The Status of Bird Species - Endangered Bird Species

In 2004 there were 273 birds on the Endangered Species List. Of these, 253 are endangered, including 78 U.S. species and 175 foreign species. In addition, twenty birds are threatened, including fourteen U.S. species and six foreign species. Threatened and endangered U.S. bird species are shown in Table 8.1. This list includes many types of birds, including sparrows, albatrosses, terns, plovers, hawks, and woodpeckers. There are also a disproportionate number of Hawaiian bird species listed. Several threatened and endangered species will be discussed below.

Migratory Songbirds

Every year, more than 120 songbird species migrate between North America and tropical areas in Central and South America. Although many are appreciated by humans for their beautiful songs and colorful plumage, migratory songbirds also play a vital role in many ecosystems. During spring migration in the Ozarks, for example, some forty to fifty migratory bird species arrive and feed on the insects that inhabit oak trees, thereby helping to control insect populations. Migratory species are particularly vulnerable because they are dependent on suitable habitat in both their winter and spring ranges. In North

TABLE 8.1
Endangered or threatened bird species, February 2004

Status	Species name	Status	Species name
E	Akepa, Hawaii (honeycreeper) (Loxops coccineus coccineus)	T	Murrelet, marbled (Brachyramphus marmoratus marmoratus)
E	Akepa, Maui (honeycreeper) (Loxops coccineus ochraceus)	E	Nightjar, Puerto Rican (Caprimulgus noctitherus)
E	Akialoa, Kauai (honeycreeper) (Hemignathus procerus)	E	Nukupu'u (honeycreeper) (Hemignathus lucidus)
E	Akiapola'au (honeycreeper) (Hemignathus munroi)	E	'O'o, Kauai (honeyeater) (Moho braccatus)
E	Albatross, short-tailed (Phoebatria [=Diomedea] albatrus)	E	'O'u (honeycreeper) (Psittirostra psittacea)
E	Blackbird, yellow-shouldered (Agelaius xanthomus)	T	Owl, Mexican spotted (Strix occidentalis lucida)
E	Bobwhite, masked (quail) (Colinus virginianus ridgwayi)	T	Owl, northern spotted (Strix occidentalis caurina)
E	Broadbill, Guam (Myiagra freycineti)	E	Palila (honeycreeper) (Loxioides bailleui)
E	Cahow (Pterodroma cahow)	E	Parrot, Puerto Rican (Amazona vittata)
T	Caracara, Audubon's crested (Polyborus plancus audubonii)	E	Parrotbill, Maui (honeycreeper) (Pseudonestor xanthophrys)
E, XN	Condor, California (Gymnogyps californianus)	E	Pelican, brown (Pelecanus occidentalis)
E	Coot, Hawaiian (Fulica americana alai)	E	Petrel, Hawaiian dark-rumped (Pterodroma phaeopygia sandwichensis)
E	Crane, Mississippi sandhill (Grus canadensis pulla)	E	Pigeon, Puerto Rican plain (Columba inornata wetmorei)
E, XN	Crane, whooping (Grus americana)	E, T	Plover, piping (Charadrius melodus)
E	Creeper, Hawaii (Oreomystis mana)	T	Plover, western snowy (Charadrius alexandrinus nivosus)
E	Creeper, Molokai (Paroreomyza flammea)	E	Po'ouli (honeycreeper) (Melamprosops phaeosoma)
E	Creeper, Oahu (Paroreomyza maculata)	E	Prairie chicken, Attwater's greater (Tympanuchus cupido attwateri)
E	Crow, Hawaiian (='alala) (Corvus hawaiiensis)	E	Pygmy owl, cactus ferruginous (Glaucidium brasilianum cactorum)
E	Crow, Mariana (=aga) (Corvus kubaryi)	E	Rail, California clapper (Rallus longirostris obsoletus)
E	Crow, white-necked (Corvus leucognaphalus)	E, XN	Rail, Guam (Rallus owstoni)
E	Curlew, Eskimo (Numenius borealis)	E	Rail, light-footed clapper (Rallus longirostris levipes)
E	Duck, Hawaiian (=koloa) (Anas wyvilliana)	E	Rail, Yuma clapper (Rallus longirostris yumanensis)
