caiman latirostris) | E | Monitor, desert (Varanus griseus) |
| T(S/A) | Caiman, brown (Caiman crocodilus fuscus (includes Caiman crocodilus chiapasius)) | E | Monitor, Indian (= Bengal) (Varanus bengalensis) |
| E | Monitor, Komodo Island (Varanus komodoensis) | ||
| T(S/A) | Caiman, common (Caiman crocodilus crocodilus) | E | Monitor, yellow (Varanus flavescens) |
| T | Caiman, Yacare (Caiman yacare) | E | Python, Indian (Python molurus molurus) |
| E | Chuckwalla, San Esteban Island (Sauromalus varius) | T | Rattlesnake, Aruba Island (Crotalus unicolor) |
| E | Crocodile, African dwarf (Osteolaemus tetraspis tetraspis) | E | Sea turtle, olive ridley Mexican nesting population (Lepidochelys olivacea) |
| E | Crocodile, African slender-snouted (Crocodylus cataphractus) | ||
| E | Crocodile, Ceylon mugger (Crocodylus palustris kimbula) | T | Skink, Round Island (Leiolopisma telfairi) |
| E | Crocodile, Congo dwarf (Osteolaemus tetraspis osborni) | E | Snake, Maria Island (Liophus ornatus) |
| E | Crocodile, Cuban (Crocodylus rhombifer) | E | Tartaruga (Podocnemis expansa) |
| E | Crocodile, Morelet's (Crocodylus moreletii) | E | Terrapin, river (Batagur baska) |
| E | Crocodile, mugger (Crocodylus palustris palustris) | E | Tomistoma (Tomistoma schlegelii) |
| T | Crocodile, Nile (Crocodylus niloticus) | E | Tortoise, angulated (Geochelone yniphora) |
| E | Crocodile, Orinoco (Crocodylus intermedius) | E | Tortoise, Bolson (Gopherus flavomarginatus) |
| E | Crocodile, Philippine (Crocodylus novaeguineae mindorensis) | E | Tortoise, Galapagos (Geochelone nigra (=elephantopus)) |
| E | Crocodile, saltwater except Australia & Papua New Guinea (Crocodylus porosus) | E | Tortoise, Madagascar radiated (Geochelone radiata) |
| E | Tracaja (Podocnemis unifilis) | ||
| T | Crocodile, saltwater Australia (Crocodylus porosus) | E | Tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) |
| E | Crocodile, Siamese (Crocodylus siamensis) | E | Tuatara, Brother's Island (Sphenodon guntheri) |
| E | Gavial (Gavialis gangeticus) | E | Turtle, aquatic box (Terrapene coahuila) |
| E | Gecko, day (Phelsuma edwardnewtoni) | E | Turtle, black softshell (Trionyx nigricans) |
| E | Gecko, Round Island day (Phelsuma guentheri) | E | Turtle, Brazilian sideneck (Phrynops hogei) |
| T | Gecko, Serpent Island (Cyrtodactylus serpensinsula) | E | Turtle, Burmese peacock (Morenia ocellata) |
| T | Iguana, Acklins ground (Cyclura rileyi nuchalis) | E | Turtle, Cat Island (Trachemys terrapen) |
| T | Iguana, Allen's Cay (Cyclura cychlura inornata) | E | Turtle, Central American river (Dermatemys mawii) |
| T | Iguana, Andros Island ground (Cyclura cychlura cychlura) | E | Turtle, Cuatro Cienegas softshell (Trionyx ater) |
| E | Iguana, Anegada ground (Cyclura pinguis) | E | Turtle, geometric (Psammobates geometricus) |
| E | Iguana, Barrington land (Conolophus pallidus) | E | Turtle, Inagua Island (Trachemys stejnegeri malonei) |
| T | Iguana, Cayman Brac ground (Cyclura nubila caymanensis) | E | Turtle, Indian sawback (Kachuga tecta tecta) |
| T | Iguana, Cuban ground (Cyclura nubila nubila) | E | Turtle, Indian softshell (Trionyx gangeticus) |
| T | Iguana, Exuma Island (Cyclura cychlura figginsi) | E | Turtle, peacock softshell (Trionyx hurum) |
| E | Iguana, Fiji banded (Brachylophus fasciatus) | E | Turtle, short-necked or western swamp (Pseudemydura umbrina) |
| E | Iguana, Fiji crested (Brachylophus vitiensis) | E | Turtle, South American red-lined (Trachemys scripta callirostris) |
| E | Iguana, Grand Cayman ground (Cyclura nubila lewisi) | E | Turtle, spotted pond (Geoclemys hamiltonii) |
| E | Iguana, Jamaican (Cyclura collei) | E | Turtle, three-keeled Asian (Melanochelys tricarinata) |
| T | Iguana, Mayaguana (Cyclura carinata bartschi) | E | Viper, Lllar Valley (Vipera latifii) |
The American crocodile is another success story of the Endangered Species Act. When the species was originally listed as endangered in 1975, less than 300 individuals existed. Over the next three decades the species thrived and expanded its nesting range to new locations on the east and west coasts of Florida. In March 2005 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service proposed downlisting the species in Florida to threatened. At that time the agency estimated there were 500 to 1,000 American crocodiles in the state and that the population was increasing. The FWS also announced plans to conduct a five-year status review of the American crocodile.
Threatened and Endangered Foreign Reptile Species
As of March 2006 there were eighty-three foreign reptile species listed under the ESA. (See Table 7.6.) The list is dominated by squamata (lizard and snake species) with thirty-six species, followed by the turtles (twenty-three species), crocodilians (twenty-two species), and tuataras (two species).
The Word Conservation Union's 2004 Red List of Threatened Species (2004, http://www.redlist.org/) reports that 304 reptile species are threatened. This represents nearly two-thirds of the 499 reptile species evaluated, but only 4% of all described species (8,163).
LIZARDS AND TURTLES
Monitor lizards are among the largest lizard species in existence. The Komodo dragon, native to only a few islands in Indonesia, is the world's largest lizard. It reaches lengths of as much as ten feet and weighs as much as 300 pounds. Despite the fact that the Komodo dragon is protected under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) treaty, one of the greatest threats to this species is illegal trade. The price on delivery is approximately $30,000 for one Komodo dragon specimen.
Gray's monitor lizard, a species found in forested low mountain habitats of the Philippine Islands, is also prized in illegal trade. Gray's monitor is also protected under CITES Appendix I. Many turtles are highly imperiled, particularly in Asia, where they are hunted for both food and medicine.
CROCODILIANS
Illegal trade poses one of the greatest threats to crocodilians, despite CITES restrictions. Conservation efforts include enforcement of trade restrictions and habitat restoration. Captive breeding programs are also underway for several species.
The Chinese alligator is one of many species listed in CITES Appendix I. Unfortunately, this species is among those most prized by collectors, commanding a black market price of as much as $15,000. The false gavial, a crocodilian that grows to thirteen feet in length and is native to Indonesia, sells for an estimated $5,000 per specimen. Like the Chinese alligator, the false gavial is protected under CITES Appendix I.
TUATARAS
The two-foot long, lizard-like tuatara is sometimes called a living fossil, being the sole existing representative of a once diverse group, the Sphenodontia, which coexisted with dinosaurs. Tuataras are native to New Zealand and the Cook Strait. Like many other reptiles, tuataras are valued by collectors. They are protected by CITES under Appendix I.
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