BUGURUSLAN, a town of European Russia in the government of Samara, situated at the junction of the rivers Kinell and Tarkhanka, 177 miles E.N.E. of Samara, in 53? 39' N. lat. and 52? 25' E. long.
BUHLE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB (1763-1821), distinguished as a scholar and an historian of philosophy, was born at Brunswick, and graduated at the university of Gottingen, where he obtained a chair at a very early age. Thence lie was called to the professorship of ancient languages at Moscow. After his return to Brunswick he was appointed to the chair of natural law, which lie held till his death in 1821.…
BUITENZORG, the capital of an assistant-residency in the island of Java, is situated in 6? 37' S. lat. and 106? 52' of the old castle, which was founded in 1744 by Baron van Imhof, enlarged by Daendels in 1809, restored by Van der Capellen in 1819, and destroyed by an earthquake in 1834.
BUKOWINA., a duchy and crown-land of the Austrian empire, bounded on the N. and N.W. by Galicia, W. by Hungary and Transylvania, S. by Moldavia, and E. by Moldavia and Russia. It has an area of 4036 English square miles, and the population in 1869 amounted to 511,964, of whom 255,919 were males and 256,045 females. The country, especially in its southern parts, is largely occupied by offshoots of …
BULACAN, the chief town of a province of the same name in the Philippine island of Luzon, situated on an arm of the Pampanga delta, about 15 miles N. of Manila.
BULANDSHAHR, a district of British India, in the Meerut division, under the jurisdiction of the Lieutenant- Governor of the N.W. Provinces; lies between 28? 3' and 28? 43' N. lat., and 77? 28' and 78? 32' E. long. It is bounded on the N. by the district of Meerut; on the E. by the districts of Moradabad and Budaun ; on the S. by the district of Aligarh ; and on the W. by the districts of GArgaon a…
BULGARIA, otherwise known as the vilayet Tuna or province of the Danube (though the two do not absolutely coincide), is a political division of European Turkey, which stretches along the right bank of the Danube from the influx of the Tirnok to its mouth, and is bounded on the south by the main chain of the Balkan, which separates it from Rumelia. On the east it is washed by the Black Sea, and on …
BULGARIN, TIIADDA (1789-1859), a distinguished Russian writer, was born in Lithuania. His father was au officer under Kosciusko in the last disastrous Polish campaign. By some influence of friends Thaddiius was entered at the college for military cadets at St Petersburg, and afterwards received a commission in the Russian army, with which he served against Napoleon and in Finland. He then left the…
BULGARUS, the most celebrated of the famous "Four Doctors" of the law school of Bologna. He is sometimes erroneously called Bulgarinus, which was properly the name of a jurist of the 15th century. Bulgarus was a native of Bologna, and was regarded as the Chrysostom of the Gloss-writers, being frequently designated by the title of the " Golden Mouth " los aureum). The time of his birth is not known…
BULL A (literally a bubble) was the term used by the Romans for any boss or stud, such as those on doors, sword-belts, shields, Jic.
BULLFINCH (Pyrrltula vulgaris), a species of conirostral bird belonging to the family Fringillidw, of a bluish-grey and black colour above, and generally of a bright tile-red beneath, the female differing only in having its colours somewhat duller than the male. It is a shy bird, not associating with other species, and frequents well-wooded districts, being very rarely seen on moors or other waste…
BULL, GEORGE (1634-1710), bishop of St David's, was born at Wells, and educated at Tiverton school, Devonshire. He entered Exeter College, Oxford, but had to leave in consequence of his refusal to take the oath of allegiance to the Commonwealth. He was ordained privately by Bishop Skinner in 1655. The first benefice he enjoyed was that of St George's near Bristol, from which he rose successively t…
BULLINGER, HEINRICH (1504-1575), an eminent Reformer, was born at Bremgarten, near Zurich.
BULLION is a term applied to the gold and silver of the mines brought to a standard of purity. The term is of commercial origin, and has reference to the precious metals as a medium of exchange. It followed from this office of gold and silver that they should approximate in all nations to a common degree of fineness; and though this is not uniform even in coins, yet the proportion of alloy in silv…
BULL, JOHN, a distinguished English composer and organist, was born in Somersetshire about 1563. In 1591 he was appointed organist in the Queen's chapel in succession to Blitheman, from whom he had received his musical education ; in 1592 he received his degree of doctor of music at Cambridge University ; and in 1596 he was made music professor at Gresham College, London. As he was unable to lectu…
BULLS AND BRIEFS, PAPAL, are the two kinds of authoritative letters issued by the popes in their official capacity as head of the church, the bulls being the more important. They are distinguished from each other by several marks. A bull is written on thick polished parchment, commonly in angular Gothic characters, and in Latin ; it is always open ; it commonly begins with the name of the Pope, bu…
BUNDELKHAND, an extensive tract, consisting partly of British districts and partly of native states, in the North-Western Provinces of India, lying between 23? 52' and 26? 26' N. lat., and 77? 53' and 81? 39' E. long. It is bounded on the N. by the Jumna, on the E. by the Thighalkhand or the Rewii. state, on the S. by the Central Provinces, and the W. by the state of Gwalior. It comprises the Brit…
BUNDI, a Rajput state of India, under the political superintendence of the Government of India through its agent in Rajputana, situated between 24? 58' and 25? 55' N. lat., and 75? 23' and 76? 36' E. long. It is bounded on the N. by the native states of Jaipur and Tonk ; on the E. by the state of Kotal; on the S. by Sindliia's territories and on the W. by the state of Udaipur. Many parts o, the st…
BUNKER HILL, a small elevation, 110 feet high, in the town of Charlestown, 1 mile N. of Boston, in Massachusetts.
BUNSEN, CHRISTIAN CHARLES JOSIAS, BARON VON (1791-1860), was born 25th August 1791, at Corbach, an old town in Waldeck, one of the the smallest of German principalities. He was of honourable but humble origin. His father, to eke out the scanty subsistence provided by his few acres of land, had entered a regiment "granted" to Holland by the prince, Without promotion or encouragement, he attended co…
BUNTING, a word of uncertain origin, properly the common English name of the bird called by Liunams Eniberiza miliaria, but now used in a general sense for all members of the family Emberizidce, which are closely allied to the Finches (Fringillidce), though, in Professor Parker's opinion, to be easily distinguished therefrom - the Emberizidce possessing what none of the Fringillidce do, an additio…
BUNTING, JABEZ, D.D., a distinguished Wesleyan minister, who exerted an influence in his denomination second only to that of John Wesley himself, was born at Manchester 13th May 1779, and died on the 16th June 1858. He was educated at the grammar school of his native town. At the age of nineteen he began to preach, and a year later (1799) lie became a member of the Conference. He continued in the …
BUNYAN, JOHN (1628-1688), the most popular religious writer in the English language, was born at Elstow, about a mile from Bedford, in the year 1628. He may be said to have been born a tinker. The tinkers then formed a hereditary caste, which was held in no high estimation. They were generally vagrants and pilferers, and were often confounded with the gipsies, whom in truth they nearly resembled. …
BUNZLAU (1.), the chief town of a circle in the government of Liegnitz in Prussian Silesia, ou the right bank of the Bober, about 27 miles from the city of Liegnitz by the Berlin and Breslau Railway, which crosses the river by a noble viaduct. The older part of the town is still surrounded with fortifications. Its public institutions comprise a gymnasium, a normal college, an orphan asylum, and th…
BUNZLAU (2.), the chief town of a circle in Bohemia, on the left bank of the Iser, in 50? 25' N. lat. and 14? 54' E. long.
BUONAFEDE, APPIANO (1716-1793), an Italian writer on philosophy and social economy, was born at Comachio, in Ferrara, in 1716.
BUOY, a floating body used as a means of denoting any desired spot in a river, channel, or other place frequented by shipping. Buoys are made of various shapes and material, such as a small log of wood 6 or 8 inches diameter and about twice that length, an ordinary cask, or a special structure either of iron or wood, varying in strength, shape, and size according to the duty it is required to perf…
BUPALUS AND ATHENIS, Greek sculptors, about 540 B.C., lived in the island of Chios, which at that time had a school of sculptors who had acquired some celebrity by their works in marble, which material they had introduced as a substitute for the bronze and wood previously employed for sculpture. Bupalus was the more celebrated of the two brothers. Their father was Archermus, also a sculptor ; and …
BUPHONIA, called also DIIPOLIA, a religious festival held on the 14th of the month Skirophorion (July) at Athens, when the very ancient ceremony was gone through of sacrificing an ox to Zeus, under the following circumstances. - The ox was driven forward to the altar, on which grain was spread, by members of the family of the Kentriacke, on whom this duty devolved hereditarily (K6/Tpov, front which the name is derived, means a goad).
BURCKHARDT, JOHN LUDWIG (1784-1817), a celebrated Swiss traveller, was born at Kirchgarten, near Lausanne, November 24, 1784. After studying at Leipsic and Gottingen he visited England in the summer of 1806, carrying a letter of introduction from the celebrated Blumenbach to Sir Joseph Banks, who, with the other members of the African Association, accepted his offer to explore the interior of Afri…
BURDER, GEORGE, one of the founders of the London Missionary Society, was born in London, June 5, 1752, and died there May 29, 1832.
BURDETT, SIR FRANCIS (1770-1844), Baronet, was born on the 25th of January 1770. The rudiments of his education he received at Westminster school, whence he removed in due time to Oxford. He did not wait to graduate at that university, but in 1790 set out on a Continental tour, in the course of which he became strongly imbued with the revolutionary principles then dominant in France and other coun…
BURG, a town of Prussian Saxony, on the River Ihle, and on the railway from Berlin to Magdeburg, 14 miles N.E. of the latter.
BURGAGE is a form of tenure, both in England and Scotland, applicable to .the property connected with the old municipal corporations and their privileges. The term is of less practical importance in the English than in the Scottish system, where it still holds an important place in the practice of conveyancing, real property being there generally divided into feudal-holding and burgage-holding. It…
BURGDORF (in French, BERTHOUD)' a town in the Swiss canton of Bern, on the River Emine, about 14 miles by railway from the chief city. It is situated 1840 feet above the level of the sea, and consists of an upper and lower part, which are connected by a spiral arrangement of streets. Its houses are substantially built, and it has an ancient castle, a town-house, a hospital, an orphanage, and a pub…
BURGER, GOTTFRIED AUGUST (1748-1791), a celebrated German poet, was born on the 1st of January 1748 at Wolmerswende, a village in the principality of Halberstadt, where his father was Lutheran minister. In his childhood he showed little inclination to study ; the Bible was the only book which had any attraction for him, and his first attempts in versification were imitations of the Psalms. It is t…
BURGERSDYK, or BURCERSDICIUS, FRANCIS, a celebrated Dutch logician, was born at Lier, near Delft, in 1500, and died at Leyden in 1629, in the thirty-ninth year of his age.
BURGESS, DANIEL (1645-1712), a learned and witty dissenting divine of the 17th century. born at Staines, in Middlesex, of which parish his father was minister. He was educated at Westminster school, and in 1660 was sent to Magdalen Hall, Oxford, but not beino. able conscientiously to subscribe the necessary formull, he quitted that university without taking his degree. In 1667, after taking orders…
BURGESS, THE RIGHT REV. THOMAS (1756-1837), bishop of Salisbury, was born at Odiham, in Hampshire. He was educated at Winchester, and in 1775 he removed to Oxford, where he gained a scholarship at Corpus Christi College. Before graduating, he edited a reprint of Burton's Pentctlogia. In 1781 he brought out an edition of Dawes's Miscellanea Critica, with numerous annotations, a work so favourably r…
BURGKMAIR, lays or JOHN, a celebrated engraver on wood, believed to have been a pupil of A.
BURGLARY, Or NOCTURNAL HOUSE-BREAKING (Intrgi latroeinium), which by the ancient English law was called hamesucken (a word also used in the law of Scotland, but in a somewhat different sense), has always been looked upon as a very heinous offence. The definition of a burglar, as given by Sir Edward Coke, is "he that by night breaketh and entereth in a mansion-house with intent to commit a felony."…
BURGOYNE, JemIN, an English general in the American War of Independence, was born about 1730, and died in 1792. He is generally supposed to have been a natural son of Lord Bingley, but according to his latest biographer this is not the case. He entered the army when young, and made a runaway marriage with a daughter of the earl of Derby. In 1761 he sat in parliament for Midhurst, and in the follow…
BURGOYNE, SIR JOHN Fox, son of the preceding, was born in 1782, and died October 7, 1871.
BURGUNDIO, an illustrious jurist of the university of Pisa, sometimes erroneously styled Burgundius.