E	Duck, Laysan (Anas laysanensis)	T	Shearwater, Newell's Townsend's (Puffinus auricularis newelli)
T	Eagle, bald (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)	E	Shrike, San Clemente loggerhead (Lanius ludovicianus mearnsi)
T	Eider, spectacled (Somateria fischeri)	E	Sparrow, Cape Sable seaside (Ammodramus maritimus mirabilis)
T	Eider, Steller's (Polysticta stelleri)	E	Sparrow, Florida grasshopper (Ammodramus savannarum floridanus)
E	Elepaio, Oahu (Chasiempis sandwichensis ibidis)	T	Sparrow, San Clemente sage (Amphispiza belli clementeae)
E	Falcon, northern aplomado (Falco femoralis septentrionalis)	E	Stilt, Hawaiian (Himantopus mexicanus knudseni)
E	Finch, Laysan (honeycreeper) (Telespyza cantans)	E	Stork, wood (Mycteria americana)
E	Finch, Nihoa (honeycreeper) (Telespyza ultima)	E	Swiftlet, Mariana gray (Aerodramus vanikorensis bartschi)
E	Flycatcher, southwestern willow (Empidonax traillii extimus)	E	Tern, California least (Sterna antillarum browni)
T	Gnatcatcher, coastal California (Polioptila californica californica)	E	Tern, least (Sterna antillarum)
E	Goose, Hawaiian (Branta [=Nesochen] sandvicensis)	E, T	Tern, roseate (Sterna dougallii dougallii)
E	Hawk, Hawaiian (='lo) (Buteo solitarius)	E	Thrush, large Kauai (=kamao) (Myadestes myadestinus)
E	Hawk, Puerto Rican broad-winged (Buteo platypterus brunnescens)	E	Thrush, Molokai (Myadestes lanaiensis rutha)
E	Hawk, Puerto Rican sharp-shinned (Accipiter striatus venator)	E	Thrush, small Kauai (=puaiohi) (Myadestes palmeri)
E	Honeycreeper, crested (Palmeria dolei)	T	Towhee, Inyo California (Pipilo crissalis eremophilus)
T	Jay, Florida scrub (Aphelocoma coerulescens)	E	Vireo, black-capped (Vireo atricapilla)
E	Kingfisher, Guam Micronesian (Halcyon cinnamomina cinnamomina)	E	Vireo, least Bell's (Vireo bellii pusillus)
E	Kite, Everglade snail (Rostrhamus sociabilis plumbeus)	E	Warbler (=wood), Bachman's (Vermivora bachmanii)
E	Mallard, Mariana (Anas oustaleti)	E	Warbler (=wood), golden-cheeked (Dendroica chrysoparia)
E	Megapode, Micronesian (Megapodius laperouse)	E	Warbler (=wood), Kirtland's (Dendroica kirtlandii)
E	Millerbird, Nihoa (old world warbler) (Acrocephalus familiaris kingi)	E	Warbler, nightingale reed (old world warbler) (Acrocephalus luscinia)
T	Monarch, Tinian (old world flycatcher) (Monarcha takatsukasae)	E	White-eye, bridled (Zosterops conspicillatus conspicillatus)
E	Moorhen, Hawaiian common (Gallinula chloropus sandvicensis)	E	Woodpecker, ivory-billed (Campephilus principalis)
E	Moorhen, Mariana common (Gallinula chloropus guami)	E	Woodpecker, red-cockaded (Picoides borealis)
E = Endangered
T = Threatened
XN = Experimental population, non-essential
SOURCE: Adapted from "U.S. Listed Vertebrate Animal Species Report by Taxonomic Group as of 02/17/2004," Threatened and Endangered Species System (TESS), U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC, 2004 [Online] http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/TESSWebpageVipListed?code=V&listings=0#E [accessed February 17, 2004]

America, real estate development has eliminated many forest habitats. Migratory songbird habitats are also jeopardized in Central and South America, where farmers and ranchers have been burning and clearing tropical forests to plant crops and graze livestock. Some countries, including Belize, Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Mexico, have set up preserves for songbirds, but improved forest management is needed to save them.

