Who Receives Benefits? - An Overview Of Welfare Program Participation

With few exceptions, the demand for welfare assistance increased sharply in the 1990s. Nonetheless, one-third of the poor received no benefits in 2000. Several reasons explain why more than 33 percent of those living below the poverty line did not receive the assistance available to them. Some were ineligible because they had such assets as a car or a savings account that brought them above permitted limits. Others did not know they were eligible for benefits, while some knew they were eligible but chose not to accept benefits or thought the effort was not worth the amount of benefits they would receive.

How Many People Receive Benefits?

The U.S. Bureau of the Census reported that in 2001 about 70.3 million people, or 25 percent of the total U.S. population, lived in households that received some form of means-tested assistance—assistance based on earning below a certain amount. (See Table 6.1.) This number is considerably higher than the 53.2 million people, or 21 percent of the population, who received assistance in 1990.

In 2001 approximately 32.9 million people were living below the poverty level. There are various governmental measures of poverty, including poverty thresholds and poverty guidelines. The 2001 poverty guideline for a family unit of two was $11,610; for a family unit of four, the guideline was $17,650. Of those living in poverty, 22.2 million, or 67.5 percent, were receiving some form of means-tested aid. (See Table 6.2.)

About 17.7 million persons, 6.3 percent of the total populace, lived in households that received food stamps in 2001. (See Table 6.1.) Of the people who lived below the poverty level, 33.6 percent lived in households that received food stamps in 2001. (See Table 6.2.)

In 2001 Medicaid covered about 50.4 million people; about 17.9 percent of the population lived in households where at least one person was covered by Medicaid. (See Table 6.1.)

What Type of Households Receive Assistance?

Certain types of households were more likely than others to receive means-tested assistance. Poor families with children under eighteen years of age were most likely to receive government assistance. In 2001, 84.5 percent of all poor families with children under six years of age and 89 percent of poor families headed by a single mother with children under six years of age received assistance. In unrelated subfamilies (two or more people living in the same household who are related to each other but are not related to the householder), 75 percent of poor children aged six to seventeen received assistance. (See Table 6.2.)

Information on the age, gender, racial and ethnic background, and family status of welfare participants in 2001 is available from the Current Population Survey, a joint project of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics and the U.S. Bureau of the Census.

Gender of Welfare Recipients

In 2001 slightly more females (26.5 percent) than males (23.4 percent) lived in a household that received means-tested assistance, or welfare benefits of any kind. About 38.1 million females received program assistance during 2001, compared to 32.1 million males. (See Table 6.1.) Among those living below the poverty level, 12.9 million females (69.4 percent of females) received benefits during some part of the year, compared to 9.3 million males (65 percent of males). (See Table 6.2.)

One reason for the larger percentage of females receiving assistance is that women are more likely to live in a family without a spouse present. Another reason is that, as reported by numerous government and private

TABLE 6.1
Program participation status of household—poverty status of persons in 2001
(Numbers in thousands)

