Working Toward Species Conservation - Federal Lands And Wildlife Protection

The History of U.S. Land Management

In the United States' first century as a nation, the federal government owned about 80 percent of the nation's land. Beginning in 1785 the government began to survey and sell its land holdings to states, settlers, and railroad companies. By the end of the nineteenth century, the government had transferred most of its lands to private ownership. It also allowed private use of remaining federal lands. After several decades of rapid development and unrestricted use, much of the nation's lands and natural resources were significantly degraded. Responding to growing concerns, Congress slowly redefined the federal

TABLE 2.5
Endangered or threatened species with the highest reported expenditures, fiscal years 1998–2000

Species	Status	1998 Rank	1999 Rank	2000 Rank
Salmon, chinook	E, T	2, 3	1	1
Steelhead	E, T	5, 6, & 7	2	2
Salmon, coho	T	1	3	3
Salmon, chum	T	Not listed	4	5
Salmon, sockeye	E, T	4	5	4
Woodpecker, red-cockaded	E	8	6	7
Trout, bull	T	14, 152, & 187	7	8
Owl, northern spotted	T	9	8	14
Sea-lion, Steller	E, T	23	9	6
Crane, whooping	E	19	10	11
Flycatcher, southwestern willow	E	10	19	12
Sparrow, Cape Sable seaside	E	62	104	9
Manatee, West Indian	E	39	23	10
E = endangered
T = threatened
SOURCE: "Table 3. The 10 Species (Rank Shown in Bold) with the Highest Reported Expenditures for Fiscal Years 1998–2000," in Three-Year Summary of Federal and State Endangered and Threatened Species Expenditures: Fiscal Years 1998–2000, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC, November 2003

government's role in land management from temporary to permanent retention as well as active stewardship.

Half a century later, in the 1960s, increasing scientific and public concern about the declining condition of the country's natural resources led Congress to enact a number of laws to conserve both federal and nonfederal lands. These laws cover air, water, soil, plants, and animals. With increasing environmental legislation, the land management framework evolved into a complex collection of agencies, land units, and laws. Different agencies have different priorities, which are reflected in how they manage the resources under their care. The effects of these different missions are particularly evident in places where two agencies hold adjacent lands. For example, the National Park Service (Department of the Interior) oversees Yellowstone National Park, where timber harvesting is prohibited, whereas the U.S. Forest Service (Department of Agriculture) allows large areas to be clear-cut in the adjacent Targhee National Forest in Idaho.

The National Park System

The National Park System began with the establishment of Yellowstone National Park in 1872. By 2004