The North American Breeding Bird Survey

The North American Breeding Bird Survey is a continent-wide study begun in 1966 and carried on annually ever since. Each year, more than 3,500 routes are surveyed by experienced birders. Surveys occur primarily during the month of June, which represents the peak in the songbird nesting season. The results of this survey allow scientists to document changes in the distributions and populations of bird species throughout North America. The survey is conducted by the Biological Resource Division of the United States Geological Survey. Results compiled from 1966 to 2002 indicate that:

• 61 percent of 28 grassland-breeding species surveyed are declining, whereas 11 percent are increasing
• 14 percent of 87 wetland-breeding species surveyed are declining, whereas 39 percent are increasing
• 36 percent of 87 successional-or scrub-breeding species are declining, whereas 15 percent are increasing
• 23 percent of 131 woodland-breeding species are declining, whereas 30 percent are increasing
• 47 percent of 15 urban-breeding species are declining, whereas 27 percent are increasing

Results among birds with different migratory strategies include:

• among 107 short distance migrants, 37 percent are declining whereas 26 percent are increasing
• among 137 neotropical migrants, 31 percent are declining whereas 24 percent are increasing
• among 93 permanent residents, 22 percent are declining whereas 25 percent are increasing

The Black-Capped Vireo and Golden-Cheeked Warbler

The black-capped vireo and golden-cheeked warbler are among the threatened songbirds listed with the Fish and Wildlife Service. Both species nest in central Texas and other locations in the U.S. and winter in Mexico and Central America. Both species have declined largely due to loss of habitat caused by land clearing for development. Another factor in the decline of the black-capped vireo is harm from "brood parasites"—bird species that lay their eggs in the nests of other species. In certain areas, more than half the black-capped vireo nests contain eggs of brood parasites called brown-headed cowbirds. The black-capped vireo was placed on the Endangered Species List in 1987, the golden-cheeked warbler in 1990.

Much of the critical nesting habitat for black-capped vireos and golden-cheeked warblers lies in the Hill Country of central Texas. The Texas Hill Country is characterized by diverse habitats and a high concentration of rare bird species. In the last decade, however, increased water demand by metropolitan areas has caused the local Edwards Aquifer to drop by thirty feet, resulting in a 15 to 45 percent decrease in available bird habitat. In an effort to balance development with wildlife preservation, the city of Austin, Texas invited The Nature Conservancy to formulate a plan to protect Hill Country habitats while enabling some development. The result was the Balcones Canyonlands Conservation Plan, which includes a 75,000-acre preserve in the Texas Hill Country.

Fort Hood, Texas, a heavy artillery training site for the U.S. Army, was designated essential nesting habitat for the golden-cheeked warbler and black-capped vireo in 1993. With the help of The Nature Conservancy, the Army currently manages some 66,000 acres of habitat for these species. Control of brown-headed cowbird populations has been a major part of the conservation efforts. Brown-headed cowbirds parasitize the nests of over two hundred species of songbirds, and have caused declines in many of these species. Nest parasitism rates for the black-capped vireo were as high as 90 percent before control measures were begun. They are now at less than 10 percent. In 2000, surveys at Fort Hood documented 236 male black-capped vireos and 229 vireo territories, which produced an average of 1.75 fledglings each. Many other bird species also use habitat at Fort Hood, including threatened and endangered species such as the bald eagle, peregrine falcon, and whooping crane.

The California Gnatcatcher

The California gnatcatcher is a small, gray and black songbird known for its "kitten-like" mewing call. Gnatcatchers are non-migratory, permanent residents of California coastal sage scrub communities, one of the most threatened vegetation types in the nation. Estimates of coastal scrub loss in the United States range from 70 to 90 percent of historic levels.