BURGUNDY (French, Bourgogne) has at various periods been the name of different political and geographical areas. The Burgundians (Burgundi or Burgundiones) seem to have been a people of German race, who are first found settled between the Oder and the Vistula. At an early period they came into conflict with the Alemanni, whom they defeated ; and in the beginning of the 5th century they crossed int…
BURHANPUR, a town of British India in the Nimar district of the Central Provinces, situated on the north bank of the River Tapti, in 21? 81' N. lat. and 76? 20' E. long., at a distance of 280 miles N.E. of Bombay, and 2 miles from the Great Indian Peninsula Railway station of Lalbagh. It was founded in 1400 A.D. by a "Mahometan prince of the Farukhi dynasty of Khandesh, whose successors held it fo…
BURIAL ANT) BURIAL ACTS. The practice of burying in churches or churchyards is said to have been connected with the custom of praying for the dead, and it would appear that the earlier practice was burying in the church itself. " In England, about the year 750, spaces of ground adjoining the churches were carefully enclosed and solemnly consecrated and appropriated to the burial of those who had b…
BURIATS, a Mongolian race, who dwell in the vicinity of the Baikal Lake, for the most part in the government of Irkutsk and the Trans-Baikal territory. They are divided into various tribes or clans, which generally take their names from the locality they frequent. These tribes are subdivided according to kinship. In 1857 the Buriats numbered 190,000, about two-thirds of whom were in the Trans-Baik…
BURID AN, JEAN, a celebrated philosopher who flourished in the 14th century, was born at Bethune in Artois, but in what year is not known. He studied at Paris under William of Occam, and became an ardent nominalist. The legend which represents him as having been involved, when a student, in the terrible drama of the Tour de Neslo has no discoverable historical basis. He long held the office of pro…
BURKE, EDMUND, one of the greatest names in the history of political literature. There have been many more important statesmen, for he was never tried in a position of supreme responsibility. There have been many more effective orators, for lack of imaginative suppleness prevented him from penetrating to the inner mind of his hearers ; defects in delivery weakened the intrinsic persuasiveness of h…
BURKE, ROBERT O'HARA (1821-1861), one of the great explorers of the continent of Australia, was born in 1821 at St Clerans in Galway, Ireland. He left the Belgian college where he had been educated to enter the military service of Austria, but in 1848 returned to Ireland, and obtained a post in the mounted police. He next went to Australia, and served for sonae time as police-inspector, first in M…
BURLAMAQUI, JEAN JACQUES (1694-1748), a celebrated writer on natural law, was born at Geneva on the 24th June 1694. He received a careful education, and while passing through his university course devoted himself with such success to the study of ethics and law of nature, that at the age of twenty-five he was designated honorary professor. Before taking possession of his chair he travelled through…
BURLINGTON, a city and port of entry of the United States, capital of Chittenden county, in Vermont, 38 miles N.W. of Montpelier, in 44? 27' N. hat., ainl 73' 10' W. long. It has a fine situation on the eastern shore of Lake Champlain, and is laid out with great regularity around a central square. Its principal buildings are the Vermont University (which occupies the summit of the slope on which t…
BURLINGTON, a city of the United States, the capital of the county of Des Moines in Iowa, on the right bank of the Mississippi, 207 miles by rail from Chicago.
BURLINGTON, a city and port of entry of the United States in Burlington county, New Jersey, 18 Miles N.E. of Philadelphia, on the Delaware, in 40? 5' N. lat. and 73? 10' W. long. It is well built, has an abundant supply of water, and forms a favourite summer resort for the inhabitants of Philadelphia. Its educational institutions are of considerable importance, and comprise an Episcopal college, f…
BURMAH, BRITISH, the country acquired by the British Indian Government after the two wars with the Burman empire, is situated between 10? and 22? N. lat., and 92? and 100? E. long. It is bounded on the N. by Independent Burmah, on the E. by Siam, on the S. by the Indian Ocean, and on the W. by the Bay of Bengal and the Chittagong division of Bengal. The province of British Burmah extends along the…
BURMAN. The Burman empire, or Independent 1Thrinah, is situated in the S.E. of Asia, in the region beyond the mountains which form the eastern frontier of Bengal. It was formerly of very considerable extent, but its limits have been greatly contracted by British conquest. On the W. where it is conterminous with the British territories in India, the Burman empire is bounded by the province of Araka…
BURMANN, PIETER (166S-1741), a Dutch classical scholar, was born at Utrecht on the 26th Juue 1668. He was educated at the public school in his native place, and at the age of thirteen entered the university. He devoted himself particularly to the study of the classical languages, and became unusually proficient in Latin composition. As he was intended for the legal profession he spent some years i…
BURNES, SIR ALEXANDER (1805-1841)' a traveller in Central Asia, was born at Montrose in 1805. While serving in India, iu the army of the East India Company, which he had joined in his seventeenth year, he made himself acquainted with Hindostani and Persian, and thus obtained an appointment as interpreter at Surat in 1822. Transferred to Cutch in 1826 as assistant to the political agent, he turned …
BURNET, GILBERT (1643-1715), bishop of Salisbury, was born at Edinburgh in 1643, and was descended of an ancient family of the county of Aberdeen. His father had been bred to the law, and was at the Restoration appointed one of the lords of Session, with the title of Lord Crimond. Gilbert, the youngest son, was at ten years of age sent to Marischal College, Aberdeen, where he was admitted A.M. bef…
BURNET, THOMAS (1635-1715), best known as the author of The Sacred Theory of the Earth, was born at Croft in Yorkshire about the year 1635, but is supposed to have been descended of a Scottish family. He was educated at the free school of Northallerton, and in June 1651 was admitted a pensioner of Clare Hall at Cambridge, under the tuition of Tillotson, who continued to remember him with kindness.…
BURNEY, CHARLES (1757-1817), son of the preceding, an eminent classical scholar, was born at Lynn, in Norfolk, in 1757. At the age of eleven he was sent to the Charter-house in London, whence he removed to Caius College, Cambridge. He quitted the university without taking his degree ; but in 1791 he received the diploma of LL.D. from Aberdeen, and in 1808 that of D.D. from Cambridge. In 1783 he ma…
BURNEY, CHARLES, Doctor of Music (1726-1814), was born in the ancient city of Shrewsbury, the capital of Shropshire, on the 7th of April 1726. He received his earlier education at the excellent free school of that city, and was afterwards sent to the public school at Chester. His first music master was Mr Baker, organist of Chester Cathedral, and a pupil of Dr John Blow. Returning to Shrewsbury wh…
BURNLEY, a manufacturing town and municipal and parliamentary borough of England, 22 miles N. of Manchester, in a valley on the River Burn, from which it derives it name, and in the immediate vicinity of the Leeds and Liverpool canal. Its streets are well paved, and there is an abundant supply of water. Among its buildings of note are the frequently restored church of St Peter's ; a market hall, e…
BURNOUF, Eua.blE (1801-1852), an Oriental scholar, was born at Paris in 1801. He was educated for the legal profession, but soon after taking his degree began to devote himself entirely to the study of Oriental languages. In 1826 he published an Essai sur le Pali, and in the following year Observations Gramma cales sup quelques Passages de l'Essai sur le Pali. The next great work he undertook was …
BURNOUF, JEAN Louis (1775-1844), the father of Eugene Burnouf, was born iu 1775.
BURNS, ROBERT (1759-1796). In a company of German critics who were weighing the claims and estimating the rank of the poets, their contemporaries, the leader of their chorus, the genial humorist, Jean Paul Richter, is said to have hushed his audience when the name of Goethe was introduced, exclaiming - " We are not to sit in judgment on that sacred head." Scotsmen are apt to attach the same half-s…
BURNTISLAND, a parliamentary burgh and seaport of Scotland, in the county of Fife.
BURTON-ON-TRENT, an English town, in the northeast part of the hundred of Offlow, and the eastern division of the county of Stafford. It is situated on the west bank of the River Trent, and is distant from Stafford 25 miles, from Derby?11 miles, and about 126 miles from London. The parish comprises over 9625 acres, and is divided into the townships of Burton-on-Trent, Burton Extra, Branston, Horni…
BURTON, ROBERT (1576-1640), author of the Anatomy of Melancholy, was born at Lindley, Leicestershire, on the 8th February 1576. He attended the grammar schools of Nuneaton and Sutton Coldfields, and at the age of seventeen entered Brasenose College, Oxford. In 1599 he was elected student of Christ Church, and in 1614 took the degree of B.D. In 1616 he was presented to the vicarage of St Thomas, an…
BURTSCHEID, or BORCETTE, a town of Prussia, in the government of Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen), and immediately to the S.E. of that city, with which it is connected by lines of houses. It occupies the slopes of a hill on the Wormfluss, and, like Aix-la-chapelle, is famous for its mineral springs. One of these, known as the Mill-bath spring, is the hottest of Central Europe, having a temperature of 155?…
BURU, BOERO, or Bouno, an island of the East Indian Archipelago, belonging to the residency of Amboyna, and situated about 250 miles E. of Celebes. According to Melvill von Carnboe it has an area of 34S7 square miles, and extends from 3? 18' to 3' 50' S. lat. Its surface is for the most part very mountainous, though the seaboard district is frequently alluvial and marshy from the deposits of the n…
BURY, a manufacturing town and parliamentary borough of England, in the county of Lancaster, on the Irwell, 8 miles N.N.W. of Manchester. The woollen-trade, introduced in the 14th century, and of such importance in the reign of Elizabeth that she appointed an officer to stamp the cloth, still gives employment to 1000 of the population, but it has been greatly surpassed in extent by the cotton manu…
BURY ST EDMUNDS, a market-town and municipal and parliamentary borough of England, in the county of Suffolk, on the Lark, 26 miles N.W. of Ipswich, and 71 miles from London. It is governed by a mayor, six aldermen, and eighteen councillors, and returns two members to Parliament. The town is pleasantly situated on a gentle eminence, in a fertile and richly cultivated district, is clean and well bui…
BUSBY, RICHARD (1606-1695), D.C.L., head-master of Westminster school, was born at Lutton in Lincolnshire in 1606. He was educated at the school which he afterwards superintended for so long a period, and first signalized himself by gaining a king's scholarship. From Westminster he removed to Christ Church College, Oxford, where he graduated in 1628. In his thirty-third year he had already become …
BUSCA, a town of Italy, in the province of Cuneo, 9 miles from the city of that name, on the left bank of the Macre., a confluent of the Po. It contains a college, a hospital, and two botanic gardens. The inhabitants are engaged in the culture of the silkworm and the manufacture of leather and ironwares; and there are marble and alabaster quarries. It is the site of some Roman antiquities. Populat…
BUSHIRE, or ABUSCHEHR, a town of Persia, in the province of Fars, situated in the Persian Gulf. The surrounding country is a parched and barren desert, consisting of brown sand or grey clay and rock, unenlivened by any kind of vegetation. The town, which is of a triangular form, occupies the extremity of a peninsula eleven miles long and four broad, and is encircled by the sea on all sides except …
BUSHMEN, or BOSJESMANS, so named by the British and Dutch colonists of the Cape, but calling themselves Saab or Scion, are an aboriginal race of South Africa, allied in some respects to the Hottentots, but differing from them in several essential points, and along with these having nothing whatever in common with the Kaffre Or the Negro. The area in which they are found in nomadic families may be …
BUSHNELL, HORACE, D.D. (1802-1876), an American theologian, was born at Litchfield in Connecticut, in April 1802, and died on the 17th of February 1876. He studied at Yale College, where he graduated in 1827, after which he was for eleven months editor of the Journal of Commerce, and then teacher in a school in Norwich (Connecticut). In 1829 he became tutor in Yale College. His first study was law…
BUSIRIS, the name of an Egyptian town, the capital of the Busirites nornos, or Busirite none, called in the hieroglyphs Pa-osiri, or Place of Osiris, the eponymous deity of the place. It is the modern Abusir, and lay, according to Herodotus, in the middle of the Delta. it was supposed to be close to the entrance of the gates of the .zlahlu, or Elysium, and the none to be that called in the hierogl…
BUSIRTS, the name of a mythical king of Egypt not found either on the monuments or in the chronological lists, but mentioned by the later Greek writers and mythologists. By Apollodorus he was made the son of iEgyptus, and an Egyptian king, or else the son of Poseidon and Lyssianassa. After Egypt had been afflicted for nine years with famine Phrasius, a seer of Cyprus, arrived in Egypt and announce…
BUSSOPLAH, BASSORA, BALSORA, or BASRA, a celebrated the Shatt-el-Arab. It is about 70 miles from the mouth of tolerable state of repair, They have five gates, and are at built, partly of sun-dried and partly of burnt bricks, with flat roofs surrounded by a parapet ; and the bazaars, though stocked with the richest merchandise, are miserable structures, not arched as in Baghdad and the Persian town…
BUSTARD (corrupted from the Latin Avis tarda, though the application of the epithets is not easily understood), the largest British land-fowl, and the Otis tarda of Linnaeus, which formerly frequented the champaign parts of Great Britain from East 'Lothian to Dorsetshire, but of which the native race is now extirpated. Its existence in the northern locality just named rests upon Sibbald's authorit…
BUSTO ARSIZIO, a town of Italy, in the province of Milan and district of Gallarate, about 19 miles N.W. of the city of Milan by rail.
BUTADES, wrongly called DIBUTADES, a Greek modeller in clay, whom fable describes as the first who modelled the human face in that material.
BUTE, the most important of the several islands in the Firth of Clyde which constitute the county of the same name, is situated about 18 miles west of Greenock, and 40 by water from Glasgow. It is about 15 miles in length, extending from the picturesque " .Kyles " - the narrow winding strait which separates the island on the north from the district of Cowal - to the Sound of Bute, about 8 miles in…
BUTE, Joux STUART, TUIRD EARL OF (1713-1702), for a brief time prime minister of England, was born in 1713, and was educated at Eton. Horace Walpole, who was one of his contemporaries there, tells us that Bute "studied simples in the hedges about Twickenham." For many years he resided in the remote island of Bute, where he appears to have diligently studied mathematics, mechanics, and natural scie…
BUTE, COUNTY OF, is composed of three groups of islands which lie in the Firth of Clyde, betwixt the coasts of Ayrshire on the east, and Argyllshire on the north and west, viz., Bute, from which the county takes its name, with Inchmarnoch, a mile to westward ; the two Cinnbraes, less than a mile apart ; and Arran, with the Holy Isle and Pladda islet, separated from each other by about a mile; the …
BUTLER, ALBAN (1710-1773), a hagiologist, was born in Northampton in 1710.
BUTLER, CHARLES (1750-1832), nephew of the preceding, a miscellaneous writer, was born at London in 1750.