		In household that received means-tested assistance		In household that received means-tested assistance excl.school lunch		In household that received means-tested cash assistance		In household that received food stamps		In household in which one or more persons were covered by Medicaid		Live in public or subsidized housing
Characteristic	Total	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent
All races and
all income levels
Both sexes
Total	281,475	70,258	25.0	57,385	20.4	17,525	6.2	17,757	6.3	50,448	17.9	10,906	3.9
Under 18 years	72,021	26,994	37.5	20,425	28.4	5,401	7.5	7,852	10.9	18,712	26.0	4,049	5.6
18 to 24 years	27,312	7,373	27.0	6,479	23.7	1,814	6.6	1,918	7.0	5,783	21.2	1,243	4.6
25 to 34 years	38,670	9,847	25.5	7,960	20.6	1,958	5.1	2,465	6.4	7,044	18.2	1,423	3.7
35 to 44 years	44,284	9,620	21.7	7,282	16.4	2,188	4.9	1,991	4.5	6,469	14.6	1,166	2.6
45 to 54 years	39,545	6,241	15.8	5,438	13.8	2,172	5.5	1,466	3.7	4,689	11.9	796	2.0
55 to 59 years	14,667	2,255	15.4	2,102	14.3	1,007	6.9	483	3.3	1,783	12.2	378	2.6
60 to 64 years	11,208	1,879	16.8	1,803	16.1	872	7.8	410	3.7	1,513	13.5	336	3.0
65 years and over	33,769	6,048	17.9	5,897	17.5	2,113	6.3	1,172	3.5	4,454	13.2	1,516	4.5
65 to 74 years	18,123	3,194	17.6	3,085	17.0	1,147	6.3	678	3.7	2,464	13.6	678	3.7
75 years and over	15,647	2,854	18.2	2,812	18.0	966	6.2	494	3.2	1,991	12.7	837	5.4
Male
Total	137,558	32,145	23.4	26,023	18.9	7,802	5.7	7,492	5.4	22,952	16.7	4,344	3.2
Under 18 years	36,857	13,689	37.1	10,342	28.1	2,702	7.3	3,902	10.6	9,449	25.6	2,036	5.5
18 to 24 years	13,705	3,222	23.5	2,779	20.3	787	5.7	680	5.0	2,448	17.9	457	3.3
25 to 34 years	19,234	4,181	21.7	3,478	18.1	827	4.3	858	4.5	3,035	15.8	512	2.7
35 to 44 years	21,822	4,232	19.4	3,181	14.6	963	4.4	735	3.4	2,826	13.0	411	1.9
45 to 54 years	19,332	2,928	15.1	2,524	13.1	982	5.1	597	3.1	2,191	11.3	270	1.4
55 to 59 years	7,091	978	13.8	902	12.7	439	6.2	167	2.4	774	10.9	113	1.6
60 to 64 years	5,282	746	14.1	712	13.5	340	6.4	151	2.9	599	11.3	107	2.0
65 years and over	14,235	2,169	15.2	2,104	14.8	762	5.3	402	2.8	1,629	11.4	438	3.1
65 to 74 years	8,245	1,326	16.1	1,274	15.5	465	5.6	271	3.3	1,047	12.7	231	2.8
75 years and over	5,991	843	14.1	830	13.8	297	5.0	130	2.2	582	9.7	207	3.5
Female
Total	143,917	38,112	26.5	31,362	21.8	9,723	6.8	10,266	7.1	27,496	19.1	6,562	4.6
Under 18 years	35,164	13,305	37.8	10,083	28.7	2,699	7.7	3,950	11.2	9,262	26.3	2,013	5.7
18 to 24 years	13,607	4,151	30.5	3,699	27.2	1,027	7.6	1,238	9.1	3,335	24.5	786	5.8
25 to 34 years	19,436	5,667	29.2	4,482	23.1	1,131	5.8	1,607	8.3	4,009	20.6	910	4.7
35 to 44 years	22,461	5,388	24.0	4,101	18.3	1,225	5.5	1,256	5.6	3,643	16.2	755	3.4
45 to 54 years	20,213	3,313	16.4	2,914	14.4	1,191	5.9	869	4.3	2,498	12.4	526	2.6
55 to 59 years	7,575	1,277	16.9	1,200	15.8	567	7.5	316	4.2	1,009	13.3	265	3.5
60 to 64 years	5,926	1,133	19.1	1,091	18.4	532	9.0	259	4.4	914	15.4	229	3.9
65 years and over	19,534	3,878	19.9	3,793	19.4	1,351	6.9	770	3.9	2,825	14.5	1,078	5.5
65 to 74 years	9,878	1,868	18.9	1,810	18.3	682	6.9	407	4.1	1,417	14.3	448	4.5
75 years and over	9,656	2,011	20.8	1,982	20.5	669	6.9	363	3.8	1,409	14.6	630	6.5

TABLE 6.1
Program participation status of household—poverty status of persons in 2001
(Numbers in thousands)