Fewer than 2,000 pairs of California gnatcatchers are estimated to remain in the United States. The plight of the species has emphasized the importance of preserving coastal sage scrub habitat, which supports many other distinctive species as well. The California gnatcatcher was listed as threatened across its entire range in California and Mexico in 1993.

Woodpeckers

Red-cockaded woodpeckers are named for the red patches, or cockades, of feathers found on the heads of males. This species is found in old pine forests in the southeastern United States, where family groups—consisting of a breeding male and female as well as several helpers—nest within self-dug cavities in pine trees. Tree cavities serve as nesting sites in addition to providing protection from predators. Because red-cockaded woodpeckers rarely nest in trees less than 80 years old, heavy logging has destroyed much of their former habitat. The red-cockaded woodpecker was first placed on the Endangered Species List in 1970. It is currently found in fragmented populations in the southeastern seaboard westward into Texas. The total population size is estimated at 10,000–14,000 individuals.

In March 2001 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service was forced to rescue several red-cockaded woodpeckers from habitat areas in Daniel Boone National Forest in Kentucky. Fifteen woodpeckers in six family groups were relocated to the Carolina Sandhills National Wildlife Refuge in South Carolina and the Ouachita National Forest in Arkansas. Daniel Boone National Forest had become uninhabitable for the woodpeckers after a 1999 infestation of southern pine beetles. The beetles quickly destroyed 90 percent of local woodpecker habitat despite valiant efforts by Forest Service officials and volunteers to control the insect's spread. The removal of this red-cockaded woodpecker population from Kentucky means that the species is now absent from the state.

The ivory-billed woodpecker, the largest woodpecker species, has long been thought extinct. A century ago, the species was found throughout the southeastern United States as well as in Cuba. The last confirmed sightings in the U.S. were reported in the 1970s. However, tantalizing hints that the ivory-billed woodpecker may yet survive in North America persist. Hunters occasionally report seeing it or, more often, hearing its characteristic double-rap sound deep in the Louisiana bayou. Several groups of ornithologists have devoted significant effort to relocating this species, particularly since a hunter reported seeing one on April Fool's Day in 1999. As of 2004 there have been no definitive sightings. The Cuban subspecies of the ivory-billed woodpecker was also rediscovered in 1986 after being presumed extinct. However, populations had reached such a low point by then that measures to help save the group were ineffectual.

Spotted Owls

The northern spotted owl occupies old-growth forests in the Pacific Northwest, where it nests in the cavities of trees two hundred years old or older. It does not seem afraid of humans and in fact appears to be curious about humans and human activity. Its primary prey includes the nocturnal northern flying squirrel, mice, and other rodents and reptiles. Owl pairs may forage across areas as large as 2,200 acres. There are about 2,000 breeding pairs in California, Oregon, and Washington, and another hundred pairs in British Columbia, Canada.

Northern spotted owl populations have declined primarily due to habitat loss. Most of the private lands in its range have been heavily logged, leaving only public lands, such as National Forests and National Parks, for habitat. Because logging has also been permitted in many old-growth National Forest areas, the species has lost approximately 90 percent of its original habitat. In 1990 the Fish and Wildlife Service placed the northern spotted owl on its list of threatened species. Court battles began over continued logging in National Forest habitats. In March 1991 U.S. Federal District Court Judge William Dwyer ruled in favor of the Seattle Audubon Society and against the U.S. Forest Service, declaring that the Forest Service was not meeting its obligation to "maintain viable populations." The Forest Service had argued that the Fish and Wildlife Service was responsible for the management and recovery of this species. However, Dwyer pointed out that the Forest Service had its own distinct obligations to protect species under the Endangered Species Act, and that courts had already reprimanded the Fish and Wildlife Service for failing to designate critical habitat for the northern spotted owl. In 1992 the Fish and Wildlife Service set aside 7 million acres as "critical habitat" for the species. The Northwest Forest Plan was established in 1993. This plan reduced logging in thirteen National Forests by about 85 percent in order to protect northern spotted owl habitats. However, the northern spotted owl has continued to decline by 7 to 10 percent per year—this despite the unanticipated discovery of fifty pairs of nesting adults in California's Marin County, just north of the Golden Gate Bridge.