TABLE 2.6
Reclassified threatened and endangered species, February 2004

Current status	Species name	Status change
T	Argali (Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Tajikistan) (Ovis ammon)	06/23/1992: E→T
T	Birch, Virginia round-leaf (Betula uber)	11/16/1994: E→T
T	Bladderpod, Missouri (Lesquerella filiformis)	10/15/2003: E→T
E	Butterfly, Schaus swallowtail (Heraclides aristodemus ponceanus)	08/31/1984: T→E
T	Cactus, Siler pincushion (Pediocactus (=Echinocactus,=Utahia) sileri)	12/27/1993: E→T
T	Caiman, Yacare (Caiman yacare)	05/04/2000: E→T
E	Cavefish, Alabama (Speoplatyrhinus poulsoni)	09/28/1988: T→E
E	Chimpanzee (in the wild) (Pan troglodytes)	03/12/1990: T→E
T	Chimpanzee (captive) (Pan troglodytes)	03/12/1990: E→T
E	Chimpanzee, pygmy (Pan paniscus)	03/12/1990: T→E
T	Crocodile, Nile (Crocodylus niloticus)	09/30/1988: E→T, 09/23/1993: E→T, 06/17/1987: E→T
T	Crocodile, saltwater (Australia) (Crocodylus porosus)	06/24/1996: E→T
T	Daisy, Maguire (Erigeron maguirei)	06/19/1996: E→T
T	Darter, snail (Percina tanasi)	07/05/1984: E→T
E	Deer, Columbian white-tailed Columbia River distinct population segment (Odocoileus virginianus leucurus)	07/24/2003: E→T
T	Eagle, bald (lower 48 states) (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)	07/12/1995: E→T
T	Four-o'clock, MacFarlane's (Mirabilis macfarlanei)	03/15/1996: E→T
T	Leopard (Gabon to Kenya & southward) (Panthera pardus)	01/28/1982: E→T
T	Monarch, Tinian (old world flycatcher) (Monarcha takatsukasae)	04/06/1987: E→T
T	Pearlshell, Louisiana (Margaritifera hembeli)	09/24/1993: E→T
T	Pogonia, small whorled (Isotria medeoloides)	10/06/1994: E→T
T	Prairie dog, Utah (Cynomys parvidens)	05/29/1984: E→T
T	Salmon, chinook (fall Snake River) (Oncorhynchus (=Salmo) tshawytscha)	11/02/1994: T→E
T	Salmon, chinook (spring/summer Snake River) (Oncorhynchus (=Salmo) tshawytscha)	11/02/1994: T→E
E	Salmon, chinook (winter Sacramento River) (Oncorhynchus (=Salmo) tshawytscha)	03/23/1994: T→E
E	Sea lion, Steller (western population) (Eumetopias jubatus)	06/05/1997: T→E, 05/05/1997: T→E
T	Skullcap, large-flowered (Scutellaria montana)	01/14/2002: E→T
T	Trout, Apache (Oncorhynchus apache)	07/16/1975: E→T
T	Trout, greenback cutthroat (Oncorhynchus clarki stomias)	04/18/1978: E→T
T	Trout, Lahontan cutthroat (Oncorhynchus clarki henshawi)	07/16/1975: E→T
T	Trout, Paiute cutthroat (Oncorhynchus clarki seleniris)	07/16/1975: E→T
T	Wolf, gray, Western distinct population segment (Canis lupus)	04/01/2003: E→T
T	Wolf, gray, Eastern distinct population segment (Canis lupus)	04/01/2003: E→T, 03/09/1978: T→E
E = endangered
T = threatened
SOURCE: "Reclassified Threatened and Endangered Species as of 02/10/2004," in Threatened and Endangered Species System (TESS), U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC 2004 [Online] http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/TESSWebpageReclass [accessed February 10, 2004]

there were 384 national parks, monuments, preserves, memorials, historic sites, recreational areas, seashores, and other units that cover a total of more than 83 million acres. The National Park System has units in all U.S. states and territories with the exception of Delaware and the District of Columbia, American Samoa, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. In addition to preserving habitats that range from arctic tundra to tropical rain forest, the system protects representatives of more than half of North America's plant species and a large proportion of animal species. The map in Figure 2.4 shows the location and ranges of National Parks in the United States. The National Park Service is also responsible for encouraging public enjoyment of its natural areas. Balancing these objectives shapes the debate over how best to manage the National Parks. There were over 413 million visitations to National Parks in 2003, of which 266 million were recreational.

Working closely with the Fish and Wildlife Service, the National Park Service plays an important role in protecting and restoring threatened and endangered species. Three measures that the NPS takes to protect wildlife include:

Education of park visitors about species loss and the value of biodiversity.
Enforcement of laws related to protecting species under the Endangered Species Act.
Provision of a protected and undisturbed habitat for animals.

The National Parks have played a significant role in the return of several species, including red wolves and peregrine falcons. National Parks also contain designated critical habitat for numerous listed species. However, not all these are disclosed, in order to protect rare species from collectors, vandals, or curiosity seekers. In 2002 the Fish and Wildlife Service reported that 398 federally listed endangered species were found in National Parks. This represents nearly a third of all threatened and endangered U.S. species. Table 2.9 lists some of the types of endangered,