		In household that received means-tested assistance		In household that received means-tested assistance excl.school lunch		In household that received means-tested cash assistance		In household that received food stamps		In household in which one or more persons were covered by Medicaid		Live in public or subsidized housing
Characteristic	Total	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent
Household relationship
Total	281,475	70,258	25.0	57,385	20.4	17,525	6.2	17,757	6.3	50,448	17.9	10,906	3.9
65 years and over	33,769	6,048	17.9	5,897	17.5	2,113	6.3	1,172	3.5	4,454	13.2	1,516	4.5
In families	233,911	60,963	26.1	48,466	20.7	14,346	6.1	15,018	6.4	43,777	18.7	7,965	3.4
Householder	74,340	16,623	22.4	13,555	18.2	4,145	5.6	4,144	5.6	12,023	16.2	2,494	3.4
Under 65 years	62,700	14,859	23.7	11,872	18.9	3,471	5.5	3,825	6.1	10,617	16.9	2,317	3.7
65 years and over	11,641	1,765	15.2	1,684	14.5	674	5.8	319	2.7	1,407	12.1	177	1.5
Related children
Under 18 years	70,950	26,435	37.3	19,951	28.1	5,299	7.5	7,682	10.8	18,281	25.8	4,004	5.6
Under 6 years	23,014	8,979	39.0	7,655	33.3	1,867	8.1	3,040	13.2	7,133	31.0	1,587	6.9
6 to 17 years	47,936	17,456	36.4	12,296	25.7	3,432	7.2	4,642	9.7	11,147	23.3	2,417	5.0
Own children 18 years
and over	21,746	5,714	26.3	4,929	22.7	1,922	8.8	1,153	5.3	4,495	20.7	571	2.6
In married-couple families	182,212	34,911	19.2	26,655	14.6	6,463	3.5	5,549	3.0	24,269	13.3	2,248	1.2
Husbands	56,755	8,476	14.9	6,723	11.8	1,725	3.0	1,309	2.3	5,968	10.5	624	1.1
Under 65 years	46,509	7,355	15.8	5,645	12.1	1,354	2.9	1,133	2.4	5,106	11.0	484	1.0
65 years and over	10,245	1,122	11.0	1,078	10.5	371	3.6	175	1.7	862	8.4	140	1.4
Wives	56,755	8,476	14.9	6,723	11.8	1,725	3.0	1,309	2.3	5,968	10.5	624	1.1
Under 65 years	48,912	7,732	15.8	6,000	12.3	1,476	3.0	1,192	2.4	5,407	11.1	530	1.1
65 years and over	7,842	745	9.5	724	9.2	248	3.2	117	1.5	561	7.2	94	1.2
Related children
Under 18 years	51,287	13,882	27.1	9,768	19.0	1,866	3.6	2,435	4.7	9,095	17.7	846	1.7
Under 6 years	17,057	4,890	28.7	3,924	23.0	633	3.7	1,012	5.9	3,664	21.5	376	2.2
6 to 17 years	34,229	8,993	26.3	5,843	17.1	1,232	3.6	1,423	4.2	5,431	15.9	470	1.4
Own children 18 years
and over	13,958	2,728	19.5	2,268	16.2	775	5.6	345	2.5	2,126	15.2	128	0.9
In families with female house-
holder, no spouse present	39,261	21,836	55.6	18,401	46.9	6,893	17.6	8,433	21.5	16,438	41.9	5,281	13.5
Householder	13,146	6,750	51.3	5,686	43.3	2,075	15.8	2,513	19.1	5,032	38.3	1,718	13.1
Under 65 years	11,529	6,150	53.3	5,122	44.4	1,792	15.5	2,394	20.8	4,525	39.2	1,668	14.5
65 years and over	1,616	600	37.1	563	34.8	282	17.5	119	7.4	507	31.4	50 3.1
Related children
Under 18 years	16,137	10,893	67.5	8,955	55.5	3,179	19.7	4,794	29.7	8,061	50.0	2,966	18.4
Under 6 years	4,764	3,430	72.0	3,146	66.0	1,121	23.5	1,808	38.0	2,920	61.3	1,146	24.1
6 to 17 years	11,374	7,464	65.6	5,808	51.1	2,057	18.1	2,986	26.3	5,141	45.2	1,820	16.0
18 years and over	6,316	2,604	41.2	2,321	36.8	1,021	16.2	700	11.1	2,053	32.5	428	6.8

TABLE 6.1
Program participation status of household—poverty status of persons in 2001
(Numbers in thousands)