In 1993 the Mexican spotted owl, a species native to the Southwest, was also placed on the list of threatened species. As with the northern spotted owl, the prime threat to this group is poorly managed timber harvesting. The Mexican spotted owl has a wide range, and is found in Utah, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, as well as in central Mexico. Both northern and Mexican spotted owls remained threatened in 2004.

The California Condor

California condors, whose wingspans exceed nine feet, are among the continent's most impressive birds. Ten thousand years ago, this species soared over most of North America. However, its range contracted at the end of the ice age, and eventually individuals were found only along the Pacific Coast. Like other vulture species, the California condor is a carrion eater, and feeds on the carcasses of deer, sheep, and smaller species such as rodents. Random shooting, egg collection, poisoning, and loss of habitat devastated the condor population. The species was listed as endangered in 1967.

An intense captive breeding program for the California condor was initiated in 1987. (See Figure 8.2.) The first chick hatched in 1988. In 1994, after a series of deaths in the wild in which seven condors perished in rapid succession, the eight remaining wild condors were also captured and entered into the captive breeding program. The breeding program was successful enough that California condors were released into the wild beginning in 1992. In April 2002, for the first time in eighteen years, a condor egg laid in the wild hatched in the wild. The parents of this chick had been captive-bred at the Los Angeles Zoo and the San Diego Wild Animal Park respectively and released into the wild in 1995 at the age of one. Wild condors now inhabit parts of California as well as Nevada, Utah, and Arizona, where a population was introduced in the vicinity of the Grand Canyon in 1996, providing spectacular opportunities to view the largest bird in North America.

In March 2004 the California Department of Fish and Game reported that there were a total of 215 California condors in existence, including 125 captive individuals and 90 in the wild population—20 in southern California, 24 in central California, 5 in Baja California, and 41 in Arizona. Total production in 2003 included 28 offspring in captivity and one wild fledgling.

FIGURE 8.2
Captively bred condors

The Great White Whooping Crane

Standing five feet, the whooping crane (see Figure 8.3) is North America's tallest bird and among the best known endangered species in the United States. Its name comes from its loud and distinctive call, which can be heard for miles. Each year, whooping cranes fly 2,500 miles from nesting grounds in Wood Buffalo, Canada to Aransas, south Texas for the winter before returning north in March to breed. Whooping cranes return to the same nesting site each year with the same mate. The birds were once heavily hunted, for meat as well as for their beautiful, long white feathers. In addition, the heavy loss of wetland areas in the U.S. deprived whooping cranes of much of their original habitat. In 1937 it was discovered that fewer than twenty whooping cranes were left in the wild. That same year, the Aransas Wildlife Refuge was established in south Texas to protect the species' wintering habitat. Conservation efforts for the whooping crane are coordinated with the Canadian government, which manages its breeding areas.

Captive breeding programs have helped to increase the worldwide whooping crane population. As of 2004, the International Whooping Crane Recovery Team reported that 194 whooping cranes inhabit the traditional territory, migrating from Wood Buffalo, Canada to Aransas yearly. In addition, an introduced population of captive-bred individuals has been established in the Kissimmee Prairie in Florida. This population contains 90 individuals, and has bred with success in its new habitat. A second introduced population breeds in Wisconsin on the Necedah National Wildlife Refuge and winters in Florida on the Chassahowitzka National Wildlife Refuge. This population numbered thirty-six in 2004. Introduced cranes were led to their Florida FIGURE 8.3
The whooping crane is highly endangered. Each year, whooping cranes migrate from breeding grounds in Canada to wintering grounds in south Texas. The Fish and Wildlife Service has introduced captive-bred whooping cranes to new habitats in recent years. (Field Mark Publications) wintering grounds along the migration route by ultra-light aircraft in 2001, and successfully made the return trip on their own in following years. Figure 8.4 illustrates the migration routes and locales of all three whooping crane populations. In addition to these wild populations, another 128 whooping cranes are found in captivity.