TABLE 2.7
Delisted species report, February 2004

Date species listed	First date delisted	Species name	Reason delisted
03/11/1967	06/04/1987	Alligator, American (Alligator mississippiensis)	Recovered
11/06/1979	10/01/2003	Barberry, Truckee (Berberis (=Mahonia) sonnei)	Taxonomic revision
02/17/1984	02/06/1996	Bidens, cuneate (Bidens cuneata)	Taxonomic revision
08/27/1984	02/23/2004	Broadbill, Guam (Myiagra freycineti)	Believed extinct
04/28/1976	08/31/1984	Butterfly, Bahama swallowtail (Heraclides andraemon bonhotei)	Act amendment
10/26/1979	06/24/1999	Cactus, Lloyd's hedgehog (Echinocereus lloydii)	Taxonomic revision
11/07/1979	09/22/1993	Cactus, spineless hedgehog (Echinocereus triglochidiatus var. inermis)	Not a listable entity
09/17/1980	08/27/2002	Cinquefoil, Robbins' (Potentilla robbinsiana)	Recovered
03/11/1967	09/02/1983	Cisco, longjaw (Coregonus alpenae)	Extinct
03/11/1967	07/24/2003	Deer, Columbian white-tailed, Douglas County distinct population segment (Odocoileus virginianus leucurus)	Recovered, threats removed
06/02/1970	09/12/1985	Dove, Palau ground (Gallicolumba canifrons)	Recovered
03/11/1967	07/25/1978	Duck, Mexican (U.S.A. only) (Anas "diazi")	Taxonomic revision
06/02/1970	08/25/1999	Falcon, American peregrine (Falco peregrinus anatum)	Recovered
06/02/1970	10/05/1994	Falcon, Arctic peregrine (Falco peregrinus tundrius)	Recovered
06/02/1970	09/12/1985	Flycatcher, Palau fantail (Rhipidura lepida)	Recovered
04/30/1980	12/04/1987	Gambusia, Amistad (Gambusia amistadensis)	Extinct
04/29/1986	06/18/1993	Globeberry, Tumamoc (Tumamoca macdougalii)	New information discovered
03/11/1967	03/20/2001	Goose, Aleutian Canada (Branta canadensis leucopareia)	Recovered
10/11/1979	11/27/1989	Hedgehog cactus, purple-spined (Echinocereus engelmannii var. purpureus)	Taxonomic revision
12/30/1974	03/09/1995	Kangaroo, eastern gray (Macropus giganteus)	Recovered
12/30/1974	03/09/1995	Kangaroo, red (Macropus rufus)	Recovered
12/30/1974	03/09/1995	Kangaroo, western gray (Macropus fuliginosus)	Recovered
06/02/1977	02/23/2004	Mallard, Mariana (Anas oustaleti)	Believed extinct
04/26/1978	09/14/1989	Milk vetch, Rydberg (Astragalus perianus)	Recovered
06/02/1970	09/12/1985	Owl, Palau (Pyroglaux podargina)	Recovered
06/14/1976	01/09/1984	Pearlymussel, Sampson's (Epioblasma sampsoni)	Extinct
06/02/1970	02/04/1985	Pelican, brown (U.S. Atlantic coast, Florida, Alabama) (Pelecanus occidentalis)	Recovered
07/13/1982	09/22/1993	Pennyroyal, Mckittrick (Hedeoma apiculatum)	New information discovered
03/11/1967	09/02/1983	Pike, blue (Stizostedion vitreum glaucum)	Extinct
10/13/1970	01/15/1982	Pupfish, Tecopa (Cyprinodon nevadensis calidae)	Extinct
09/26/1986	02/28/2000	Shrew, Dismal Swamp southeastern (Sorex longirostris fisheri)	New information discovered
03/11/1967	12/12/1990	Sparrow, dusky seaside (Ammodramus maritimus nigrescens)	Extinct
06/04/1973	10/12/1983	Sparrow, Santa Barbara song (Melospiza melodia graminea)	Extinct
11/11/1977	11/22/1983	Treefrog, pine barrens (Florida population) (Hyla andersonii)	New information discovered
09/13/1996	04/26/2000	Trout, coastal cutthroat (Umpqua River) (Oncorhynchus clarki clarki)	Taxonomic revision
06/14/1976	02/29/1984	Turtle, Indian flap-shelled (Lissemys punctata punctata)	Erroneous data
06/02/1970	06/16/1994	Whale, gray (except where listed) (Eschrichtius robustus)	Recovered
03/11/1967	04/01/2003	Wolf, gray U.S.A. (delisting of all other lower 48 states or portions of lower 48 states not otherwise included in the 3 distinct population segments). (Canis lupus)	Taxonomic revision
07/19/1990	10/07/2003	Woolly star, Hoover's (Eriastrum hooveri)	New information discovered
SOURCE: "Delisted Species Report as of 02/10/2004," in Threatened and Endangered Species System (TESS), U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC 2004 [Online] http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/TESSWebpageDelisted?listings=0 [accessed February 10, 2004]