BUTLER, JOSEPH, Bishop of Durham, one of the most distinguished writers on theology and ethics, and perhaps the man of greatest intellectual power in the English church during the 18th century, was born at Wantage, in Berkshire, on the 18th May 1692. His father was a respectable linen-draper of that town, who had retired from business some time before the birth of Joseph, his youngest son. The fam…
BUTLER, SAMUEL (1012-1080), whose name appears to have been spelt Boteler in official documents to the end of his life, was born at Strensham on the Avon in Worcestershire. He was baptized on the Sth of February 1612. His father, who was of the same name and was then churchwarden, is variously represented as a substantial farmer (owning a small freehold, and leasing from Sir William Russel a consi…
BUTLER, -WILLIAM ARCHER (1814-1848), a brilliant writer on theology and the history of philosophy, was born at Annerville, near Clonmel, probably in 1814. His father was a Protestant, his mother a Roman Catholic, and he was brought up in the Romish faith. At the age of nine he was sent to Clonmel school, where he distinguished himself not so much by rigid attention to his class work as by general …
BUTO, an Egyptian goddess, called in the language Uat or Uatiu, the eponymous goddess of the town Buto in Northern Egypt, supposed to be modern Knin el Aman and Kum el. gir, on the western banks of the Damietta branch of the Nile.
BUTRINTO, a fortified town of European Turkey on the coast of Albania, in the sandjak of Delvino, directly opposite the island of Corfu, and situated at the mouth of a stream which connects the Lake of Vatzindro with the work.
BUTTER, is the fatty portion of the milk of mammalian animals. The milk of all mammals contains such fatty stitutes the butter of commerce. The milk of the various portion of cream to milk in the case of most breeds three to four-tenths. Dr Parkes (Practical Hygiene) gives the following as the average composition of unskimmed milk having a sp. gr. of 1.030 :- Casein 4.0 ',actin (Sugar of Milk) 5.0…
BUTTERFLIES. - IAntileUS included all butterflies under the single genus Papilla, but later writers have divided them into several well-defined families, and into numerous genera. The largest and most magnificent species belong to the Ornithoptera or "Bird-winged Butterflies," a genus of Papilionidce, whose wings, measuring fully 7 inches across, are of a velvety black and brilliant green colour, …
BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS, the common English names applied respectively to the two groups of Insects which together form the order Lepidoptera (Gr. A.E71-(5, scale, and 7TTEp0V, a wing), an order characterized by the constant presence, in a greater or less degree, of scales on the wings. The two groups may, as a rule, be readily distinguished from each other, although, so far as our present knowledge…
BUTTMANN, PHILIPP KARL (1764-1829), a German philologist, was born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1764. He was educated at the gymnasium in his native town and at the university of Gottingen. In 1789 he obtained an appointment in the library at Berlin, and for some years he edited Spemer's Journal. In 1796 he became professor at the Joachimsthal Gymnasium, a post which he held for twelve years. In 18…
BUTTON, from the French bouton, a small piece of metal or other material used to connect different parts of a garment together by means of a button-hole, and also used for ornamentation. These apparently insignificant articles have produced a great alteration in our style of dress, for without them it would have been impossible to have reduced the flowing robes of our forefathers into our present …
BUXTON, a market-town and fashionable watering-place of England, in the county of Derby, 31 miles N.W. of Derby, and 160 from London, connected with Derby by the Buxton and Rowsley extension line, and with Manchester by the Stockport, Disley, and Buxton Railway. It occupies a high position, being 900 feet above the sea-level, in an open hollow, surrounded at a distance by hills of considerable ele…
BUXTON, JEDEDIAII, a prodigy of skill in numbers, was born in 1701, at Elmton, near Chesterfield in Derbyshire. Although his father was schoolmaster of the parish, and his grandfather had been the vicar, his education had bean so neglected that he could not write and his knowledge, except of numbers, was extremely limited. How he came first to know the relative proportions of numbers, and their pr…
BUXTON, SIR THOMAS FOWELL (1786-1845), a distinguished philanthropist, whose name is inseparably associated with that of Wilberforce in the abolition of slavery, was born in Essex, April 1, 1786. He was not educated at any of the public schools, and at about the age of eighteen he entered Trinity College, Dublin, with a very slender stock of acquirements. But he was aware of his defects, and labou…
BUXTORF, or BUXTORFF, JOHN (1564.-1629), the first of a line of distinguished scholars, whose Hebrew and rabbinical learning shed lustre upon the university of Basel during the 17th century, was born at Camen in Westphalia on the 25th December 1564. The original form of the name was Bockstrop, or Boxtrop, from which was derived the family crest or insignia, which bore the figure of a goat (Bock in…
BUZZARD, a word derived from the Latin Buteo, through the French Bnsard, and used in a general sense for a large group of Diurnal Birds-of-prey, which contains, among many others, the species usually known as the Common Buzzard (Hideo vulgaris, Leach), though the English epithet is now-a-days hardly applicable. The name Buzzard, however, belongs quite as rightfully to the birds called in books " H…
BYNG, GEORGE (1663-1733), Viscount Torrington, a distinguished English admiral, was born at Wrotham, Kent, and at the age of fifteen went to sea as a volunteer. After being several times advanced, he was in 1702 raised to the command of the "Nassau," a third rate, and was at the taking and burning of the French fleet at Vigo ; and the next year he was made rear-admiral of the red. In 1701 he serve…
BYNG, THE HON. JOHN (1704-1757), British admiral, fourth son of the subject of the preceding notice, entered the navy at an early age, became captain in 1727, and in 1745 was made rear-admiral of the red. In the year 1755 the British Government received intimation that the French were fitting out a naval expedition in Toulon, and it behoved them to attend to the defences of Gibraltar and Minorca. …
BYNKERSHOEK, CORNELIUS VAN (1673-1743), a distinguished Dutch jurist, was born at Middleburg in Zeeland.
BYROM, JOHN (1691-1763), a poet and miscellaneous writer, was born at Kersall, near Manchester, and educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. His first poetical essay, the well-known Colin and Phoebe, appeared in the Spectator, No. 603. After leaving the university he studied medicine at Montpellier, and became a convert to the mystical theology of Bourignon and Boehme. He was elected a member of th…
BYRON, GEORGE NOEL GORDON BYRON, LORD (1788- 1821). The portrait of the most remarkable figure in the literature of this century is still too often made up on the principle of putting in all the shadows and leaving out all the lights. Not only the facts of his own life, but even the records and traditions of his ancestry, are partially selected in this way. It is true, no doubt, that a man's immed…
BYRON, HoN. JOHN (1723-1786), admiral and circumnavigator, second son of the fourth Lord Byron, and grandfather of the poet, was born November 8, 1723. While still very young accompanied Anson in his voyage of discovery round the world. During many successive years he saw a great deal of hard service, and so constantly had he to contend, on his various expeditions, with adverse gales and dangerous…
BYSTROM, JoisrANN NICOLAUS (1783-1848), Swedish sculptor, was born December 18, 1783, at Philipstad.
BYZANTINE HISTORIANS.
BYZANTIUM, an ancient Greek city on the shores of the Bosphorus, occupied the most easterly of the seven Bills on which the modern Constantinople has been built. It is said to have been founded by a band of Megarians, G67 B.C., but the original settlement having been destroyed in the reign of Darius Hystaspes by the Satrap Otanes, it was recolonized by Pausanias, who wrested it from the hands of t…
CABANIS, PIERRE JEAN GEORGE (1757-1808), a distinguished French physiologist, was born at Cosnac in 1757. His father was a lawyer of eminence, and chief magistrate of a district in the Lower Limousin. His education was at first entrusted to the priests, but at the age of ten he was transferred to the College of Brives. He showed great aptitude for study, but his independence of spirit was so exces…
CABARRUS, FRANcOIS (1752-1810), conspicuous in to trade with the Philippine Islands ; and as one of the council of finance he had planned many reforms in that department of the administration, when Charles III. died (1788), and the reactionary Government of Charles IV. arrested every kind of enlightened progress. The then who had taken an active part in reform were suspected and prosecuted. Cabarr…
CABATUAN, a town of the Philippine Islands, in the province of Iloilo, in Panay, situated on the banks of the River Tignin, which changes from an almost empty channel to an impetuous torrent, so that navigation is frequently impossible.
CABBAGE. The parent form of the variety of useful culinary vegetables included under this head is generally supposed to be the wild or sea cabbage (Brassica oleracea), plant found near the sea coast of various parts of England and continental Europe, although Alph. de Candolle considers it to be really descended from the two or three allied species which are yet found growing wild on the Mediterra…
CABENDA, or CABINDA, a seaport town of Western Africa, in Lower Guinea, 40 miles north of the mouth of the Zaire, on the right bank of the Bele, in 5? 33' S. lat., 15? 40' E. long.
CABET, ETIENNE (1788-1856), an active French Communist, was born, the son of a cooper, at Dijon in 1788. He chose the profession of advocate without succeeding in it, but erelong became notable as the persevering apostle of republicanism and communism. He assisted in a secondary way in the Revolution of 1830, and obtained a legal appointment in Corsica under the Government of Louis Philippe ; but,…
CABINET, a conventional, but not a legal, term employed to describe those members of the Privy Council who fill the highest executive offices in the State, and who, by their concerted policy, direct the Government, and are responsible for all the acts of the Crown. The Cabinet now always includes the persons filling the following offices, who are therefore called Cabinet Ministers, viz : - The Fir…
CABIRI (1?.flapot), in Mythology, usually identified with the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux), in common with whom they were styled tLeycaot. Ocoi (victual Dii), and had the power of protecting life against storms at sea, the symbol of their presence being the St Elmo fire. The worship of the Cabin was local and peculiar to the islands of Lemnos, Imbros, and Samothrace, extending also to the neighbou…
CABLE, a rope or chain used for connecting a ship with her anchor. Chain cables are generally used, but on account of their weight they are unsuitable for mooring in very deep water, when several lengths of cable would be hanging at the "hawse pipe ; " and they cannot be used, also on account of their weight, when it is required to lay an anchor out at some distance from the ship. Hempen cables ar…
CABOT, SEBASTIAN,' the renowned navigator, and contemporary of Columbus, was the son of John Cabot, a Venetian merchant, and was born in Bristol, England, while his father was a resident of that city. On the disputed question of his birthplace, Richard Eden (Decades of the New World, fol. 255) says Sebastian told him that, when four years old, he was taken by his father to Venice, and returned to …
CABRA, a town of ;Spain, in the province of Cordova, about 28 miles S.E. of that city, situated in a fertile valley near the source of the river of the same name. It contains a cathedral church (de la Asuncion) which was formerly a mosque, and has also a theatre, a hospital, a college, and several monasteries. There still remains a part of its old castle called the Tower of Homage ; and the abyss …
CABUL, or KInui., in modern days the capital of AFGHANISTAN (q. v.) The city stands on the right bank of the river called after it, on the fork made by the junction of the Loghar River, where the productive plain, which extends north to the foot of Hindu Kush, narrows rapidly into the gorges from which the streams issue. The city stands in 34? 30?1--' N. lat., 69? 6' E. long., at an altitude of 63…
CABUL (Kabul), is also the name of the province including the city so called. It may be considered to embrace the whole of the plains called Koh-daman and Beghram, to the Hindu Kush northward, with the Kohestan or hill country adjoining so far as it is in actual subjection to the Amir's authority. Eastward it extends to the border of Jaltdaload at Jagdalak ; southward it includes the Loghar distri…
CAC-110SM0, ALESSANDRO, COUNT (1743-1795), the arch-impostor of modern times, was born at Palermo in 17-13. Joseph Balsamo - fer such was the count's real name - gave early indications of those talents which afterwards gained for him so wide a notoriety. He received the rudiments of his education at the convent of Cartagirone; where, being employed to read to the monks during dinner, he scandalize…
CACERES, the capital of the province of the same name in Estremadura, in Spain, 20 miles south of the Tagus, and 24 miles west of Truxillo, on a ridge of hills which stretch from east to west. It is the residence of the bishop of Corias, and contains a handsome episcopal palace, as well as a public school, a college, and several charitable institutions. The monastery and college of the Jesuits was…
CACHAO, or, as it is variously spelled, KACHO, KECI10, HECHO, or KIRSH?, formerly known as Donk-king and now officially as Bacthian or Backing, is the largest city of Anam, and the capital of the province of Tonquin. It is situated on the west side of the Tonquin River, about eighty miles from the sea, in 105? 35' E. long., 21? N. lat. It is of great extent. The principal streets are wide and airy…
CACHOEIRA, a town of Brazil, in the province of Bahia, and 62 miles N.W. from the city of that name, is situated on the River Paraguassu, which is subject to heavy floods.
CACONGO, a small kingdom of Western Africa, separated from Congo by the river Zaire.
CACTUS. This word, applied in the form of Kdicros by the ancient Greeks to some prickly plant, was adopted by Linmeus as the family title of a group of curious succulent or fleshy-stemmed plants, most of them prickly and leafless, some of which produce beautiful flowers, and are now so popular in our gardens that the name has become familiar. As applied by Linnicus, the name Cactus is almost conte…
CADAHALSO, JOSE DE (1741-1782)' a Spanish poet and writer, was born at Cadiz in 1741.