		In household that received means-tested assistance		In household that received means-tested assistance excl.school lunch		In household that received means-tested cash assistance		In household that received food stamps		In household in which one or more persons were covered by Medicaid		Live in public or subsidized housing
Characteristic	Total	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent
In families with male householder
no spouse present	12,438	4,216	33.9	3,410	27.4	991	8.0	1,036	8.3	3,070	24.7	436	3.5
Householder	4,440	1,397	31.5	1,147	25.8	346	7.8	322	7.3	1,022	23.0	152	3.4
Under 65 years	4,009	1,250	31.2	1,003	25.0	285	7.1	290	7.2	889	22.2	150	3.7
65 years and over	431	147	34.1	144	33.3	61	14.1	32	7.4	134	31.0	2	0.5
Related children
Under 18 years	3,526	1,659	47.1	1,229	34.8	255	7.2	453	12.8	1,125	31.9	192	5.5
Under 6 years	1,193	660	55.3	585	49.0	113	9.4	219	18.4	550	46.1	66	5.5
6 to 17 years	2,333	1,000	42.8	644	27.6	142	6.1	233	10.0	575	24.7	127	5.4
18 years and over	1,472	382	25.9	340	23.1	127	8.6	108	7.4	316	21.5	16	1.1
In unrelated subfamilies	1,171	640	54.6	538	45.9	116	9.9	193	16.4	508	43.4	29	2.4
Under 18 years	656	377	57.5	317	48.3	69	10.5	122	18.5	299	45.6	16	2.4
Under 6 years	156	85	54.5	80	51.3	15	9.6	25	15.7	77	49.2	7	4.7
6 to 17 years	500	292	58.5	236	47.3	54	10.8	97	19.4	222	44.5	9	1.7
18 years and over	515	263	51.0	221	42.9	47	9.1	71	13.8	209	40.5	13	2.5
Unrelated individuals	46,392	8,654	18.7	8,381	18.1	3,063	6.6	2,546	5.5	6,163	13.3	2,912	6.3
Male	22,176	3,822	17.2	3,659	16.5	1,381	6.2	1,093	4.9	2,768	12.5	1,095	4.9
Under 65 years	19,212	3,124	16.3	2,962	15.4	1,128	5.9	926	4.8	2,302	12.0	809	4.2
Living alone	9,481	987	10.4	987	10.4	414	4.4	328	3.5	592	6.2	494	5.2
65 years and over	2,964	698	23.6	697	23.5	252	8.5	167	5.6	466	15.7	286	9.7
Living alone	2,569	575	22.4	575	22.4	189	7.3	132	5.1	360	14.0	270	10.5
Female	24,216	4,832	20.0	4,722	19.5	1,683	6.9	1,453	6.0	3,396	14.0	1,817	7.5
Under 65 years	15,930	2,898	18.2	2,789	17.5	1,106	6.9	1,011	6.3	2,166	13.6	917	5.8
Living alone	8,884	1,425	16.0	1,425	16.0	651	7.3	598	6.7	980	11.0	733	8.3
65 years and over	8,286	1,934	23.3	1,933	23.3	577	7.0	442	5.3	1,230	14.8	899	10.9
Living alone	7,910	1,811	22.9	1,811	22.9	515	6.5	415	5.2	1,127	14.3	888	11.2
SOURCE: "Table 3. Program Participation Status of Household—Poverty Status of Persons in 2001," in Annual Demographic Survey, March Supplement, U.S. Census Bureau, prepared in Cooperation with the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, March 2002 [Online] http://ferret.bls.census.gov/macro/032002/pov/new03_001.htm [accessed January 8, 2004]

TABLE 6.2
Program participation status of household—poverty status of persons below poverty level, 2001

		In household that received means-tested assistance		In household that received means-tested assistance excl.school lunch		In household that received means-tested cash assistance		In household that received food stamps		In household in which one or more persons were covered by Medicaid		Live in public or subsidized housing
Characteristic	Total	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent
All races
below poverty level
Both sexes
Total	32,907	22,203	67.5	19,478	59.2	7,500	22.8	11,044	33.6	17,272	52.5	5,900	17.9
Under 18 years	11,733	9,945	84.8	8,434	71.9	3,038	25.9	5,395	46.0	7,773	66.2	2,576	22.0
18 to 24 years	4,449	2,403	54.0	2,234	50.2	738	16.6	1,162	26.1	1,986	44.6	666	15.0
25 to 34 years	4,255	2,845	66.9	2,472	58.1	786	18.5	1,418	33.3	2,182	51.3	709	16.7
35 to 44 years	3,822	2,583	67.6	2,170	56.8	849	22.2	1,190	31.1	1,896	49.6	571	14.9
45 to 54 years	2,804	1,656	59.0	1,508	53.8	765	27.3	785	28.0	1,278	45.6	424	15.1
55 to 59 years	1,274	656	51.5	611	47.9	368	28.9	284	22.3	529	41.5	218	17.1
60 to 64 years	1,157	544	47.0	521	45.0	303	26.2	241	20.8	432	37.4	167	14.5
65 years and over	3,414	1,571	46.0	1,528	44.8	653	19.1	569	16.7	1,197	35.1	570	16.7
65 to 74 years	1,664	818	49.2	785	47.2	369	22.2	328	19.7	653	39.3	299	18.0
75 years and over	1,750	753	43.1	743	42.4	284	16.2	241	13.8	544	31.1	270	15.5
Male
Total	14,327	9,316	65.0	8,051	56.2	3,004	21.0	4,414	30.8	7,143	49.9	2,218	15.5
Under 18 years	5,961	5,006	84.0	4,229	70.9	1,469	24.6	2,664	44.7	3,899	65.4	1,279	21.5
18 to 24 years	1,859	874	47.0	787	42.3	258	13.9	335	18.0	672	36.1	195	10.5
25 to 34 years	1,617	902	55.7	786	48.6	235	14.5	390	24.1	677	41.9	178	11.0
35 to 44 years	1,582	938	59.3	772	48.8	288	18.2	374	23.6	661	41.8	168	10.7
45 to 54 years	1,268	693	54.7	62	49.0	306	24.2	292	23.0	523	41.2	135	10.6
55 to 59 years	524	247	47.2	228	43.5	147	28.0	88	16.9	201	38.5	62	11.9
60 to 64 years	516	211	40.9	201	39.0	109	21.2	90	17.4	166	32.1	52	10.0
65 years and over	3,414	1,571	46.0	1,528	44.8	653	19.1	569	16.7	1,197	35.1	570	16.7
65 to 74 years	1,664	818	49.2	785	47.2	369	22.2	328	19.7	653	39.3	299	18.0
75 years and over	1,750	753	43.1	743	42.4	284	16.2	241	13.8	544	31.1	270	15.5
Male
Total	14,327	9,316	65.0	8,051	56.2	3,004	21.0	4,414	30.8	7,143	49.9	2,218	15.5
Under 18 years	5,961	5,006	84.0	4,229	70.9	1,469	24.6	2,664	44.7	3,899	65.4	1,279	21.5
18 to 24 years	1,859	874	47.0	787	42.3	258	13.9	335	18.0	672	36.1	195	10.5
25 to 34 years	1,617	902	55.7	786	48.6	235	14.5	390	24.1	677	41.9	178	11.0
35 to 44 years	1,582	938	59.3	772	48.8	288	18.2	374	23.6	661	41.8	168	10.7
45 to 54 years	1,268	693	54.7	621	49.0	306	24.2	292	23.0	523	41.2	135	10.6
55 to 59 years	524	247	47.2	228	43.5	147	28.0	88	16.9	201	38.5	62	11.9
60 to 64 years	516	211	40.9	201	39.0	109	21.2	90	17.4	166	32.1	52	10.0
65 years and over	999	445	44.5	427	42.7	193	19.3	180	18.0	344	34.5	149	14.9
65 to 74 years	560	273	48.8	259	46.3	134	23.8	126	22.6	221	39.5	101	18.0
75 years and over	439	172	39.2	167	38.2	59	13.5	54	12.2	123	28.0	48	11.0