Hawaiian Honeycreepers

The Hawaiian honeycreepers are a group of songbirds endemic to Hawaii—that is, species in this group are found there and nowhere else on Earth. Hawaiian honeycreepers are believed to have radiated—formed many separate species, each adapted to a particular lifestyle—from a single species that colonized the Hawaiian Islands thousands of years ago. The honeycreepers are named for the characteristic "creeping" behavior some species exhibit as they search for nectar. The Hawaiian honeycreepers are extremely diverse in their diet—different species are seed-eaters, insect-eaters, or nectar-eaters. Species also differ in the shapes of the beaks and in plumage coloration. Hawaiian honeycreepers are found in forest habitats at high elevations. There were some fifty or sixty Hawaiian honeycreeper species originally, but a third of them are already extinct.

Twelve species of Hawaiian honeycreepers are currently listed with the Fish and Wildlife Service as endangered. Some honeycreeper species are among the most endangered animals on earth, with only a few individuals left. One of the primary factors involved in honeycreeper endangerment is loss of habitat. The Hawaiian Islands are estimated to retain a mere 20 to 30 percent of their original forest cover. In addition, the introduction of predators that hunt birds or eat their eggs, such as rats, cats, and mongooses, has contributed to the decline of numerous species. The introduction of bird diseases, particularly those spread by introduced mosquitoes, has also decimated honeycreeper populations. The success of mosquitoes in Hawaii has been dependent on another introduced species, pigs. The FIGURE 8.4
Whooping crane migration routes and nonessential experimental population area, 2002 rooting activity of pigs creates pools of water where mosquitoes lay their eggs. In fact, the greater the number of pigs in a habitat, the more bird disease will be prevalent. Finally, competition with introduced bird species for food and habitat has also been a significant cause of decline.

The Po'ouli is the most endangered Hawaiian honey-creeper and probably the most endangered bird species in the world. Along with many other endangered native species, it occupies the Hanawi Natural Reserve Area in Maui, which has been aggressively rehabilitated and cleared of invasive species. There are three Po'ouli individuals left, two females and one male. The Maui Forest Bird Recovery Project and the Fish and Wildlife Service worked together in May 2002 to mate one of the Po'ouli females with the single remaining male. Unfortunately, the attempts were unsuccessful, and in October 2003 scientists began efforts to capture the last remaining individuals in the hope that captive breeding may hold off extinction.

In August 2003, the Fish and Wildlife Service published a recovery plan for nineteen endangered Hawaiian forest birds. (See Table 8.2.) The Fish and Wildlife Service reports that ten of these species have not been definitely observed in at least a decade and may well be extinct already. Two additional species are listed as either a candidate species or a species of concern. Most of these species are native to rain forests at elevations above 4,000 feet on the islands of Hawaii (Big Island), Maui, and Kauai. Major threats to endangered forest species listed by the Fish and Wildlife Service include habitat loss and modification, other human activity, disease, and predation. Of particular importance are non-native plants which have converted native plant communities to alien ecosystems unsuitable as habitat. Alien plant species known to threaten Hawaiian forest birds as well as the urgency of the need for control are shown in Table 8.3.

South Asian Vultures

In March 2004 BirdLife International warned that South Asian vulture populations were plummeting due to the drug diclofenac, which is used to treat cattle and other livestock. The three South Asian vulture species are the

