Commercial Trade of Wildlife - Health Remedies And Fads

Numerous populations of both animals and plants are being depleted for medicinal purposes. The World Health Organization reports that 80 percent of the world population depends largely on animal or plant-based medicines. In addition, plant and animal derivatives are frequently used as components of modern medicines or herbal remedies.

At the top of wildlife contraband lists are aphrodisiacs and arthritis cures made from rhinoceros and tiger parts (none of which has been shown to be effective). In 1992 the Fish and Wildlife Service seized over $500,000 worth of East Asian medicines containing endangered species parts at the Port of Newark in New Jersey. According to a 1996 report from the Environmental News Network, illicit trade in medicinal substances is a booming business in Hong Kong, where there is little that money can't buy. Table 10.2 shows a list of endangered animal parts found in a single market in Golden Rock, Myanmar during a brief study in 2000. The study was conducted by TRAFFIC, a wildlife advocacy and monitoring organization sponsored jointly by the World Wildlife Fund and the World Conservation Union (IUCN). Table 10.2 also lists the reasons why these animal products are valued by locals. Most of the documented animal products at Golden Rock were from mammals, though some were derived from reptiles or birds.

Threats to African Wildlife

Numerous African species are seriously threatened by demand for medicinal ingredients. Of East African and South African wildlife alone, a total of 131 plant and animal

TABLE 10.2
Observations during survey of Golden Rock, Myanmar, April 16–17, 2000

Species		Part	Quantity	Use	Price	National law	CITES
Asiatic Black Bear	Ursus thibetanus	skins	5			P	I
		paws	29	Oil for treating aching joints	K 2000 each
		rendered fat	numerous	To improve hair condition and white skin patches	K 600/bottle
		skulls	8	Drink made from the paste to treat children's mouth diseases
				Oil for treating aching joints
		gall bladder	5		K 5000 each
Cat	Felis sp?	small skulls	numerous				I/II
Leopard	Panthera pardus	paws	20				I
		head	2
		skin	1
		penis and testes	1	Stimulate sex hormones
Leopard	Panthera pardus					TP	I
or Clouded Leopard	Neofelis nebulosa	skeleton	5			TP	I
Tiger	Panthera tigris	canines	2	To protect the home	K 2500 each	TP	I
		bone pieces	4	unknown
		horns	2
		skins	7
		head	13	Oil for treating aching joints
Common Palm Civet	Paradosurus hermaphroditus	skin	1			P	III
		stuffed	1	Ornament
Civet?		skin	4
Dolphin	Cetacea	skin with fins				?	I/II
		and fat layer	2	Oil for treating aching joints
Elephant	Elephas maximus	sole of foot	6	Paste applied to skin to cure hernias		*TP	I
		skin (pieces)	25	To cure fungal skin infections
		tail hair	numerous	Rings worn to protect against supernatural attack/to attract women
		tail	2	Hung in the home to bring business success
		leg bones	1.5	Carving material. Paste to cure piles
		bones	numerous	Carved into beads for Buddhist prayer necklaces	K 100 each
			5	Carved into figurines
		molars	22