TABLE 6.2
Program participation status of household—poverty status of persons in 2001, all races, below poverty level [CONTINUED]

		In household that received means-tested assistance		In household that received means-tested assistance excl.school lunch		In household that received means-tested cash assistance		In household that received food stamps		In household in which one or more persons were covered by Medicaid		Live in public or subsidized housing
Characteristic	Total	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent
Female
Total	18,580	12,887	69.4	11,427	61.5	4,496	24.2	6,630	35.7	10,129	54.5	3,682	19.8
Under 18 years	5,772	4,940	85.6	4,205	72.9	1,569	27.2	2,731	47.3	3,874	67.1	1,297	22.5
18 to 24 years	2,590	1,529	59.0	1,447	55.9	481	18.6	827	31.9	1,314	50.7	472	18.2
25 to 34 years	2,638	1,943	73.7	1,687	63.9	552	20.9	1,028	39.0	1,505	57.1	530	20.1
35 to 44 years	2,240	1,645	73.4	1,398	62.4	561	25.0	816	36.4	1,234	55.1	403	18.0
45 to 54 years	1,536	962	62.7	887	57.8	458	29.8	493	32.1	755	49.2	289	18.8
55 to 59 years	750	409	54.5	383	51.0	221	29.4	196	26.1	327	43.6	155	20.7
60 to 64 years	640	332	51.9	320	49.9	194	30.3	151	23.5	267	41.7	116	18.1
65 years and over	2,415	1,126	46.6	1,101	45.6	460	19.1	389	16.1	853	35.3	420	17.4
65 to 74 years	1,104	545	49.4	526	47.7	235	21.3	201	18.2	432	39.1	198	18.0
75 years and over	1,311	582	44.4	575	43.9	225	17.2	187	14.3	421	32.1	222	16.9
Household relationship
Total	32,907	22,203	67.5	19,478	59.2	7,500	22.8	11,044	33.6	17,272	52.5	5,900	17.9
65 years and over	3,414	1,571	46.0	1,528	44.8	653	19.1	569	16.7	1,197	35.1	570	16.7
In families	23,215	17,812	76.7	15,203	65.5	5,568	24.0	9,181	39.5	13,872	59.8	4,414	19.0
Householder	6,813	4,894	71.8	4,258	62.5	1,576	23.1	2,514	36.9	3,850	56.5	1,336	19.6
Under 65 years	6,178	4,595	74.4	3,989	64.6	1,453	23.5	2,415	39.1	3,611	58.5	1,278	20.7
65 years and over	635	299	47.1	269	42.4	124	19.5	99	15.6	239	37.6	58	9.2
Related children
Under 18 years	11,175	9,599	85.9	8,116	72.6	2,968	26.6	5,253	47.0	7,484	67.0	2,540	22.7
Under 6 years	4,188	3,537	84.5	3,218	76.8	1,090	26.0	2,066	49.3	3,030	72.4	1,042	24.9
6 to 17 years	6,987	6,062	86.8	4,898	70.1	1,879	26.9	3,187	45.6	4,454	63.7	1,498	21.4
Own children 18 years
and over	1,468	1,054	71.8	933	63.5	421	28.7	484	33.0	835	56.9	240	16.4
In married-couple families	10,299	6,919	67.2	5,518	53.6	1,508	14.6	2,821	27.4	5,046	49.0	842	8.2
Husbands	2,760	1,584	57.4	1,295	46.9	370	13.4	641	23.2	1,167	42.3	207	7.5
Under 65 years	2,314	1,434	62.0	1,158	50.0	313	13.5	585	25.3	1,049	45.4	172	7.4
65 years and over	447	150	33.6	137	30.6	57	12.7	56	12.4	117	26.3	35	7.9
Wives	2,760	1,584	57.4	1,295	46.9	370	13.4	641	23.2	1,167	42.3	207	7.5
Under 65 years	2,429	1,498	61.7	1,213	49.9	340	14.0	607	25.0	1,096	45.1	188	7.7
65 years and over	331	85	25.8	82	24.7	31	9.2	34	10.3	71	21.4	19	5.7
Related children
Under 18 years	4,108	3,292	80.1	2,562	62.4	661	16.1	1,391	33.9	2,373	57.8	379	9.2
Under 6 years	1,567	1,224	78.1	1,055	67.3	216	13.8	560	35.7	988	63.1	153	9.7
6 to 17 years	2,541	2,068	81.4	1,506	59.3	445	17.5	831	32.7	1,385	54.5	226	8.9
Own children 18 years
and over	466	315	67.5	256	54.9	84	17.9	115	24.8	236	50.7	46	10.0
In families with female house-
holder, no spouse present	11,223	9,767	87.0	8,784	78.3	3,746	33.4	5,890	52.5	8,002	71.3	3,397	30.3
Householder	3,470	2,944	84.8	2,657	76.6	1,094	31.5	1,733	49.9	2,406	69.3	1,067	30.8
Under 65 years	3,257	2,799	85.9	2,528	77.6	1,027	31.5	1,697	52.1	2,288	70.3	1,041	32.0
65 years and over	213	145	68.0	128	60.3	67	31.7	36	16.7	118	55.3	26	12.2