CADIZ (in Latin Cades, and formerly called Cales by the English), the capital of a province of the same name in Spain, is built on the extremity of a tongue of land projecting about five miles into the sea, in a direction N.W. from the Isla de Leon, in 36? 31' N. lat., 6? 1S' W. long., 94 miles by rail south of Seville, and 13 from Xeres. Time and elegance of its buildings, it must certainly be ra…
CADMIUM, a metal closely allied to zinc. It was discovered in 1817 by Stromeyer and Hermann, independently, but in a similar manner. The former chemist, in the execution of his duties as inspector of pharmaceutical products in Hanover, found a substance, sold as oxide, to be really carbonate of zinc, and, applying to the manufacturer for explanation of the reason of the substitution of the latter …
CADMUS, in Greek Legend, was the founder of the town of Thebes originally called Cadmeia, and according to the tradition was a son of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, whence he had proceeded to Greece in search of his sister Europa, but failing to find her had, in obedience to an oracle, settled at Thebes. He there founded a town over which he in time became king, received from the gods Harmonia, a daug…
CAEN, or, as it is called in. the old chronicles, CAPON, CAT1IIM, ?AHEM, or CA.ar, the capital of an arrondissement in the department of Calvados in France. It stands about 80 or 90 feet above the level of the sea, in an extensive valley, on the left bank of the Orne, at the influx of the Odon, 9 miles from the English Channel, and 122 west of Paris, in 49? 11' 14" N. lat., 0? 21' 15" W. long. The…
CAERLEON, the Isca Silururn of the Romans, is situated upon the right bank of the river Usk, about 31 miles N. of Newport in Monmouthshire. Its name appears to be a corruption of the Latin Castrum Legionis,1 and there can be no doubt that the place was the station of the second Augustan legion, and ranked as a colony and capital of Britannia Secunda in the period of Roman dominion. The existing re…
CAGLE (the ancient Calles), a walled town of Italy, iu the province of Pesaro e Urbino, at the confluence of the Cantiano and Basso, the former of which is crossed there by an ancient Roman bridge It is the seat of a bishop, and has a cathedral and several churches and monasteries, in one of which, Santo Domenico, is preserved a famous fresco by Giovanni Santi, the father of Raffaelle.
CAGLIARI, the capital of the island of Sardinia, and chief town of its southern province, is situated in the recess of the bay to which it gives its name, not far from the mouth of the River Mulargia, in. 39? 33' 14" N. lat. and 9? 7' 48" E. long. It has a splendid appearance from the sea, occupying as it does the slope and summit of a hill, which is crowned by a noble castle. Tlds building gives …
CAGNOLA, Luta', MAuQuts (1762-1833), a celebrated architect, a native of Milan. Be was sent at the age of fourteen to the Clementine College at Rome, and afterwards studied at the university of Pavia. He was intended for the legal profession, but his passion for architecture was too strong, and after holding sonic Government posts at Milan, he entered as a competitor for the construction of the Po…
CAGOTS, a people found in the Basque provinces, Beam, and Gascony. During the Middle Ages they were popularly looked upon as cretins, lepers, heretics, and even as cannibals. Entirely excluded from all political and social rights, they were not even allowed to enter a church but by a special door, or to remain except in a part where they were carefully secluded from the rest of the worshippers. To…
CAILLIE, or CAILLE, RENA (1799-1838), a French traveller in Africa, was born in 1799 at Mauze, and died in 1838. His school education extended no farther than reading and writing; and at the age of sixteen he commenced his career by a voyage to Senegal. But already Robinson Crusoe had kindled within him an enthusiastic admiration for the life of the discoverer ; and in 1827, having collected 2000 …
CAIN, the eldest son of Adam and Eve according to the narrative of the Jehovist (Gen. iv.) Various derivations of the name have been suggested, the most probable being from r9i?, "to obtain," the word used in Gen. iv. 1 : "Eve bare Cain, and said, I have gotten a man from the Lord." According to the Biblical narrative (Gen, iv.) Cain was a tiller of the ground, while his younger brother, Abel, was…
CAIRN (in Welsh, Came), a heap of stones piled up in a conical form. In modern times cairns are often erected as landmarks. In ancient times they were erected as sepulchral monuments or tribal and family cemeteries. The Duan Etreanach, an ancient Irish poem, describes the erection of a family cairn ; and the Senchus Mor, a collection of Irish laws ascribed to the 5th century, prescribes a fine of …
CAIRNES, JOHN ELLIOTT, a distinguished political economist, was born at Drogheda in 1824, and died on the 8th July 1875. After leaving school he spent some years in the counting-house of his father, who was an extensive brewer. His tastes, however, lay altogether in the direction of study, and he was permitted to enter Trinity College, Dublin. He took the degree of B.A. in 1848, and six years late…
CAIRNGORM, or CAIRNGORIIM, a name popularly applied to a wine-yellow or brown variety of rock crystal found, among other localities, on the Grampian Mountains in the south-east of Banffshire, Scotland, the central peak being called Cairngorm. The colour of the crystals, which is due to a minute proportion of iron oxide, varies, passing through those above noted as belonging properly to cairngorms,…
CAIRO (in Arabic, Masr-al-Kahira, or, as the lower classes of the population call it, simply Masr), the modern capital of Egypt, occupies the natural centre of the country, being situated on the east bank of the Nile, 12 miles above the apex of its delta, 150 miles by rail from Alexandria, and 80 west from Suez, in 30? 2' 4" N. lat. and 31? 15' 26" E. long. It is built partly on the plain and par…
CAISSON, in engineering work, is a chamber of iron or wood which is used in the construction of subaqueous foundations, - such as those required for the piers of bridges, &c. Its object is the same as that of a coffer-dam, viz., to allow the work to be carried on below the waterlevel, - but it is used in places where either the water or the permeable soil is too deep to allow a darn to be erected.…
CAITHNESS, the most northern county of the Scottish mainland, bounded W. and S. by Sutherlandshire, and E. and N. by the Northern Ocean, is situated between 58? 8' and 58? 40' N. lat., 3' 0' and 3? 55' W. long., and has an extreme length of 53 miles, an extreme breadth of 33, a coast line of 105 miles, and an area of 455,708 acres or 712 square miles. The form of Caithness resembles an irregular t…
CAIUS, KAYE, or KEYS, Dr Jonx (1510-1573), the founder of Canis College in Cambridge, was born at Norwich in 1510. He was admitted while very young a student at Gonville Hall, Cambridge. From his exercises performed there it seems probable that he intended to prosecute the study of divinity. He visited Italy, where he studied under the celebrated Montanus at Padua ; and in 1541 he took his degree …
CAJAZZO, or CAIAZZO, a town of Italy, in the province of Terra di Lavoro, and district of Piedimonte, situated on a height on the north bank of the Volturno, about 11 miles from Capita.
CAJEPUT OIL, a volatile oil obtained by distillation from the leaves of Melaleuca leucadodendron, and probably other species. The trees yielding the oil are found throughout the Indian Archipelago, the Malay peninsula, and over the hotter parts of the Australian continent ; but the greater portion of the oil is procured from Celebes Island. The name Cajeput is derived from the native Kayu-puti, or…
CAJETAN, CARDINAL (1469-1534), was born at Cajeta in the kingdom of Naples in 1469. His proper name was Thomas de Vio, but he adopted that of Cajetan from his birthplace. He entered the order of the Dominicans at the age of sixteen, was for some time professor of divinity, and in 1508 became general of the order. For his zeal in defending the Papal pretensions, in a work entitled Of the Power of t…
CALABAR is a district of somewhat indefinite boundaries, situated on the West Coast of Africa, in the Bight of Biafra, between 4? 20' and 6? N. lat., and between 6? 30' and 9? E. long. The name corresponds to no geographical or political unity, but is convenient as provisionally comprehending a stretch of country of considerable commercial importance. The coast line is frequently regarded as exten…
CALABAR BEAN, the seed of a leguminous plant, Physostigma venenosum, a native of tropical Africa. The plant has a climbing habit like the scarlet runner, and attains a height of about 50 feet, with a stem an inch or two in thickness. The seed pods, which contain two or three seeds or beans, are 6 or 7 inches in length ; and the beans are about the size of an ordinary horse bean but much thicker, w…
CALABOZO, or CALABOSO, a town of Venezuela, formerly capital of the province of Caracas, but now of that of Guarico, is situated 120 miles S.S.W. of the city of Caracas on the left bank of the River Guarico. It lies so low that during the rainy season it is frequently surrounded by the floods ; and in the summer it is exposed to extreme heat, the average temperature being 88? Fahr. It is well buil…
CALABRIA, the name given by the Romans to the peninsula at the south-eastern extremity of Italy, and now given to the peninsula at the south-western extremity. The former district was called by the Greeks Iapygia and Messapia, though these terms were variously used, and sometimes also included all the south-east of Italy, from Lucania to the Garganian promontory. In the time of Augustus, Calabria …
CALAHORRA, the capital of the judicial district and diocese of the same name, in the province of Logrofio, Spain, 24 miles S.E. of Logrofio, in 42? 12'N. lat., 2? 0' W. long.
CALAIS, a town of France, capital of a canton of the same name, in the arrondissement of Boulogne and the department of Pas de Calais, 26 miles E.S.E. of Dover, and 185 miles by rail from Paris, in 50? 57' 45" N. lat., 1? 51' E. long. Calais is a fortress of the first class, and was formerly is place of great strength, but it would now probably not be able to defend itself long against modern arti…
CALAMY, EDMUND (1671-1732), grandson of the preceding, was born in London, April 5, 1671. He was educated at a private academy, and studied at the university of Utrecht. While there, he declined an offer of a professor's chair in the university of Edinburgh made to him by Principal Carstairs, who had gone over on purpose to find a person properly qualified for such an office. After his return to E…
CALAMY, EDMUND (1600-1666), a Presbyterian divine, was born at London in February 1600, and educated at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, where his opposition to the Arminian party, then powerful in that society, excluded him from a fellowship. Dr Felton, bishop of Ely, however, made him his chaplain, and gave him a living which he held till 1626. He then removed to Bury St Edmunds, where he acted as lect…
CALASIO, MARIO DE (1550-1620), a Franciscan, and professor of the Hebrew language at Rome, was born in 1550 at a small town in Abruzzo, from which he took his name. His Concordance of the Bible (which occupied him forty years) was published at Rome in 1621, the year after his death. This work has been highly approved and commended both by Protestants and Roman Catholics, and is indeed an admirable…
CALAS, JEAN (1698-1762), a Protestant merchant at Toulouse, who was barbarously murdered under forms of law which were employed to shelter the sanguinary dictates of ignorant and fanatical zeal. He was born at La Caparede, in Languedoc, in 1698, and had lived forty years at Toulouse. His wife was an Englishwoman of French extraction. They had three sons and three daughters. His son Louis had embra…
CALATAFIMI, a town of Sicily, in the province of Trapani and district of Alcamo, about 30 miles from Palermo.
CALATAYUD, a town of Spain, in the province of Saragossa in Aragon, 45 miles S.W. of the city of that name, in 41? 24' N. lat., 1? 35' W. long. It stands on the left bank of the River Jalon, near its confluence with the Jiloca, partly on the plain and partly on a rocky slope, which is covered with remains of ancient Moorish fortifications. It is generally spacious and well built, and contains seve…
CALCAR, or KALCKER, JOHN BE (1499-1546), an eminent painter, born at Calear, in the duchy of Cleves, in 1499.
CALCHAS, the most famous soothsayer among the Greeks at the time of the Trojan war, was the son of Thestor.
CALC-SPAR, or CALCAREOUS SPAR, is the popular name for certain of the crystalline forms of carbonate of lime or calcite (CaCO3), containing in 100 parts 56 of lime and 44 of carbonic acid. The name includes only the varieties of calcite which belong to the rhombohedral or hexagonal order, to the exclusion of aragonite, which, having the same composition, belongs to the rhombic or right prismatic s…
CALCULATING MACHINES. Mathematicians and astronomers have felt in all ages the irksomeness of the labour of making necessary calculations, and this has led to the invention of various devices for shortening it. Some of these, such as the Abacus, Napier's Bones (invented by the father of logarithms), and the modern Sliding Rule, are rather aids to calculation than calculating machines. Pascal is be…
CALCUTTA, the capital of India, and seat of the Supreme Government, is situated on the east bank of the Hngli River, in latitude 22? 33' 47"N. and longitude 88? 23' 34" E. It lies about 80 miles from the seaboard, and receives the accumulated produce which the two great river systems of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra collect throughout the provinces of Bengal and Assam. From a cluster of mud villa…
CALDANI, LEOPOLD MARCO ANTONIO (1725-1813), a distinguished Italian anatomist and physician, was born at professorship of the theory of medicine, with the prology.
CALDERON DE LA BARCA, PEDRO (1600-1681), the most eminent representative of the Spanish national drama, was born in Madrid, January 17, 1600. His prosperous life was undistinguished by striking incidents. Be received his education at Salamanca, and after having been, as would seem, for some years a retainer or dependant of various noblemen, in 1625 entered the army, where it is hinted tha4 he did …
CALDER, SIR. ROBERT (1745-1815), Baronet, was born at Elgin, in Scotland, July 2, 1745 (o. s.) He educated at the grammar school of Elgin, and at the age of fourteen entered the British navy as midshipman. In 1766 he was serving as lieutenant of the "Essex," under captain the Honourable George Faulkner, in the West Indies. Promotion came slowly, and it was not till 1782 that he attained the rank o…
CALDERWOOD, DAVID (1575-1650), an historian of the Church of Scotland, was born in 1575. He was educated at Edinburgh, where he took the degree of M.A. in 1593. About 1604 he became minister of Crailing, near Jedburgli, and he speedily began to take part in the ecclesiastical proceedings of that period, and was conspicuous for his resolute opposition to the introduction of Episcopacy. In 1617, whi…
CALEDONIA, used in general somewhat loosely to denote the northern portion of Britain during the period of the Roman occupation of the island, had originally a more restricted application. It is proposed in this article to give, from a geographical as well as an historical point of view, a brief account of what seems to have been known regarding it in ancient times. The word Caledonia is first met…
CALENDER, a mechanical engine employed for dressing and finishing cloths and various descriptions of fabrics, preparatory to sending them into the market. It is also used by calico-printers to prepare the surface of their cloths for the operations of printing. The first object of calendering is to produce in the cloth as perfect extension and smoothness of surface as can be attained, - so that no …
CALEPINO, AMBROGIO (1I35-1511), an Augustine monk, born at Bergamo in 1435, was descended of an old family of Calepio, whence he took his name.
CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL (1782-1850), a leading politician of the United States, was grandson of an Irish Presbyterian, who founded Calhoun settlement, in the district of Abbeville, South Carolina. It was there that John Calhoun was born in 1782. For some years he assisted his widowed mother in the management of her farm, but at the age of eighteen he commenced to study for the bar. He graduated wit…
CALICO-PRINTING is the process of imprinting on textile fabrics patterns of one or more colours on a white or coloured ground. Though, as the name implies, the art is directed primarily, as it is by far most extensively, to calico or cotton textures, the same methods of ornamentation are also employed for certain woollen, linen, and silk fabrics, and the process of printing is also applied to unwo…
CALICUT, or KOLIKOD, a seaport town of India on the western coast, in the British district of Malabar and the presidency of Madras, situated about 560 miles S. of Bombay, in 11 15' N. lat. and 75? 52' E. long. The town stands on the sea-shore in a low and unsheltered position ; and as there is neither river nor harbour, ships are compelled to anchor in five or six fathoms water, about two or three…
CALIFORNIA, the name originally given to a portion of the region of western North America bordering on the Pacific Ocean, and apparently taken from a Spanish romance (Las Sergus de Esplandian), in which the author speaks of " the great island of California, where a great abundance of gold and precious stones is found." This romance was published in 1510, and, becoming quite popular, the name of Ca…
CALIGULA, CANIS CIESAR, the third of the Roman emperors, was the son of Germanicus and Agrippina, and was born in 12 A.D. He was brought up in his father's camp among the soldiers, and received the name Caligula, from the caligce, or foot-soldiers' shoes, which lie used to wear. In 32 he was summoned to Tiberius, who was then living at Capre, and did all in his power to ingratiate himself with the…
CALIPH, or KHALIF, the sovereign dignitary among the Mahometans, vested with an almost absolute authority in all matters relating to religion and civil polity. In the Arabic it signifies successor or vicar, the caliphs bearing the same relation to Mahomet that the popes, in the estimation of Roman Catholics, bear to St Peter. It is at this day one of the titles of the grand seignior or sultan, who…
CALIXTUS, the name of three different popes or bishops of Rome.
CALIXTUS, GEORGIUS (1586-1656), a celebrated Lutheran divine, born at Middleburg in Holstein in 1586. After studying at Helmstadt, Jena, Giessen, Tubingen, and Heidelberg, he had an opportunity of travelling through France and England, where he became acquainted with the leading Reformers, and saw the different forms which the Reformed church had assumed. On his return he was appointed professor o…
CALL1STO, in Greek Mythology, an Arcadian nymph, who was transformed into a bear as a penalty fur having born to Zeus a son, Areas, from whom the Arcadians, or bear-people, derived their name (Ovid, Metam., ii. 468, to/.) Areas, when hunting, encountered the bear Callisto, and would have shot her, had not Zeus with swift wind carried up both to the skies, where he placed them as a constellation.
CALLAO, the chief port of Peru, lies 8 miles from Lima, the capital city, in 12? 4' S. lat., 77? 13' W. long It is built on a fiat point of land in the recess of a spacious and well-sheltered bay, which is partly enclosed by the islands of San Lorenzo and Fronton, and affords the best anchorage on the Peruvian coast. The modern town lies half a mile north of the site of an older city, destroyed by…
CALLCOTT, Sun AUGUSTUS WALL (1779-1844), Knt., R.A., one of the most distinguished of English landscape painters, was born at Kensington in 1779, and died there in 1844.
CALLCOTT, JOHN WALL (1766-1821), brother of the preceding, was born at Kensington in 1766, and was the son of a builder. At the age of seven he was sent to a neighbouring day school, where he continued for five years, studying chiefly Latin and Greek. During this time he frequently went to Kensington church, in the repairs of which his father was employed, and the impression he received on hearing…
CALLCOTT, MRS MARIA Gaanam (1786-1844), daughter of Admiral Dundas, became the wife of Sir Augustus Callcott in 1827.
CALLIMACHUS, an architect and statuary, the inventor of the Corinthian column, was probably a native of Corinth.
CALLIMACHUS, a celebrated Greek poet, was a native of Cyrene, and a descendant of the illustrious house of the Battiadm, whence by Ovid and others he is called Battiades. He flourished under Ptolemies Philadelphus and Euergetes, and probably succeeded Zenodotus as chief librarian of the famous Alexandrian library, an office lie held from about 260 B.C. till his death, which took place about 240 B.…
CALLIRRHOE, in Greek legend, was a daughter of the river god Acheloos, and became the wife of Alcumeon, who had wandered from Argos to be purified in the water of the Acheloos from the crime of having killed his mother Eriphyle.
CALLISTHENES, a philosopher of OlYntlins, and a relation and pupil of Aristotle, through whose recommendation lie was appointed to attend Alexander in his Asiatic expedition, 331 B.C.
CALLISTRATUS, an Athenian poet, whose works have nearly all perished.
CALLISTRATUS, an Athenian orator, whose eloquence made such an impression on Demosthenes that lie resolved to devote himself to oratory.
CALLOT, JACQUES (1593-1635), a French engraver, was born in 1593 at Nancy in Lorraine, where his father was a herald at arms. Ho early discovered a very strong predilection for art, and at the age of twelve quitted home without his father's consent, and set out for Rome, where he intended to prosecute his studies. Being utterly destitute of funds be joined a troop of Bohemians, and arrived in thei…
CALMAR, or KALMA.R, the capital of a province of the same name in Sweden, on Calmar Sound opposite the island of Oland, about 190 miles from Stockholm, in 56? 40' N. let., 16? 20' E. long. It is built on the island of Quarnholm, and communicates with the suburbs on the mainland by a bridge of boats. Most of the houses are built of wood ; but the cathedral, erected in the 17th century by Nicodemus …
CALMET, DOM AUGUSTINE (1672-1757), a scholar and Biblical critic, born at Mesnil-la-Horgne in Lorraine, in 1672. In his fifteenth year he went to the university of Pont-a-Mousson, which he attended for a single session. In 1688 he joined the Benedictines at the abbey of St Mansin, into whose order he was publicly received in the following year. His theological and philosophical studies he complete…
CALMUCKS, KALMUCKS, or KALMUIKS, a people of Mongolian race who inhabit various parts of the Russian and Chinese empires, as well as other portions of Central Asia. They are of the middle height, fairly proportioned, and of considerable strength ; their cheek-bones are prominent, the chin short, the nose turned up, the beard thin, and the hair scrubby. For the most part still in the nomadic stage,…
CALNE, a town of England, in the county of Wiltshire, connected with the Great Western railway system by a branch line opened in 1863, and situated about 1.6 miles directly east of Bath. It stands in a valley intersected by the little brook of Caine, and is surrounded by the high table-land of Marlborough Downs and Salisbury Plain. The town is clean and well paved, and contains an ancient church (…
CALOMEL, mercurous chloride, or subchloride of mercury (11g01), is a compound of mercury of great value in medicine. It occurs native as horn quicksilver in the mercury mines of Idria, at Obermoschel, in Bavaria, Horowitz in Bohemia, and Almaden in Spain, in the form of translucent tetragonal crystals, with an adamantine lustre, and a dirty white grey or brownish colour. A. great number of process…
CALONNE, CHARLES ALEXANDRE DE (1734-1802), a French statesman, was born at Douai in 1734. He was descended from a good family and entered the profession of the law, in which he rapidly attained success. He became in succession advocate to the general council of Artois, procureser to the parliament of Douai, and filially master of requests, a dignity which gave him the right of sitting in the gener…
CALPURNIUS, Terns, a Roman bucolic poet, under whose name eleven eclogues have been transmitted to us, is interesting as the first imitator of Virgil in pastoral poetry, and from the controversy respecting his date. His eclogues usually occur in MS. along with the Cynegeticon of Nemesianus, who undoubtedly flourished under Carinus (2S4 A.D.), and hence he has been generally referred to the same ep…
CALTAGIRONE, or CALATAG1RONE, a town of Sicily, the seat of a bishop, in the province of Catania, and about 34 miles S.W. of the city of that name, is situated on two rocky eminences united by a bridge, about 2170 feet above the level of the sea. It is well built and possesses a fine market-place, the ruins of a castle, a cathedral, several churches, and ten convents, a caste communale or town-hou…
CALTANISETTA, or CALATANJSETTA, the capital of a province of the same name in Sicily, is situated in an extensive and fertile plain, dominated by Monte San Giuliano, near the right bank of the Salso, 62 miles S.E. of Palermo.
CALVADOS, a department in the north of France, extending from 48? 46' to 49? 25' N. lat., and from 0? 26' E. to 1? 10' W. long., formed out of that part of Lower Normandy which comprised Bessin, Bocage, the Champagne de Caen, Auge, and the western part of Lieuvin. It is said to have received its name from a ledge of rocks, stretching along the coast for a distance of about 15 miles between the mou…
CALVERT, GEORGE, LORD BALTIMORE (1582-1632), one of the principal secretaries of state under James I., was horn at Kipling in Yorkshire in 1582. He was educated at Oxford, and after travelling on the Continent entered public service as secretary to Robert Cecil, afterwards earl of Salisbury. In 1617 he was knighted, and in 1619 he was made one of the principal secretaries of state. He retained off…
CALVI, a fortified town in Corsica, the capital of an arrondissement, is situated on a peninsula in the bay to which it gives its name, 38 miles W.S.W. of Bastia, in 42? 34' 7" N. lat. and 8? 45' 10" E. long. Its position is unsheltered, and its ancient fortifications present a mournful appearance, while its climate is rendered unhealthy by the exhalations from the neighbouring lagoon. Since the f…
CALVIN, JOHN (1509-1564), was born at Noyon, in Picardy, July 10,1509. His father, Gerard Calvin or Cauviii,1 was a notary-apostolic and procurator-fiscal for the lordship of Noyon, besides holding certain ecclesiastical offices in connection with that diocese. The name of his mother was Jeanne Lefranc ; she was the daughter of an innkeeper at Cambray, who afterwards came to reside at Noyon. Gerar…
CALVISIUS, SETHUS (1556-1617), a German astronomer and chronologer, was born at Grosehleben, in Thuringia, in 1556. He studied at Hehnsthdt, where he made great progress in classical literature, as well as in the sciences in which he afterwards became so distinguished. He was offered a professorship of mathematics at Frankfort, and afterwards one at Wittenberg, both of which he declined. He agreed…
CALYDON (liaXatf)v), an ancient town of lhaolia, 7z miles from the sea, on the River Evenus.
CALYPSO, in Grecian mythology, was a daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, or of Nereus, or of Atlas, and reigned in the mythical island of Ogygia.
CAMALDULIANS, CAMALDUNIANS, or CAMALDOLITES, an order of religious persons, founded by Roinuald, an Italian, in the beginning of the 11th century, in the desolate waste of Camaldoli, or Campo Malduli, on the lofty heights of the Apennines.
CAMARINA, an ancient city of Sicily, situated on the south coast, near the mouth of the Hippuris or Fiume di Camarana, as it is still called, about 20 miles E. of Gela or Terranova. It was originally founded by the Syraeusans in the 6th century B.C., but was shortly afterwards destroyed by the mother city, because it had thrown off its allegiance. Restored in 495 B.C. by Hippocrates of Gela, it wa…
CAMBACERES, JEAN JACQUES REGIS DE (1753-1824), an eminent French statesman under the first republic and the first empire, was born at Montpellier the 18th October 1753, of an old and distinguished family. Being destined for the profession of law, he began his studies in that department at an early age, and was soon recognized as one of the ablest jurists in France. And as his legal learning was on…
CAMBALUC is the name by which, under sundry modifications, the royal city of the Great Khan became known to Europe during the Middle Ages, that city being in fact the same that we now know as Peking. The word itself represents the Mongol Eaan-Baligh, " the city of the khan," or emperor, the title by which Peking continues, more or less, to be known to the Mongols and other northern Asiatics. A cit…
CAMBAY, or KAMBAY, a town of Western India, in Guzerat, or the northern division of the province of Bombay, and forming the capital of the native state of the same name, which has an area of about 350 square miles, and a population of about 175,000. It is situated on the River Mahi, at the upper part of the Gulf of Cambay, 230 miles N. of Bombay, in 22? 18' N. lat. and 72? 39' E. long. It is suppo…
CAMBODIA, more properly CAMBOJA, or KAMBOJA, a very ancient kingdom of South-eastern Asia, still subsisting in decay. As now limited the territory of Camboja forms a rough parallelogram, consisting in large part of alluvial plain, lying athwart the lower course of the Mekong or Great Camboja River, just above the Delta. The greatest length of the territory runs from W. to E., covering a little mor…
CAMBORNE, a small town in the county of Cornwall, about 13 miles by rail S.W. of Truro.