TABLE 10.2
Observations during survey of Golden Rock, Myanmar, April 16–17, 2000

Species		Part	Quantity	Use	Price	National law	CITES
Macaque	Macaca sp.	skull	33	Oil/ornamental purposes			II
Otter	Lutra or Aonyx sp.	charred body	1	Oil for treating aching joints		TP	I/II
		head	1	Oil for treating aching joints
Pangolin	Manis sp.	skins	3	Treatment for children's diseases: scales hung on a string around a child's neck		TP	II
Porcupine	Hystrix sp.	head	1
		quills	numerous	Quills dipped in lime are used in light acupuncture (without breaking skin) on back of neck to cure headaches
Serow	Capricornis sumatraensis	heads	34	Manufacture of traditional buttons		not protected	III
		skulls	10	Oil for treating aching joints		TP	I
		legs	4	Oil for treating aching joints
Wild Pig	Sus sp.	skull	3	Oil for treating aching joints
Squirrel		tails	20	Ornament and possibly medicine
Squirrel	Callosciurus sp.	stuffed	1	Key-chains
Giant Flying Squirrel	Petaurista sp.	charred body	2	Ornament		not protected	-
Treeshrew	Tupia sp.	stuffed	3	Oil for treating aching joints		not protected	-
Giant squirrel	Ratufa sp.	stuffed	2	Ornament		P	II
Reticulated Python	Python reticulatus	skins	26	Ornament		not protected	II
Rock Python	Python molurus	skins	8	Sold to visiting middlemen for onward sale to leather factories	Approx. K 700/metre	TP	II
Python	Python sp.	meat	15	As above		P	II
				Oil for treating aching joints
Elongated Tortoise	Indotestudo elongata	shell	1	Manufacture of combs according to dealer, although this is questionable		P	II
Great Hornbill	Buceros bicornis	head	4	Ornament		TP	I
		skin	2	Ornament
		shell	1	Oil applied to white skin blotches
TP: totally protected; P: protected; SP: seasonally protected; *unless a domesticated elephant
K: Kyat (currency)
CITES: Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species
SOURCE: "Table 1. Observations during survey of Golden Rock, 16–17 April, 2000," in "Observations on Wildlife Trade at Golden Rock, Myanmar," TRAFFIC Bulletin, Vol. 19, No. 1, 2001

species required attention by conservation management organizations in 1998.

Over 100 African plant species were cited by TRAFFIC as overexploited and in need of conservation management. This included the Sudanese Aloe sinkatana, whose leaves and leaf excretions are used for treating skin disorders and diseases of the digestive system. Adansonia digi-tata, a tree, is also in decline because its fruit and bark are used in treating dysentery. The bark of the afromontane tree species, Prunus africana, is also overexploited for treatment of prostate gland diseases. Over one thousand tons of P. africana bark were exported from Kenya between 1990 and 1998. France imported four tons of P. africana extract from Madagascar. CITES initiated international trade control of this tree species in 1994.

At least 100 animal species are used in traditional medicine in eastern and southern Africa. Among the animals most threatened by medicinal trade is the African rock python, whose skin contains an agent used in the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases and back pain. The Cape pangolin, a rare species of horny "scaled" mammal, is prized by shamans who use the scales to make charms and talismans. The African wild ass is exploited for blood, meat, and fat, all of which are valued for a variety of curative powers by the Eritreans of northeastern Africa. The green turtle, found in Kenya, is illegally traded for the pharmaceutical effects of its oil and genitalia.

Traditional Chinese Medicine

Numerous Chinese medicines are made from the parts of endangered species. The true extent of this trade is unknown—however, informed sources estimate that the industry is worth several billion dollars a year. In Taiwan, for example, rhinoceros horns are twice as valuable as gold. Although no studies have ever demonstrated the medicinal value of rhinoceros horn, numerous Asians believe it has magical curative powers. Rhino populations have declined worldwide as a result of poaching for the medicinal trade.

In the United States, at least 430 different East Asian medicines containing body parts of endangered or threatened species have been documented. According to a study by the World Wildlife Fund, such products are in fact more readily available on store shelves in the United States than in China. The products seen most frequently are tiger bone-containing remedies for arthritis and other muscular ailments. In 1994 the United States passed the Rhinoceros and Tiger Conservation Act to curtail trade of these products. A 1998 amendment to the act, the Rhino and Tiger Labeling Law, closed a loophole in the original legislation by empowering the Fish and Wildlife Service to remove products from store shelves based solely on labeling claims and without forensic proof that the content included tiger or rhinoceros parts. The revised statute also established prison terms of up to six months and fines of up to $12,000 for violations. Additionally, the amendment called for the establishment of outreach programs to promote public awareness of this issue.