TABLE 6.2
Program participation status of household—poverty status of persons in 2001, all races, below poverty level, [CONTINUED]

		In household that received means-tested assistance		In household that received means-tested assistance excl.school lunch		In household that received means-tested cash assistance		In household that received food stamps		In household in which one or more persons were covered by Medicaid		Live in public or subsidized housing
Characteristic	Total	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent
Related children
Under 18 years	6,341	5,740	90.5	5,123	80.8	2,173	34.3	3,613	57.0	4,712	74.3	2,060	32.5
Under 6 years	2,329	2,074	89.0	1,954	83.9	813	34.9	1,386	59.5	1,843	79.1	856	36.7
6 to 17 years	4,012	3,666	91.4	3,169	79.0	1,361	33.9	2,227	55.5	2,869	71.5	1,204	30.0
18 years and over	876	663	75.7	606	69.2	302	34.5	322	36.8	531	60.6	186	21.2
In families with male householder
no spouse present	1,693	1,126	66.5	901	53.2	313	18.5	470	27.8	824	48.7	176	10.4
Householder	583	367	62.9	306	52.5	112	19.2	141	24.1	278	47.6	62	10.6
Under 65 years	551	349	63.2	290	52.5	108	19.6	133	24.1	263	47.7	61	11.0
65 years and over	32	18	(B)	17	(B)	4	(B)	8	(B)	15	(B)	1	(B)
Related children
Under 18 years	726	567	78.2	431	59.4	134	18.4	249	34.4	399	55.0	101	13.9
Under 6 years	291	239	82.2	208	71.6	61	20.9	120	41.2	199	68.3	33	11.4
6 to 17 years	435	328	75.6	223	51.2	73	16.8	129	29.7	200	46.1	68	15.6
18 years and over	126	76	60.5	71	56.2	35	28.0	47	37.1	67	53.5	8	6.2
In unrelated subfamilies	466	340	73.0	312	66.9	72	15.4	152	32.7	295	63.4	20	4.3
Under 18 years	292	214	73.3	196	67.2	47	16.0	100	34.2	186	63.8	12	4.1
Under 6 years	73	50	(B)	48	(B)	10	(B)	17	(B)	47	(B)	7	(B)
6 to 17 years	219	164	75.0	148	67.5	36	16.6	83	37.9	139	63.7	5	2.1
18 years and over	174	126	72.5	115	66.4	25	14.3	53	30.3	109	62.8	8	4.7
Unrelated individuals	9,226	4,051	43.9	3,964	43.0	1,861	20.2	1,710	18.5	3,105	33.7	1,466	15.9
Male	3,833	1,541	40.2	1,503	39.2	728	19.0	645	16.8	1,176	30.7	502	13.1
Under 65 years	3,365	1,292	38.4	1,253	37.2	602	17.9	535	15.9	987	29.3	393	11.7
Living alone	1,301	526	40.4	526	40.4	277	21.3	246	18.9	363	27.9	267	20.6
65 years and over	469	250	53.3	250	53.3	126	27.0	110	23.4	189	40.4	109	23.3
Living alone	388	216	55.6	216	55.6	104	26.7	97	25.0	158	40.6	100	25.8
Female	5,393	2,510	46.5	2,461	45.6	1,133	21.0	1,065	19.8	1,929	35.8	964	17.9
Under 65 years	3,639	1,691	46.5	1,642	45.1	791	21.7	771	21.2	1,330	36.5	596	16.4
Living alone	1,593	867	54.4	867	54.4	491	30.8	475	29.8	661	41.5	479	30.1
65 years and over	1,753	819	46.7	819	46.7	342	19.5	294	16.8	599	34.2	369	21.0
Living alone	1,627	760	46.7	760	46.7	314	19.3	284	17.4	552	33.9	361	22.2
SOURCE: "Program Participation Status of Household—Poverty Status of Persons in 2001, All Races, below Poverty Level," in Annual Demographic Survey, U.S. Census Bureau, March 2002 [Online] http://ferret.bls.census.gov/macro/032002/pov/new03_002.htm [accessed January 8, 2004]