TABLE 8.2
Federally listed endangered species of Hawaiian forest birds, 2003

Species (common name, scientific name, 4-letter acronym)	Total population estimate	Federal listing date and reference; state listing date	Federal status; recovery priority number	IUCN status listing
O'ahu 'elepaio, Chasiempis sandwichensis ibidis, OAEL	1,970	18 April 2000 (USFWS 2000); 18 April 2000	Endangered; 3	Vulnerable
Kama'o (large Kaua'i thrush), Myadestes myadestinus, KAMO	Last detected in 1989	13 October 1970 (USFWS 1970, 1980, 1992); 22 March 1982	Endangered; 5	Critically endangered
Oloma'o (Moloka'i thrush), Myadestes lanaiensis rutha, OLOM	Last detected in 1988	13 October 1970 (USFWS 1970, 1980, 1992); 22 March 1982	Endangered; 5	Critically endangered
Puaiohi (small Kaua'i thrush), Myadestes palmeri, PUAI	300	11 March 1967 (USFWS 1967, 1980, 1992); 22 March 1982	Endangered; 2	Critically endangered
'Ô 'o 'a 'a (Kaua'i 'o 'o), Moho braccatus, OO	Last detected 28 Apr 1987	11 March 1967 (USFWS 1967, 1980); 22 March 1982	Endangered; 4	Extinct
'Ô 'û, Psittirostra psittacea, OU	Last detected in 1979	11 March 1967 (USFWS 1967, 1980); 22 March 1982	Endangered;4	Criticall
Palila, Loxioides bailleui, PALI	3,390 (16-year average)	11 March 1967 (USFWS 1967, 1980); 22 March 1982	Endangered; 1	Endangered
Maui parrotbill, Pseudonestor xanthophrys MAPA	500	11 March 1967 (USFWS 1967, 1980); 22 March 1982	Endangered; 1	Vulnerable
Kaua'i 'akialoa, Hemignathus procerus, KAAK	Last detected in late 1960s 1982	11 March 1967 (USFWS 1967, 1980); 22 March	Endangered; 5	Extinct
Kaua'i nuku pu'u, Hemignathus lucidus Hanapepe, KANU	Last confirmed detection in 1960s	11 March 1967 (USFWS 1967, 1970, 1980); 22 March 1982	Endangered; 5	Critically endangered
Maui nuku pu'u, Hemignathus lucidus affinis, MANU	Last detected in 1979	11 March 1967 (USFWS 1967, 1970, 1980); 22 March 1982	Endangered; 5	Critically endangered
'Akiapola'au, Hemignathus munroi, AKIP	1,163	11 March 1967 (USFWS 1967, 1980, 1992); 22 March 1982	Endangered; 2	Endangered
Hawai'i creeper, Oreomystis mana, HCRE	12,500	25 September 1975 (USFWS 1975, 1980, 1992); 22 March 1982	Endangered; 8	Endangered
O'ahu 'alauahio (O'ahu creeper), Paroreomyza maculata, OAAL	Last confirmed detection in 1985	13 October 1970 (USFWS 1970, 1980, 1992); 22 March 1982	Endangered; 5	Critically endangered
Kakawahie (Moloka'i creeper), Paroreomyza flammea, MOCR	Last detected in 1963	13 October 1970 (USFWS 1970, 1992); 22 March 1982	Endangered; 5	Extinct
Hawai'i 'akepa, Loxops coccineus coccineus, AKEP	14,000	13 October 1970 (USFWS 1970, 1992); 22 March 1982	Endangered; 8	Endangered
Maui'akepa, Loxops coccineus ochraceus, MAAK	Last confirmed detection in 1970	13 October 1970 (USFWS 1970, 1992); 22 March 1982	Endangered; 6	Endangered
'Akohekohe (crested honeycreeper), Palmeria dolei, AKOH	3,800	11 March 1967 (USFWS 1967); 22 March 1982	Endangered; 7	Vulnerable
Po'ouli, Melamprosops phaeosoma, POOU	3	25 September 1975 (USFWS 1975, 1992); 22 March 1982	Endangered; 4	Critically endangered
SOURCE: "Table 1. Federally Listed Endangered Species of Hawaiian Forest Birds Included in This Recovery Plan and the International Union for the Conservation of Nature Species Status Listing (IUCN 1994)," in Draft Revised Recovery Plan for Hawaiian Forest Birds, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 1, Portland, OR, August 2003

white-rumped vulture, the slender-billed vulture, and the Indian vulture. Populations have declined 95 percent over the course of eight years. Diclofenac causes kidney failure and other problems in vultures that feed on the carcasses of deceased livestock. The problem is particularly severe in India, where dead cattle are often left to rot because