CAMBRAY, in German Kamerik, or Kambryk, a fortified town of France, in the department of Nord situated on the right bank of the Scheldt, 32 miles S. of Lille, in 50? 10' N. lat. and 3? 14' E. long. It is well built, contains a large number of ancient gabled houses, and is surrounded by strong walls flanked with round towers. The principal building is the Cathedral of St Sepulchre, occupying the si…
CAMBRIDGE, a city of the United States, in the county of Middlesex, Massachusetts. It lies on Charles River, three miles N.W. of Boston, with which it is connected by two bridges, with long causeways, and by horse railroads, or tramways It is the seat of Harvard University, the oldest, richest, and most thoroughly equipped literary institution in the United States. Connected with the university is…
CAMBRIDGE, the chief town of the above county, and the seat of a famous university, is situated on the Cain, in the midst of a healthy fertile country, which for the most part has been reclaimed from the fens. The trade of the town is derived from its being the centre of an agricultural district, and from the custom of the resident members of the university. The Cain changes its name to the Ouse a…
CAMBRIDGE, COUNTY OF, one of the smaller English counties, belonging to the South Midland division of England, is about 45 miles in length and 30 in breadth. within the diocese of Ely, 172 parishes and townships, besides parts of parishes. It contains, according to the census of 1871, 524,926 statute acres. It is divided by the old course of the River Onse into Cambridge proper and the Isle of Ely…
CAMBYSES, a Persian royal name, derived from the Greek Ka,a,e&rtis, in which form it appears in Herodotus and in the Greek writers generally. in inscriptions from Egypt the name is given as Kap,[3&rats. (Letronne, Recueil d. insult). grecq., ii. pp. 350, 356, /). In the old-Persian of the Behistun inscription it stands in the form Kabujiya (Rawlinson) or Kanzbujiya (Oppert, Spiegel). In Lend the n…
CAMDEN (1), a city of the United States, capital of Camden county, New York, situated on the left bank. of the Delaware River, directly opposite Philadelphia, with which it is connected by a regular steam-boat service.
CAMDEN (2), the capital of Kershaw county in South Carolina, United States, 33 miles N.E. of Columbia on the Wateree River, which is navigable for steam-boats as far as the town.
CAMDEN, CHARLES PRATT, EARL, AND VISCOUNT BAYTTAM (1713-1791), chief-justice of the Common Pleas, lord chancellor of England, and president of the council, was born in 1713. He was a descendant of an old Devonshire family of high standing, the third son of Sir John Pratt, chief-justice of the King's Bench in the reign of George I. He received his early education at Eton College, whence he passed, …
CAMDEN, WILLIAM (1551-1623),a celebrated antiquary and historian, was born in London, May 2, 1551. His father, who was a native of Lichfield, settled in London, where he became a member of the company of paper-stainers. His mother was of the ancient family of Curwen of Workington in Cumberland. Young Camden received his early education at Christ's Hospital and St Paul's School ; and in 1566 he ent…
CAM, DIOGO, a Portuguese discoverer, of noble birth, belonging to the latter half of the 15th century, is famous for having carried on, under Alphonso V., the discoveries in Western Africa commenced by Don Henry.
CAMEL, the Djemal of the Arabs and Carnal of the Hebrews, a genus of Ruminant Mammals, which, with the South American llamas, form the family Camelidce, and which in their dentition, in the absence of horns and of hoofs completely enveloping the toes, and in the separation of the navienlar and cuboid bones of the tarsus, show au affinity with certain of the Perissodactyle Ungvlata. In common with …
CAMELLIA, the name of a genus of TernstrOmiacew, remarkable for its evergreen laurel-like foliage, and its handsome rose-like flowers, whence the common species, C. joponica, is sometimes called the ,Tapan rose. This is an evergreen shrub of remarkably hardy constitution, so that in our climate it flourishes perfectly in a cold 'greenhouse ; indeed, in the south and west of England, and in other f…
CAMEO, a term of doubtful origin, applied to engraved work executed in relief, on hard or precious stones, on imitations of such stones in glass called "pastes," or on the shells of molluscous animals. A cameo is thus the converse of an intaglio, which consists of an incised or sunk engraving executed in the same class of materials. The word cameo is generally regarded as being derived from the Ar…
CAMERA LUCIDA, an instrument invented by Dr Wollaston for drawing in perspective. If a piece of plane glass be fixed at an angle of 45? with the horizon, and if, at some distance beneath, a sheet of paper be laid horizontally on a table, a person looking downwards through the glass will see an image of the objects situated before him; and as the glass which reflects the image is also transparent, …
CAMERA OBSCURA, an optical apparatus, consisting of a darkened chamber, at the top of which is placed a box or lantern, containing a convex lens and sloping mirror, or a prism combining the lens and mirror.
CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM (1500-1574), whose family name was Liebhard, one of the most learned classical scholars of his time, was born at Bamberg ou the 12th A pril 1500, He studied at Leipsic, Erfurt, and Wittenberg, and in the last-mentioned town he enjoyed the friendship of Melanchthon. For some years he was teacher of history and Greek at the Gymnasium, Nuremberg. In 1530 he was sent as deputy for …
CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM (1534-1598), a learned physician, son of the preceding, was born at Nuremberg, 6th November 1534.
CAMERINO, formerly the capital of a delegation of the same name in the States of the Church, and now the chief town of a district, in the province of Macerata, in Italy, is situated on a height at the foot of the Apennines, 41 miles W. of Ancona. It is the seat of an archbishop, and possesses a small university founded in 1727, a theological seminary, nineteen conventual buildings, and a' bronze s…
CAMERON, JOHN (1579-1623), a learned theologian, was born at Glasgow about 1579, and received his early education in his native city. After having taught Greek in the university for twelve months, he removed to Bordeaux, where he was soon appointed a regent in the College of Bergerac. He did not remain long at Bordeaux, but accepted the offer of a chair of philosophy at Sedan, where he passed two …
CAMERON, RICHARD ( 1 - 1680), the founder of the Cameronians, was born at Falkland, in the county of Fife. The date of his birth is not known. His father, who was a shopkeeper in that town, gave him such an education as the village school afforded ; and his success was so great that, while still a youth he was appointed schoolmaster. In this situation he had opportunities of becoming acquainted wi…
CAMEROONS, or perhaps preferably CAMAROONS, is the greatest mountain-mass on the western coast of Africa. It is situated at the angle of the Bight of Biafra, directly opposite the island of Fernando Po, with which it has evidently an intimate geological connection. Its European name is said to be derived from the Portuguese Camariios (shrimps or prawns), and to have been bestowed by the early disc…
CAMILLUS, MARcus Fum us, one of the most illustrious heroes of the Roman republic. He triumphed four times, was five times dictator, and was honoured with the appellation of Second Founder of Rome. -When accused of having unfairly distributed the spoil taken at Veii, be anticipated judgment, and went voluntarily into exile at Ardea. But during his exile, instead of rejoicing at the devastation of …
CAMILLUS AND CAMILLA, in Roman Antiquity, the title applied to the boys and girls who were occupied in the ceremonies of sacrifice, whether temporarily or as a preparation for their entering the priesthood.
CAMISARDS was the name given to the peasantry of the Cevennes who, from 1702 to 1705 and for some years afterwards, carried on an organized military resistance to the dragonizades, or conversion by torture, death, and confiscation of property, by which, in the Huguenot districts of France, the revocation of the Edict of Nantes was attempted to be enforced. Court de Gobelin derives the word from ca…
CAMOENS (or, according to the Portuguese spelling, CAM6ES), :LUIZ DE (1524-1579), the son of Simko Graz de the Lusiad, states : "Tire author of this book is Luiz de Camoens, Portuguese by nationality, born and bred in the city of Lisbon, of noble and accredited parentage." Correia states in his notes to canto 10 of the Lusiad, that Camoens was more than forty years of age when he wrote it ; and, f…
CAMP, RomAN. While the Greeks, depending more plan, modified only by the numbers for whom accommodation had to be provided. Its form and arrangement in the best days of the republic are minutely and clearly described by Polybius, the companion in many wars of the younger A Roman camp of the Polybiar, type was intended primarily to accommodate a consular army, consisting of two legions, each of 42…
CAMPAGN.A. DI ROMA, is, in the wider application of the word, an extensive plain of central Italy, almost coinciding with the ancient Latium, and, in a more restricted signification, that portion of the larger area which lies immediately round the city of Rome between the Tiber and the Anio. The circumference of the latter "might be marked," says Gregorovius, "by a series of well-known points, - C…
CAMPANELLA, TOMAS? (1568-1639), one of the most brilliant and unfortunate of the Italian Renaissance philosophers, was born at Stilo in Calabria in 1568. At a very early age he showed remarkable mental power; his memory was uncommonly tenacious, and before he was thirteen years of age he had mastered nearly all the Latin authors presented to him. In his fifteenth year he entered the order of the D…
CAMPANIA, an ancient province of Italy, separated from Latium on the N. by the Massican Hills, and from Samnium on the E. by the Apennines, and bounded on the W. by the Tyrrhenian Sea, and on the S. by Lucania. It was distinguished by its fertility, beauty, and genial climate, and by the excellence of its harbours. It consists of a plain, broken only by a low volcanic range of hills, of which the …
CAMPANI-ALIMENIS, MATTE?, an Italian mechanician and natural philosopher of the 17th century, was born at Spoleto. He held a curacy at Rome in 1661, but devoted himself principally to scientific pursuits. As an optician, he is chiefly celebrated for the manufacture of the large object-glasses with which Cassini discovered two of Saturn's satellites, and for an attempt to rectify chromatic aberrati…
CAMPANILE, the bell tower attached to the churches and town-halls in Italy. Bells are supposed to have teen first used for announcing the sacred offices by Pope Sabittian (604), the immediate successor to St Gregory; and their use by the municipalities came with the rights granted by kings and emperors to the citizens to enclose their towns with fortifications, and assemble at the sound of a great…
CAMPAN, JEANNE LOUISE HENRIETTE (1752-1822), nee GENEST, was born at Paris in 1752. Carefully educated, and surrounded by the most cultivated society, at the age of fifteen she had gained so high a reputation for her accomplishments as to be appointed reader to the young princesses. At court she was a general favourite, and when she bestowed her hand upon M. Campan, some of the secretary of the ro…
CAMPBELL, GEORGE (1719-1796), a theologian and Biblical critic, was born at Aberdeen on the 25th December 1719. His father, the Rev. Colin Campbell, one of the ministers of Aberdeen, was the son of George Campbell of Westhall, who claimed to belong to the Argyll branch of the family. Mr Colin Campbell died in 1728, leaving a widow and six children in somewhat straitened circumstances. George, the …
CAMPBELL, JOHN, BARON (1779-1861), the second son of the Rev. George Campbell, D.1)., by Magdalene, the only daughter of John Hallyburton, Esq. of Fodderance, was born at Cu par, Fife, on 17th September 1779. His father was for fifty years the parish minister of Cupar. For a few years young Campbell studied at the United College, St Andrews, where he met Thomas Chalmers. In 1800 he was entered as …
CAMPBELL, JOHN, LL.D. (1708-1775), a miscellaneous author, was born at Edinburgh, March 8,1708. Being designed for the legal profession, he was sent to Windsor, and apprenticed to an attorney ; but his tastes soon led him to abandon the study of law, and to devote himself entirely to literature. In 1736 he ? published the Military History of Prince Eugene and the Duke of Marlborough, and soon afte…
CAMPBELL, THOMAS (1777-1844). This distinguished poet was a cadet of the respectable family of Campbell of Kirnan, in Argyllshire. Owing to the straitened circumstances of his father, who had settled in Glasgow and been unfortunate in business, young Campbell was obliged, while attending college, to have recourse to private teaching as a tutor. Notwithstanding the amount of additional labour thus …
CAMPBELTOWN, a royal burgh and seaport of Scotland, in Argyllshire, situated on an indentation of the coast, near the southern extremity of the peninsula of Kintyre, in 55? 25' N. lat. and 5? 36' W. long. Its principal buildings are the churches (one of which stands on the site of the castle of the Macdonalds), the townhouse, the jail, and the athenreum. The staple industry is the manufacture of w…
CAMPE, Joaculm HEINRICH (1746-1818), a German educationist, was born at Deensen in Brunswick in 1746.
CAMPEACHY, or CAMPECHE, a fortified town of Mexico, formerly in the province of Yucatan, but now the capital of a new state to which it gives its name, is situated on the west side of the peninsula on the shore of the Bay of Campeachy, in 20? 5' N. lat. and 90? 16' W. long. The town is generally well built, though the houses, chiefly of limestone, are for the most part only one story in height. It…
CAMPEGGIO, or CAMPEGCI, LORENZO (1479-1539), Cardinal, was born at Bologna in 1479. He was the son of an eminent lawyer, and for some years was himself engaged in the legal profession. But after the death of his wife he entered the church and quickly attained to high office. For his services to the Papal cause during the reduction of Bologna, Pope Julius II. raised him to the rank of bishop, and s…
CAMPER, PETER (1722-1789), a celebrated anatomist and naturalist, was born at Leyden, May 11, 1722. He was educated at the university of Leyden, and in 1746 graduated in philosophy and medicine. After the death of his father in 1748 he spent more than a year in England, studying under the most famous medical teachers in London. He then visited Paris, Lyons, and Geneva, and returned to Franeker, wh…
CAMPHOR is a colourless translucent body, having a tough waxy structure, with a specific gravity about equal to that of water, melting at 347? Fahr. and boiling at 400?. It volatilizes readily at ordinary temperatures, giving off that peculiarly pungent aromatic odour which is characteristic of the substance. It is very slightly soluble in water, to which it communicates its warm camphoraceous tas…
CAMPHUYSEN, DIRK. RAFAELSZ (1586-1627), a Dutch painter, poet, and theologian, the son of a surgeon at Gorcum, was born in 1586. As he manifested. great artistic talent, his brother, in whose charge he was left on the death of his parents, placed him under the painter Govitz. But at that time there was intense interest in theology ; and Camphuysen, sharing in the prevailing enthusiasm, deserted th…
CAMPI, Glum?, the founder of a school of Italian painters, was born at Cremona about 1502, and died in 1572.
CAM PIAN, EDMUND (1540-1581), a celebrated English Jesuit, was born of humble parentage at London in 1540. From Christ's Hospital he removed to Oxford University, where he took a degree and became fellow of St John's. He was admitted to holy orders in the English Church, and in 1567 was ordained deacon. Being convinced that he could not assent to the Protestant formulary required by the Church of …
CAMPI, BERNARDINO, a pupil of Giulio Campi, who adopted a less ambitious style, but is equal and in some respects superior to his master.