threatened, proposed, and candidate species that are found within the National Park System. Parks that provide important habitat for disproportionately large numbers of endangered species are listed in Table 2.10. Several are in Hawaii and California, states that have a disproportionate number of listed threatened and endangered species.

The National Forests

The National Forests encompass more land than the National Park Service, including nearly 200 million acres in 155 national forests and 20 national grasslands. (See Table 2.11.) A map of the locations of U.S. National Forests is shown in Figure 2.5. In addition to forest and grassland areas, National Forest lands also include numerous lakes and ponds. National Forest land is, in general, not conserved to the same degree as National Park lands. For example, much logging occurs within these forests.

Within the Forest Service, the Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive Species Program focuses on wildlife conservation. A total of 420, or 33 percent of, listed endangered or threatened species are found on National Forest lands. In addition 35 proposed species and 257 candidate species also make use of National Forest or Grassland habitats. The Forest Service has also designated over 2,900 species as sensitive, and has developed protective measures to help keep these species from becoming endangered.

TABLE 2.8
Species proposed for status change or delisting, February 2004

Status	Proposal date	Species name
AT	03/26/1998	Bat, Mariana fruit (=Mariana flying fox) (Pteropus mariannus mariannus)
AD	07/06/1999	Eagle, bald (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)
AD	05/22/2003	Frankenia, Johnston's (Frankenia johnstonii)
AT	08/05/1993	Hawk, Hawaiian (='lo) (Buteo solitarius)
AD	02/22/1999	Monarch, Tinian (old world flycatcher) (Monarcha takatsukasae)
AT	09/22/1993	Poolfish, Pahrump (Empetrichthys latos)
AT	pending	Salamander, California tiger (Ambystoma californiense)
AT	pending	Salamander, California tiger (Ambystoma californiense)
PT(S/A)	01/09/2001	Trout, Dolly Varden (Salvelinus malma)
AD=proposed delisting
AT=proposed reclassification to threatened
PT (SA)=proposed similarity of appearance to a threatened taxon
SOURCE: "Species Proposed for Status Change or Delisting as of 02/10/2004," in Threatened and Endangered Species System, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC, 2004 [Online] http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/TESSWebpageProposedDr [accessed February 10, 2004]

The National Wildlife Refuge System

The National Wildlife Refuge System is the only network of federal lands and waters managed principally for the protection of fish and wildlife. In 1999, the total acreage in the system was well over 93 million. (See Table 2.12.) This includes 547 Wildlife Refuges; 38 Wetland Management Districts, which administer over 26,000 Waterfowl Protection Areas; and 50 Coordination Areas, which are jointly administered with a state wildlife agency. Figure 2.6 shows the distribution of units within the National Wildlife Refuge System.

The first unit of what would later become the refuge system was the Pelican Island Bird Reservation in Florida, established in 1903 to protect the dwindling populations of wading birds in Florida. Today the sixteen wildlife refuges in Alaska account for 83 percent of land in the refuge system. Yukon Delta, the largest of the Alaskan refuges, comprises 20 million acres. Approximately one-third of the total refuge acreage is wetland habitat, reflecting the importance of wetlands for wildlife survival.