TABLE 6.3
Length of participation in means-tested assistance programs, 1996–99
(In months)

	Any Means-tested programs1		AFDC/GA		Supplemental Security Income		Food stamps		Medicaid		Housing assistance2
Characteristic	Median	Standard error	Median	Standard error	Median	Standard error	Median	Standard error	Median	Standard error	Median	Standard error
All recipients3	7.0	0.1	5.6	0.6	11.2	0.4	5.9	0.4	7.5	0.1	(X)	(X)
Race and Hispanic origin
White	6.2	0.6	5.4	0.7	8.0	0.2	5.2	0.4	7.4	0.1	(X)	(X)
Not of Hispanic origin4	5.5	0.5	5.2	0.6	7.9	0.3	4.8	0.4	7.3	0.1	(X)	(X)
Black	7.4	0.2	6.3	2.1	11.3	0.6	7.4	0.2	7.6	0.2	(X)	(X)
Hispanic origin	7.4	0.2	7.1	0.4	11.9	1.1	7.0	0.2	7.7	0.2	(X)	(X)
Not of Hispanic origin	6.6	0.7	5.3	0.6	11.1	0.5	5.8	0.4	7.4	0.1	(X)	(X)
Age5
Under 18 years	7.6	0.2	5.7	0.8	7.8	0.7	7.2	0.2	7.8	0.1	(X)	(X)
18 to 64 years	5.9	0.4	5.4	0.8	7.9	0.2	4.9	0.3	7.5	0.1	(X)	(X)
65 years and over	3.9	0.0	(B)	(B)	19.7	0.9	8.0	0.3	3.9	0.0	(X)	(X)
Sex
Men	5.7	0.7	5.0	0.8	12.5	14.1	5.2	0.5	7.4	0.1	(X)	(X)
Women	7.2	0.1	5.8	0.7	7.9	0.2	7.0	0.2	7.5	0.1	(X)	(X)
Educational attainment (people 18
years and over)
Less than 4 years of high school	7.3	0.2	7.1	0.2	15.4	0.6	7.3	0.2	7.6	0.1	(X)	(X)
High school graduate, no college	5.9	0.6	5.6	1.1	11.2	0.8	4.9	0.6	7.4	0.1	(X)	(X)
1 or more years of college	3.9	0.0	3.8	0.2	7.2	0.3	3.9	0.1	4.5	0.9	(X)	(X)
Disability status (people 15 to 64 years old)
With a work disability	8.1	1.8	7.3	0.3	15.0	0.7	7.9	0.3	11.1	0.4	(X)	(X)
With no work disability	4.9	0.5	4.5	0.8	3.9	0.1	4.0	0.4	7.1	0.1	(X)	(X)
Residence
Metropolitan	7.0	0.1	6.5	1.2	11.1	0.5	6.5	0.8	7.4	0.1	(X)	(X)
Central city	7.3	0.2	7.1	0.2	11.6	0.7	7.1	0.2	7.6	0.1	(X)	(X)
Noncentral city	5.8	0.8	5.3	1.1	7.8	0.3	5.6	0.6	7.3	0.1	(X)	(X)
Nonmetropolitan	7.0	0.2	3.9	0.1	11.6	0.7	5.3	0.6	7.6	0.2	(X)	(X)
Region
Northeast	7.1	0.2	7.3	0.4	11.7	1.4	7.3	0.2	7.7	0.2	(X)	(X)
Midwest	5.1	0.8	4.7	1.0	7.6	0.4	4.4	0.5	7.2	0.2	(X)	(X)
South	7.0	0.1	5.6	1.0	11.6	0.5	7.0	1.0	7.4	0.1	(X)	(X)
West	7.3	0.2	5.2	1.9	12.7	11.1	5.3	1.0	7.7	0.2	(X)	(X)
Family status
In families	7.0	0.1	5.5	0.6	7.9	0.2	5.9	0.4	7.5	0.1	(X)	(X)
In married-couple families	5.7	0.5	4.0	0.1	7.9	0.3	4.8	0.4	7.2	0.1	(X)	(X)
In families with a female house-
holder, no spouse present	7.6	0.2	7.1	0.2	7.8	0.3	7.3	0.2	8.0	0.1	(X)	(X)
In families with a male householder,
no spouse present	7.2	0.4	4.0	0.3	11.2	1.3	5.7	2.1	7.6	0.5	(X)	(X)
Unrelated individuals	7.0	0.2	6.6	2.4	35.1	1.0	6.8	1.7	7.4	0.2	(X)	(X)
Employment and labor force
status (people 18 years and over)
Employed full-time	3.9	0.0	3.6	0.1	7.0	0.3	3.7	0.1	4.3	1.2	(X)	(X)
Employed part-time	4.7	0.8	4.4	1.1	4.0	0.1	4.0	0.1	7.0	0.2	(X)	(X)
Unemployed	5.4	1.1	4.2	2.5	(B)	(B)	5.2	0.9	7.1	0.4	(X)	(X)
Not in labor force	7.3	0.1	7.2	0.2	15.2	0.4	7.7	0.2	7.5	0.1	(X)	(X)