CAMPOBASSO, a city of Italy, the capital of the province Molise, 53 miles N.N.E. of Naples.
CAMPOBELLO DI LICATA, a town of Sicily, in the province of Girgenti, and 20 miles E.S.E. of the city of that name, on a tributary of the Salso. It possesses valuable sulphur mines. Population, 6301. CAMPOMANES, PEDno RODRIGUEZ, CONDE DE (17101802), a Spanish statesman and writer, was born in Asturias about 1710, or, according to other authorities, in 1723. From 1788 to 1793 he was president of the…
CAMUCCINI, VINCENZO (1775-1844), the most famous of the modern historical painters of Italy, was born at Rome in 1775. He was educated by his brother Pietro, a picturerestorer, and Bombclli, an engraver, and, up to the age of thirty, attempted nothing higher than copies of the great masters, his especial study being Raffaelle. As an original painter, Cainuccini belongs to the school of David. His …
CAMUS, CHARLES ETIENNE LOUIS (1699-1768), a French mathematician and mechanician, was born at Crecyen-Brie, near Meaux, on the 25th August 1699.
CANA, of Galilee, a village of Palestine, remarkable as the birthplace of Nathanael, and the scene of Christ's " beginning of miracles." Its exact site is unknown, but it is evident from the Biblical narrative that it was in the neighbourhood of Capernaum.
CANAAN, a geographical name of archaic Hebrew origin, generally supposed to mean "depression," "lowland," and hence fitly applied to various low-lying districts of Syria, viz., Phcenicia (Isa. xxiii. 11 ; Josh. v. 1, where the LXX. has rip cIkavi.Kns), Philistia. (Zeph. ii. 5), and the valley of the Jordan (as implied in Num. xiii. 29, cf. Josh. xi. 3). It is, however, also applied to the whole of…
CANAANITES. Only two of the possible senses of the word Canaanite need be here referred to ; for the others, see PIICENICIANS and PHILISTINES. And as one of these is included in the other, let us pass at once to the Canaanites in the larger sense, i.e., the whole group of nations conquered by the Israelites on the west side of the Jordan. The group is variously described. It is sometimes said to c…
CANADA, geographically and politically, differs widely from the British colony known by that name prior to On the cession of Canada to Great Britain in 1763, its French colonists were guaranteed the free exercise of the Roman Catholic religion, and equal civil and commercial privileges with British subjects. Further privileges were secured by " the Quebec Act" of 1774, whereby the old French laws,…
CANAL, or CA NALETTO, ANTONIO (1697-1768), a Venetian painter, born 18th October 1697, was bred with his father, a scene-painter at Venice, and for some time followed his father's line of art.
CANANDAIGUA, a town in the United States, capital of the county of Ontario in New York, is situated at the northern end of a lake of the same name, 29 miles S.E. of Rochester by rail, in 42? 54' N. lat. and 77? 27' W. long.
CANARA. Sec KANARA. CANARY ("Wnâś“illa canaria), a well-known species of Conirostral Bird, belonging to the family Fringiaidce or Finches. It is a native of the Canary Islands and Madeira, where it occurs abundantly in the wild state, and is of a greyish-brown colour, slightly varied with brighter hues, although never attaining the beautiful plumage of the domestic bird. It was first domesticated …
CANARY ISLANDS, THE, lie in the North Atlantic Ocean, between the parallels of 27? 4' and 20? 3' N. lat., and the meridians of 13? 3' and 18? 2' W. long. The seven principal islands, with their area in English square miles, and their population in 1860, are as follows : - Teneriffe. eGal;iaani.3(1,. Palma. I. in. ontzea. venture. t. Fnerteventura lies nearest to the African coast, the interval bei…
CANCALE, a seaport town of France, in the department of Ille-et-Vilaine, 10 miles E. of St Maio, on the bay of St Michael.
CANCAO, CANCAR, or KANG-KAO, otherwise known as Ponthiamus or Potai-mat, or in Chinese, Ha Thian, the capital of a small state in Western Cambodia, on the eastern side of the Gulf of Siam, at the mouth of the River Cancao or Klong Chanda ; in 10? 14' N. lat. and 104? 55' E. long.
CANCER, or CARCINOMA (from cancer, or Kapratios, an eating ulcer), is the name given to a class of morbid growths or tumours which occur in man, and also in certain of the lower animals. The term is apt to be somewhat loosely employed, partly owing to the fact that there are not a few forms of diseased growth respecting which it is still a matter of debate whether they are to be regarded as cancer…
CANCIhIN, FRANZ LUDWIG VON (1738-1796), a German mineralogist and metallurgist, was horn in 1738 at Breitenbach.
CANDELABRUM, in Classical Antiquities, a stand for a lamp or lamps, usually of such a height as, when placed on the floor, to be serviceable to a person seated or reclining on a couch. The material varied according to the circumstances of the owner ; only those of bronze have survived ; but they are many. Generally the form consists of a heavy base resting on three spreading claws. From the base r…
CANDIA, the modern name of the island of CRETE (q.v.) CANDIA, formerly the capital and still the most populous city of Crete, to which it has given its name (see CRETE), is situated on the northern shore somewhat nearer the eastern than the western end of the island, in 35? 20' N. lat. and 25? 9' E. long. It is still surrounded by its extensive Venetian fortifications ; but they have fallen into d…
CANDIAC, JEAN LOUIS PIERRE ELIZABETH DE INIONTCALM DE, a child of astonishing precocity, born at the ChCiteau de Cardiac, in the diocese of Nimes in France, in 1719.
CANDLE, a cylindrical rod of solid fatty or waxy matters, enclosing a central fibrous wick, and designed for giving light. The raw materials mostly used for candles are tallow and palm oil ; they are also made from wax, cocoa-nut oil, paraffin, spermaceti, the mineral wax called ozokerit, &c. For ordinary tallow candles, the mutton or ox tallow, taken as soon as possible after separation from the …
CANDLEMAS, a church festival, held on the 2d of February, which has in Scotland been chosen as one of the four term-days. The festival commemorates the purification of the Virgin ; and the observances to which it owes its name, viz., the lighting of candles, and, in the Roman Catholic Church, the consecration of the candles which are to be used during the year for ecclesiastical purposes, arc said…
CANDLESTICK, in the earlier meaning of the word, was the name applied to any form of support on which lights, whether candles or lamps, were fixed; and so it happens that what would now be called a candelabrum is stall sometimes spoken of from tradition as a candlestick, e.g., as when Moses was commanded to make a candlestick for the tabernacle, of hammered gold, a talent in weight, and consisting…
CANDLISH, ROBERT SMITH, D.D. (1806-1873), an eminent Scottish clergyman, was born at Edinburgh on the 23cl March 1806. His father, who was a teacher of medicine, having died a few weeks after his birth, the widow and family removed to Glasgow, where young Candlish was brought up and educated. In 1818 he entered the University of Glasgow, and after a curriculum of five sessions, during which he car…
CANE, a name applied to many plants which are possessed of long, slender, reed-like stalks or stems, as, for example, the sugar-cane, the bamboo-cane, or the reed-cane. From the use as walking-sticks to which many of these plants have been applied, the name cane is improperly given to sticks irrespective of the source from which they are derived. Properly it should be restricted to a peculiar clas…
CANE A, or KHANIA, the principal seaport and since 1841 the capital of Crete, is finely situated on the northern coast of the island, about 25 miles from its western extremity, on the isthmus of the Akrotiri peninsula, which lies between the Bay of Canea and the Bay of &Ida. Its latitude is 35' 31' N., and its longitude 24? 1' E. Surrounded by a massive Venetian wall, it forms a closely-built, irr…
CANEPHORI was the title given to the girls who at Athens were annually selected from noble families to walk in the procession at the Panathenaic and apparently also at other festivals, carrying on their heads baskets containing the implements and apparatus necessary for a sacrifice.
CANGA-ARGUELLES, Jos, Spanish statesman, was born in 1770, and died in 1843. He took an active part in the Spanish resistance to Napoleon, in a civil capacity, and was an energetic member of the Cortes of 1812. On the return of the Bourbon line in 1814, Canga-Arguelles was sent into exile in the province of Valencia. On the restora- ttonin 1820 of the constitution of 1812, he was appointed ministe…
CANGIAGI, or CAMBIASO, LUIGI (1527-1585), a distinguished painter, was born at Genoa in 1527, and died at the Escorial in 1585.
CANICATTI, a town of Sicily, in the province of Girgenti, which dates, it is believed, from the Saraeenic occupation.
CANINA, Lula' (1793-1856), an Italian archwologist and architect, was born at Casale in Piedmont.
CANINI, GIOVANNI AGNOLO (1617-1666), a designer and engraver, born at Rome in 1617.
CANITZ, FRIEDRICH 110DOLPH LUDWIG, BARON VON (1654-1699), a German poet and politician of noble family, was born at Berlin in 1654.
CANNES, a seaport of France, and the chief town of the department of Var on the Mediterranean, 15 miles S.W. of Nice and 25 miles N.E. of Draguignan, in 43? 34' N. lat. and 7? 0' E. long. It enjoys a southern exposure on a seaward slope, and is defended from the northern winds by ranges of hills. Previous to 1831, when it first attracted the attention of Lord Brougham, it mainly consisted of the o…
CANNIBALISM, the eating of human flesh by men. This practice has existed from the most ancient times, and has given rise to descriptive terms such as Gr. do9pcoreOciyes (Lat. anthropopkagus), Anglo-Sax. man-ala, Eng. man-eater. Since the discovery of the New World, the name of the Caries of the West India Islands, recorded by Columbus under the Latinized forms Canibales or Caribales, has come into…
CANNING, GEORGE (1770-1827), one of the greatest of English statesmen and orators, was born in London on the 11th April 1770. He was descended from an ancient family ; but his father, having incurred the displeasure of his parents, was cut off with a scanty allowance, and obliged to try his fortune in the metropolis. Here he studied for the bar, but literature proved too attractive for him, withou…
CANNLE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Apulia, on the River Aufidus, 6 miles from its mouth.
CANO, ALONZO (1600-1667), one of the most vigorous of the Spanish painters, and also, like Michelangelo, with whom he is usually compared, an architect and sculptor of great merit. Ile has left in Spain a very great number of specimens of his genius, which display the boldness of his design, the facility of his pencil, the purity of his flesh-tints, and his knowledge of chiaroscuro. He was a nativ…
CANO, or CANUS, MELCIHOR (1523-1560), a learned Spanish bishop and theologian, who was pupil and successor of Vittoria as professor of theology at Salamanca.
CAPTORS, a town in the south of France, formerly the capital of Cahourcin or Upper Quercy, and now of the department of Lot, on the high road between Paris and Toulouse, 358 miles S.W. from Paris, and 60 miles north of Toulouse, in 44? 27' N. lat., 1? 24' E. long. It stands on the right bank of the River Lot, on a rocky peninsula formed by a bend in the stream, and communicates with the opposite s…
CASH BOOK. - Every entry is posted from this book, but not all to the ledger as in double entry - " Charges" being posted to the day book. It is not journalix,d, and is in itself a ledger, as it contains the bank account, and reports its own cash balance. On the other hand, it is unlike the " Cash " of single entry, because every entry is posted somewhere, whereas by the latter system only persona…
CEI1E1-8. - This group bears the trivial name of Torch Thistle. It comprises about 150 species, scattered through South America and the West Indies. In one series, numbering between twenty and thirty species, sometimes separated under the name of ?chinocercus, the actin are short, branched or simple, divided into few or many ridges, all armed with sharp formidable spines ; but in the greater numbe…
CiESAR, Sin Julius (1557-1636), a learned civilian, descended by the female line from the Dukes do' Cesarini in Italy, was born near Tottenham in Middlesex. He was educated at Oxford, and afterwards studied at the university of Paris, where in the year 1581 ho was created doctor of the civil law. Two years later he was admitted to the same degree at Oxford, and also became doctor of the canon law.…
CJERE (Kaipe), called by the Greeks Agylla ("AyaXAa), which is probably an Etruscan name, a city of Southern Etruria, near the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea. Its site is occupied by the modern Cervetri (C(ere vetus), situated in the district of Civita Vecchia, about 32 miles from Rome. In the Virgilian legend of .iEneas, Cmre appears as the seat of the Etruscan king Mezentius ; but the earliest fact…
CLEDMON, or CEDMON (the former way of spelling is that of Bede, the latter that of Florence of Worcester), is the name of the earliest Anglo-Saxon or Old English poet of whom we have any knowledge. The meaning of the name has been much disputed. Sir Francis Palgrave, despairing of finding a native derivation, suggested (Arehceoloyia, von. xxiv.) that the poet might have been so called from the Cha…
CLESAREA, or KAISARIEH, a city in Asiatic Turkey, formerly one of the most important places in Cappadocia, and at present the chief town of a sanjak in the province of Karaman, situated on the Kara-su, between two spurs of the Mons Argzeus, in 33? 42' N. let, and 35? 20' E. long. It is the seat of an Armenian bishop, and the commercial centre of an extensive and highly populous district ; its mark…
CLISTENTERATA - Family 5. Terebratulide. - Shells very variable iu shape, with a prominent beak, truncated by a circular perforation, partly completed by a deltidium in one or two pieces ; labial appendages united to each other by a membrane, variously folded upon themselves, and in some genera spiral at their extremities. These appendages are entirely or partially supported by a calcified process…
COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF LEPIDOPTERA. - Butterflies affect special localities with which it is well for a the collector to make himself acquainted. A suitable hunting ground having been selected, the following apparatus is necessary : - a bag-net made of gauze or some equally light material, with a wooden or metal ring and a handle, which may also be used as a walking-stick, for capturing th…
CONDYLES Both of these were eminent among the statesmen of their disastrous period, and Phrantzes in particular played a very important part in diplomacy.