Of the many species listed under the Endangered Species Act, a quarter have habitat on National Wildlife Refuges. Many other listed species use refuge lands on a temporary basis for breeding or migratory rest stops. A list of wildlife refuges established explicitly for endangered species appears, by state, along with the species of concern and the number of protected acres in Table 2.13. Lists of endangered animals and plants found within the National Wildlife Refuge System appear in Table 2.14 and Table 2.15 respectively. Virtually every species of bird in North America has been recorded in the refuge system. The wide variety of wildlife found on refuges also

TABLE 2.9
Endangered, threatened, proposed, and candidate species found in units of the National Park Service, June 1, 2001

Taxonomic group	Species
Plants	193
Invertebrates	43
Fish	40
Amphibians	4
Reptiles	19
Birds	53
Mammals	46
Total	398
SOURCE: Loyal A. Mehrhoff and Peter A. Dratch, "Table 1. Endangered, Threatened, Proposed, and Candidate Species Found in Units of the National Park Service," in "Endangered Species and the National Park Service," Endangered Species Bulletin, vol. XXVII, no. 1, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC, January/February 2002

includes over 220 mammals, 250 reptiles and amphibians, and 200 fish species.

Funding limitations constrain efforts to manage wildlife refuges. The Fish and Wildlife Service reports that the refuge system's current annual funding is less than half the amount needed to meet established objectives. The 2004 budget for the system included $291.6 million for refuge operations and $99.9 million for refuge maintenance.

America's Wild Lands under Attack

Since the passage of the Wilderness Act in 1964, 630 areas have been designated wilderness. These cover a total of more than 103 million acres. Much of the designated land is located within the National Wildlife Refuge System under the management of the Fish and Wildlife Service. Table 2.16 shows the acreage of wilderness areas within the National Wildlife Refuges and National Fish Hatcheries Systems. Unlike National Parks, which are intended for use by large numbers of visitors, wilderness areas are intended to be pristine, with limited access and no amenities. True wilderness remains, for most humans, a place to visit only rarely. Nonetheless, the number of people using wilderness areas has increased steadily. Many visitors, as well as park managers, have wearied particularly of the intrusions of civilization—in the form of cell phones, snowmobiles, and aircraft—into wilderness areas.

Many national parks and monuments are suffering as well, in part because of the high volume of visitors. More than five million people visit the Grand Canyon each year. On a busy day, 6,500 vehicles compete for 2,000 parking spaces. By 2001, Grand Canyon, Zion, and Yosemite National Parks required visitors to use mass transit.

In 1997 the Wilderness Society listed "America's 10 Most Endangered Wild Lands." These were identified FIGURE 2.4
The National Park System, 2002 based on their natural resources, national significance, and the immediate threats to their integrity. Most are wildlife reserves. Among the ten were the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (Alaska), Klamath Basin National Wildlife Refuge (Oregon/California), Snoqualmie Pass (Washington), Boundary Waters Canoe Area (Minnesota), and the Grand Staircase/Escalante National Monument (Utah). Also included were Owyhee Canyonlands (Idaho), Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge (Georgia/Florida), Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge (Arizona), the Whitney Estate in New York, and California's Mojave Desert.

OIL DRILLING IN THE ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE?

The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) is the largest National Wildlife Refuge in the United States. It harbors the greatest number of plant and animal species of any park or refuge in the arctic, including a multitude of unique species such as caribou, musk oxen, polar bears, Arctic foxes, and snow geese. Because of the harsh climate, Arctic habitats are generally characterized by short food chains and extreme vulnerability to habitat disturbance. The majority of Arctic species already live "on the edge." Consequently, the decline of even a single species is likely to have dramatic effects on the entire community.

The protected status of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge has been challenged by large oil companies and their political supporters. There has been interest in tapping the oil deposits in northern Alaska since the early 1900s. The area was first explored for oil and gas resources in the 1940s and 1950s. It was also in the 1950s, however, that people became aware of the ecological value of these lands, and a compromise was reached in which the northeastern part of the state was set aside as a wildlife range (later refuge), while drilling began—and continues—in the northwestern part of the state. Figure 2.7 shows the northern Alaskan refuge and oil drilling areas respectively. Production of oil and gas in the refuge area—the five percent of Alaska's North Slope not

TABLE 2.10
Areas in the National Park System with the largest numbers of endangered, threatened, proposed, and candidate species, June 1, 2001