TABLE 8.3
Alien plants known or suspected to pose a significant threat to Hawaiian forest birds, 2003

Scientific name	Common name	Hawai'i	Maui Nui	O'ahu	Kaua'i
Acacia mearnsii	black wattle	3	1		3
Acacia melanoxylon	Australian blackwood		1		3
Cinchona pubescens	Quinine		1	3
Cinnamomum burmannii	padang cassia		2
Cinnamomum camphora	camphor tree		1
Cortaderia jubata	Andean pampas grass	2	2
Cortaderia selloana		2	2
Delairea odorata	German ivy	2
Ehrharta stipoides	meadow ricegrass	2
Erigeron karvinskianus	daisy fleabane		3		1
Heliocarpus popayanensis	white moho	3	3	1
Holcus lanatus	velvetgrass, yorkshire fog	3	3
Ilex aquifolium	English or European holly	1	2
Juncus effuses	Japanese mat rush	1	3		2
Juncus planifolius	Rush	3	3
Lantana camara	lantana, lakana	3	3	1
Leptospermum scoparium	New Zealand tea tree			2
Lonicera japonica	Japanese honeysuckle	3	3		2
Melinis minutiflora	Molasses grass	3	3		3
Myrica faya	Firetree	1	2		1
Oplismenus hirtellus	basketgrass, honohono			3
Panicum maximum	Guinea grass	3	2
Paspalum conjugatum	Hilo grass, mau'u-hilo	3	3		3
Paspalum urvillei	Vasey grass	3	3		2
Pennisetum clandestinum	kikuyu grass	1
Pennisetum setaceum	fountain grass	1
Pyracantha angustifolia	firethorn, pyracantha	3	3		3
Rubus argutus	blackberry	1	1	1	1
Rubus discolor		3	2
Rubus ellipticus var. obcordatus	yellow Himalayan raspberry	1	2
Rubus niveus	hill or mysore raspberry	3	2
Rubus rosifolius	Thimbleberry	3	3	2	2
Schinus terebinthifolius	Christmas berry	2	2	1
Schizachyrium condensatum	beardgrass	3	3		2
Setaria palmifolia	palmgrass	2	2	2
Sphaeropteris cooperi	Australian tree fern	2	2	2	2
Toona ciliata	Australian red cedar		3	1
Ulex europaeus	Gorse	2	2
Genera
Eucalyptus spp. (90+ spp)	gum trees	2	1	1	3
Ficus (microcarpa, nota, platyphyllum, rubigenosa)	Figs	2	2	1
Fraxinus (uhdei, griffithi)	Ashes	1	1	3
Hedychium (coronarium, flavescens, gardnerianum)	Gingers	1	1	3	1
Psidium (cattleianum, guajava)	Guavas	1	1	1	1
Families
Melastomataceae	Melastome family	1	1	1	3
Passifloraceae	passion fruit family	1	2	2	2
Pinaceae	pine family	2	2
Proteaceae	Protea family	2	3	2
At the species level, 39 taxa of alien grasses, shrubs, vines or trees pose a significant threat to forest bird recovery habit at. At higher taxonimic levels, all known naturalized taxa from five genera and four families pose significant threats to forest bird recovery habitat. Urgency of the need for management of each taxon is represented by a code: 1 = high 2 = moderate 3 = low
SOURCE: "Table 10. List of Alien Plant Taxa Known or Suspected to Pose a Significant Threat to Forest Bird Recovery Habitat on the Main Hawaiian Islands," in Draft Revised Recovery Plan for Hawaiian Forest Birds, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 1, Portland, OR, August 2003

beef is taboo to the largely Hindu population. As many as two hundred vultures may feed on a single carcass.