DECIUS JUNIUS BRUTUS first served under Julius Cmsar in Gaul, and afterwards commanded his fleet, and was held by him in great honour and esteem. Nevertheless, whether from patriotism or from lower motives, he joined in the conspiracy against his patron, and, like his relative Marcus Junius Brutus, was one of his assassins. He afterwards resisted the attempt of Antony to obtain absolute power ; an…
DONALD, Louis GABRIEL AMBROISE, VICOMTE DE, philosopher and politician, was born at Molina, near Milhaud, in ltouergue, France, on the 2d October 1754. He served for some years in the king's musketeers, and after his marriage was made mayor of his native place. Dissatisfied with the revolutionary principles then being acted upon, he emigrated in 1791, and joined the army of the Prince of Condo. So…
ECIIINOPSIS is another small group of species, separated by some authors from Cereus.
EDUCATION. - The University of Bombay, established in 1857, is a body corporate, consisting of a chancellor, vice-chancellor, and fellows.
ERENNUS, the name given in history to two kings cr chiefs of the Celtic Gauls, probably not an appellative, but a title, the Cymric " brenhin"= king. (Dr Pritchard thinks it more probably the equivalent of the Welsh proper name "Bran.") The first Brennus crossed the Apennines into Italy, at the head of 70,000 of the tribe of Gauls known as Senones, and ravaged Etruria, 391 B.C. Some envoys from Ro…
FUERTEVENTURA lies between Lanzarote and Grand Canary. It has a length of 52 miles, and an average width of 12 miles. Though less mountainous than the other islands, its aspect is barren. The springs of fresh water are only two, and they are confined to one valley. Lava streams and other signs of volcanic action abound, but there has been no igneous activity since the Spaniards took possession. At…
GRACIOSA, a small uninhabited island, is divided from the north-eastern extremity of Lanzarote by a channel a mile in width, which affords the most capacious and only safe harbour for large ships at the Canaries ; but basaltic cliffs, 1500 feet high, prevent intercourse with the inhabited part of Lanzarote.
GRAND CANARY (Gran Canaria), the most fertile island of the group, is nearly circular in shape, with a diameter of 24 miles and a circumference of 75 miles. The interior is a mass of mountain, reaching to the height of about 6000 feet above the sea, with ravines radiating to the shoi:C. Its highest peak, Los Pexos, is 6400 feet above the sea. Large tracts are covered with native pine (P. eanariens…
HEBREW CALENDAR. - In the construction of the Jewish calendar numerous details require attention. The calendar is dated from the Creation, which is considered to have taken place 3760 years and 3 months before the commencement of the Christian era. The year is luni-solar, and, according as it is ordinary or embolismic, consists of twelve or thirteen lunar months, each of which has 29 or 30 days. T…
I3UGULMA, a town of European Russia, in the government of Samara, 243 miles from the city of that name, on the small river Bugulminka, a sub-tributary of the Volga, in 54? 32' N. lat. and 52? 47' E. long.
IIRAMAH, JosErir, a practical engineer and machinist, was born at Stainborough, in Yorkshire, on the 13th of April 1749. He exhibited at a very early age an unusual talent for the mechanical arts, and having been incapacitated, when he was about sixteen, by an accidental lameness in his ankle, for the pursuit of agricultural labour, he was apprenticed to a carpenter and joiner. When the term of hi…
IL CHRONICLERS AND CHRONOLOGERS. - The Chr0110logers usually published' in the Byzantine collection are frequently very valuable, but neither their lives nor their writings need detain us long.
ISTORV. - Chandra Varma, chief of the Chandcl Rajputs, appears to have established the earliest paramount power in Bundelkhaud towards the close of the 9th century A.D. Under his dynasty the country attained its greatest splendour in the early part of the 11th century, when its Raja, whose dominions extended from the Jumna to the Nerbudda, marched at the head of 36,000 horse and 45,000 foot, with …
IV MARIE ANNE ELISA, born at Ajaccio on the 3d January 1777. She married in 1797 Felix Bacciochi, captain of infantry, who was poor but of good family. In 1805 Lucca and Piombino were erected into a principality for her, and she gave such proofs of administrative ability as to be named the Semiramis of Lucca. After the fall of Napoleon she lived for some time at Brunn, and latterly at Santo Andrea…
LAMBERT, ROBERT (1628-1677), the earliest composer of French operas, was born at Paris in 1628. His master for the clavecin, and probably also for composition, was Chambonnieres. He was organist of the church of St Honore, and also held the office of musical superintendent to Queen Anne of Austria, mother of Louis XIV. His earlier works, the words of which were furnished by the Abbe Perrin, contin…
LANZAROTE, the most easterly of the group, has a length of 31 miles and a breadth varying from 5 to 10 miles. It is naked and mountainous, bearing everywhere marks of its volcanic origin. Monterm. Blanca, the highest point, attains a height of 2000 feet, and is cultivated to the summit. In 1730 the appearance of half the island was altered by a volcanic outburst. A violent earthquake preceded the …
LEO DIACONUS, an ecclesiastic in the latter half of the 10th century, is the author of an indifferently written, but honest and instructive, narrative of the remarkable period of national recovery under the emperors Romanus 1E., Nicephorus Phocas, and John Zimisces, when Crete was reconquered, Syria invaded, and the Russians driven out of Bulgaria (959-975). Leo wrote at least as late as 993. IX. …
LOWER CALIFORNIA. - Under this designation is comprised the whole peninsula, and it extends front Cape St Lucas to the boundary between the United States and Mexico, which is a line " drawn from the middle of the Rio Gila, where it unites with the Colorado, to a point on the coast of the Pacific one marine league due south of the southernmost point of the port of San Diego." The breadth of the pen…
LUCIEN, Prince of Canino, was born at Ajaccio, 21st March 1775. He was educated at Autun, Brienne, and Aix, and rejoined his family in Corsica in 1792. Already imbued with the principles of the Revolution he turned against Paoli when the latter declared against France, and was spokesman of the deputation sent to Marseilles to solicit aid from the republic. He did not return to Corsica, as the whol…
MAHOMETAN CALENDAR. - The Mahometan era, or era of the Hegira, employed in Turkey, Persia, Arabia, &c., is dated from the flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, which was in the night of Thursday the 15th of July 622 A.D., and it commenced on the day following. The years of the Hegira are purely lunar, and always consist of twelve lunar mouths, commencing with the approximate new moon, without an…
MAMMILLABIA. - ThiS group, which comprises nearly 300 species, mostly Mexican, with a few Brazilian and West Indian, is called Nipple Cactus, and consists of globular or cylindrical succulent plants, whose surface instead of being cut up into ridges with alternate furrows, as in Mclocactvs, is broken up into teat-like cylindrical or angular tubercles, spirally arranged, and terminating in a radiat…
MANUFACTURES. - The indigenous manufactures of the country have rapidly declined since the influx of Manchester goods. But cotton weaving is still carried on upon a small scale in every village of any importance. Dyeing is practised in most places where fresh water is procurable. Printed cotton goods are manufactured in all the large towns of Gujarat, and the further the locality is removed from t…
MARIE ANNONCIADE CAROLINE, born at Ajaccio 17S2. In 1800 she was married to Murat ; in 1806 she became grand-duchess of Berg and of Cleves, and in 1808 queen of Naples. In 1815, after the flight of her husband, she was compelled to leave the capital, and surrendered to the Austrians. She was for a short time imprisoned at Trieste. and was then permitted to reside at Haimburg near Vienna. She after…
MELOCACTITS, the family of Melon-thistle or Turk's-cap Cactuses, contains, according to Labouret, a monographer of the order, about thirty species, which inhabit chiefly the West Indies, Mexico, and Brazil, a few extending into New Granada. The typical species, M. conuicu forms a succulent mass of roundish or ovate form, from 1 foot to 2 feet high, the surface divided into numerous furrows like th…
MICHAEL GLYCAS, a writer of uncertain date, published a general chronology down to the year 1118. The abbreviated chronicle of JOEL reaches the capture of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204 XV. The .chronicle of GEORGIUS CODINUS, a writer of the 15th ontury, comes down to the capture of Constantinople, and is associated with a compilation respecting the antiquities of the city, which is of much …
MODELLING, CARVED WORK, AND GILDING. The modeller copies the drawings of the designs which may have been prepared for the enrichments; in whatever material they are to be cast, whether in plaster, in metals, or in composition of any kind, for the plasterer, smith, or decorator. The model is made of soft wood, by the usual chisels and gouges, or in a finely-tempered and plastic clay called modellin…
MUNICIPAL STATISTICS. - The limits of the Bombay municipality extend over the whole of the island of Boni-bay, including, as stated above, a population of 641,405 souls. The total municipal revenue for the year 1873 amounted to ?314,645, of which ?223,041 was raised by taxation, ?59,958 on account of services rendered, and ?31,646 from municipal property and miscellaneous receipts. The following a…
NICEPHORUS PATRIARCHA, Patriarch of Constantinople under Leo the Armenian, early in the 9th century, compiled a chronological history from the murder of the Emperor MauriciuS to his own times, and an abridged chronological manual of events from the Creation.
PART I. - THE LIFE OF GAUTAMA BUDDHA. At the end of the 6th century DX. the Aryan tribes from the Panjab had long been settled on the banks of the Ganges ; the pride of race had put an impassable barrier between them and the conquered aborigines ; the pride of birth had built up another between the chiefs or nobles and the mass of the Aryan people; and the superstitious fears of all yielded to the…
PERESKIA ACULEATA, or Barbados Gooseberry, the Cactus Pereskia of Linnmus, is the only remaining generic type ; and this differs from the rest in havinw6 woody stems and leaf-bearing branches, the leaves being somewhat fleshy, hilt otherwise of the ordinary laminate character.
PHYLLOCACTITS, the Leaf Cactus family, consists of about a dozen species, found in Mexico and Brazil. They differ from all the forms already noticed in being shrubby and epiphytal in habit, and in , having the branches compressed and dilated so as to resemble thick fleshy leaves, with a strong median axis, and terete woody base. The margins of these leaf-like branches are more or less crenately no…
PI LOCEREUS, the Old Man Cactus, forms a small group with tallish erect fleshy angulate stems, on which, with the tufts of spines, are developed hair-like bodies, which, though rather coarse, bear some resemblance to the hoary locks of an aged man.
POPULATION. - The census of 1872 returns the total area of the Presidency, including Sindh, at 188,195 square miles, and the total population at 25,624,696 souls. Details, however, are only available for the British part of the Presidency, which contains an area of 124,943 square miles, and a total population of 16,352,623 souls. The average density of population in the British districts is 131 pe…
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE. - The total revenue of the Presidency for the year 1872-73 amounted to ?9,980,043, and the expenditure to ?8,027,040.
RIIIPSALIS, a genus of about thirty tropical American species, contains some of the plants once referred to Cactus.
RU LOW, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1755-1814 a Prussian general, was born at Falkenberg on the 16th February 1755. He entered the army at the age of fourteen, rose slowly, and in 1797 was placed at the head of a battalion, He took part in the campaigns of 1806-7, and in 1809 was made major-geusral and brigadier of infantry. On the renewal of the war against France in 1813 he took the field with the rank o…
RURSLEM, a town of England, in the county of Staffordshire, 18 miles south of Macclesfield, and 150 miles from London. It stands on a gentle eminence near the Trent and Mersey canal, and is the principal town of the potteries' district. It contains a town-hall, erected in 1865, a market-house, a news-room, and a mechanics' institute ; but its most interesting building is the Wedgwood Institute, fo…
SCYLITZA and XI.
STATISTICS OP PROTECTION. - The military strength of the Bombay Presidency consists of 1250 European commissioned officers, 11,067 European non-commissioned officers and rank and file, 27,002 Native commissioned and noncommissioned officers and rank and file; total, 39,319.
TENERIFFE, the largest island of the group, lies between Grand Canary and Gomera. It is of irregular shape, 60 miles in length, with an extreme breadth of 30 miles, Not more than one-seventh is cultivable. A chain of mountains traverses the island in the direction of its greatest length, and in the middle of the broadest part rises the celebrated Peak, locally known as the Pico de Teyde, which, wi…
THE BRACHIOPODA constitute an important and well-defined class of Invertebrates, but the exact position the group should occupy in that division of the animal kingdom is still a matter upon which anatomists have not entirely agreed. For many years the species composing the class were referred to the genus Anemia of the Lamellibranchiata, but, as was judiciously observed by Edward Forbes, " a close…
THE PORT OF CALCUTTA, extending 10 miles along houses, for the shipping and native boats, which carry on the great and increasing trade of Calcutta. In the year 1873-74 the income of the commissioners from all sources was ?114,709, and the expenditure ?78,260. The total amount of capital expended up to that year was ?580,339, including a debt of ?400,123. The number of vessels arriving and departi…
THE STATE OF CALIFORNIA. Area. - This is what is now always meant when the word "California" alone is used. It is in part the equivalent of the "Upper California" (Alta California) of the Spanish, - the present state of Nevada, and also the territories of Arizona and Utah, as well as parts of Wyoming and New Mexico, having been also included under that somewhat vague designation. California extend…
TRADE. - The total value of the external trade of the Presidency for 1872-73 was as follows: - Bombay Port --imports, ?17,388,953 ; exports, ?19,117,081 ; re-exports, ?5,140,924; total, ?41,646,958. Minor ports - imports, ?395,238; exports, ?729,028; re exports, ?13,368; total, ?1,137,634. Sindh ports - imports, ?1,677,399; exports, ?1,991,556; total, ?3,668,955. Aden - imports, ?1,407,102; export…