National Park	Plants	Animals	Total
Haleakala National Park, Hawai' i	35	12	47
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, Hawai' i	27	15	42
Channel Islands National Park, California	15	18	33
Golden Gate National Recreation Area, California	14	15	29
Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area, California	10	13	23
Kalaupapa National Historic Park, Hawai' i	15	7	22
Natchez Trace Parkway, Mississippi	8	12	20
Everglades National Park, Florida	7	12	19
Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Tennessee	4	12	16
SOURCE: Loyal A. Mehrhoff and Peter A. Dratch, "Table 2. Areas in the National Park System with the Largest Numbers of Endangered, Threatened, Proposed, and Candidate Species," in "Endangered Species and the National Park Service," Endangered Species Bulletin, vol. XXVII, no. 1, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC, January/February 2002

already open to drilling—was also prohibited at this time unless specifically authorized by Congress.

Environmentalists argue that studies by the Fish and Wildlife Service suggest that oil drilling in the refuge will harm many Arctic species, by taking over habitat, damaging habitats through pollution, interfering with species activities directly, or increasing opportunities for invasive species such as gulls and ravens through the availability of garbage as a food source.

When Republicans took control of Congress in 1995, they passed legislation to allow for drilling in ANWR. President Clinton vetoed this bill, saying, "I want to protect this biologically rich wilderness permanently." The succeeding administration under George W. Bush has been much more supportive of drilling in the refuge. Attention is now focused particularly on the "1002 Area" within the refuge, which some environmentalists consider one of the most ecologically diverse and valuable. Among the species that would be affected if drilling is permitted are polar bears, whose preferred sites for building dens are in the 1002 Area (see Figure 2.8) and caribou, which use this area for calving—giving birth to young (see Figure 2.9).

Since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, Republican politicians have tried to emphasize the national security aspects of ANWR. They argue that America cannot be truly secure until it reduces its dependence on foreign oil, much of which comes from unstable regions of the world such as the Mideast. One enthusiastic supporter of drilling in ANWR is Walter J. Hickel, former Secretary of the Interior and twice-governor of Alaska. In an article titled, "ANWR Oil" (The American Enterprise, June 2002), Hickel states, "Over-dependence on foreign oil exposes us to energy blackmail and compromises our

TABLE 2.11
National Forest Service acreage, 2004

Area kind	National Forest Service acreage
National totals
National forests	187,860,217
Purchase units	359,351
National grasslands	3,839,167
Land utilization projects	1,876
Research and experimental areas	64,871
Other areas	295,814
National preserves	89,716
Totals	192,511,012
Western regional totals (Regions 1 through 6)
National forests	141,121,533
Purchase units	12,244
National grasslands	3,800,985
Land utilization projects	1,834
Research and experimental areas	60,598
Other areas	108,431
National preserves	89,716
Totals	145,195,341
Eastern regional totals (Regions 8 and 9)
National forests	24,757,779
Purchase units	347,107
National grasslands	38,182
Land utilization projects	42
Research and experimental areas	4,273
Other areas	187,383
Totals	25,334,766
Alaska region totals (Region 10)
National forests	21,980,905
Totals	21,980,905
SOURCE: Adapted from "Table 1—National and Regional Areas Summary," in Land Areas Report as of September 30, 2003, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Washington, DC, January 2004 [Online] http://www.fs.fed.us/land/staff/lar/LAR03/table1.htm [accessed February 10, 2004]

ability to protect our citizens and assist our friends in times of crisis. Our goal as Americans must be to produce as much energy as we can for ourselves." Hickel goes on to state his belief that "[t]he very small portion of the refuge with oil potential can be explored and drilled without damaging the environment."

In August 2001 the House of Representatives again passed a bill allowing for drilling within the refuge. However, the Senate rejected this proposal in April 2002 and the refuge continues to be protected. In 2004 the Bush administration pressed again for oil drilling in ANWR, and included a drilling plan in its proposed 2005 budget. Oil drilling within ANWR will remain a bone of contention among politicians and the American public.