studies, women, on average, earn approximately 76 percent of what men earn (2001 figure). Age may also play a role in the higher number of women in poverty; there are far more elderly women then men.

Racial and Ethnic Characteristics of Welfare Recipients

The U.S. Census Bureau reported that in 2000, 15.2 percent of white non-Hispanics, 44 percent of African-Americans, and 48.5 percent of persons of Hispanic origin (persons of Hispanic origin can be of any race) lived in households receiving some form of means-tested assistance. Among those with incomes below the poverty line, 53.1 percent of white non-Hispanics, 80.8 percent of African-Americans, and 77.9 percent of Hispanics received benefits.

Age of Welfare Recipients

More than one-third (37.5 percent) of children under eighteen years old received assistance at some time during 2001. Approximately one out of six people aged sixty-five or over (17.9 percent) received assistance. (See Table 6.1.)

Family Relationships of Welfare Recipients

Only 19.2 percent of those living in families headed by married couples received assistance in 2001. By contrast,

TABLE 6.3
Length of participation in means-tested assistance programs, 1996–99
(In months)

	Any Means-tested programs1		AFDC/GA		Supplemental Security Income		Food stamps		Medicaid		Housing assistance2
Characteristic	Median	Standard error	Median	Standard error	Median	Standard error	Median	Standard error	Median	Standard error	Median	Standard error
Family income-to-poverty ratio
Under 1.00	8.0	0.1	7.1	0.2	19.3	0.6	7.7	0.1	8.5	0.8	(X)	(X)
1.00 and over	4.6	0.6	3.9	0.1	7.7	0.2	4.0	0.1	7.1	0.1	(X)	(X)
B The sample size is too small for analysis.
X Not applicable.
1Major means-tested programs include Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), General Assistance (GA), Supplemental Security Income (SSI), food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance.
2Median duration cannot be computed when more than half of the spells are continuing in the last month of data collection. (This situation is especially likely to occur for elderly recipients whose incomes from other sources are unlikely to rise over time.)
3Median duration for each program is derived only for those who begin participating in each program at the start of the survey, while those who are already in the program at the start of the survey (i.e., the left-censored cases) are excluded from the analysis.
4Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.
5Age, educational attainment, and other variables are measured at the time the spells begin, except that, for those who are already on programs at the start of the survey, these characteristics are measured at the first interview.
SOURCE: Gordon H. Lester and Jan Tin, "Table A-7. Median Duration of Program Participation by Program: 1996–1999," in Dynamics of Economic Well-Being: Program Participation, 1996–1999: Who Gets Assistance? U.S. Census Bureau, January 2004 [Online] http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/p70-94.pdf [accessed January 27, 2004]

55.6 percent of individuals in female-headed families with no spouse present received benefits. The highest rate of assistance was provided to families headed by women with children under the age of six (72 percent). (See Table 6.1.)